二语习得复习题
(完整)第二语言习得复习题
第二语言习得复习题一、名词解释1。
第二语言：指相对于第一语言来说，除儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。
2。
第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
3. 母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。
4，目的语:也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。
5,第二语言习得：简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
也叫“二语习得"6，语言习得机制:乔姆斯基提出人脑中存在一个“语言习得机制”（LAD），它有以下一些特点：1.具有遗传性，为人类独有。
2.能使儿童加工语言材料，判断语言体系的发展,建立抽象规则。
3.可能已经具备一些普遍的语言特征，这些特征可以在所有人类语言中找到，因此，许多语法属性可能是先天存在于人类的大脑中，无需学习。
7，工具型动机:学习者对目的语群体没有兴趣，学习目的语只是为了掌握一个工具，用来提高自己的知识水平、改善社会地位。
8，习得与学习：克拉申认为“习得”通常指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得,而“学习”一般是指“有意识”的语言获得。
前者称为“内隐学习”，后者称为“外显学习"9，中介语:语言学习者在学习第二语言时所拥有的一种独立的语言系统,这种语言系统在结构上既不是学习者的母语也不是目的语,而是介于两者之间.中介语系统在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现。
但它又不是固定不变的,而是随着学习的发展，逐渐向目的语的正确形式靠拢.10，普遍语法：乔姆斯基认为普遍语法是由一些原则条件和规则构成的系统,这些所有人类语言共有的因素是或特性是必然的而不是偶然的，原则系统和规则系统。
11,僵化：僵化（fossilization)，也叫化石化或石化,是由Selinker于1972年在其中介语理论中提出的.僵化是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制,表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小,也无论其是否继续学习12，外国人话语：所谓“外国人话语”并不是指外国人的话语，而是指对外国人说的话语。
二语习得考试复习资料
第二语言习得研究期末考试复习题1、简述第二语言习得研究发展的途径分为三个阶段：1）20世纪50-60年代，这一阶段为理论初创阶段，占主导地位的是以行为主义心理学为基础的“对比分析”方法。
2）20世纪70年代，理论研究大发展阶段，开始关注学习者的语言偏误，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
三个理论研究，即以Dulay和Burt 为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究、克拉申的“监控模式”、Schumann的“文化适应模式”。
3）20世纪80年代，作为一个独立的学科，并开始走向成熟。
不同的发展途径构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点。
不同的发展途径体现在：1）语言学理论对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的语言学视角。
2）社会语言学及其研究范式对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的社会语言学视角。
3）认知科学对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的认知视角。
2、针对语言输入有哪几种不同的语言输入观？1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位，基于以下假设：a，语言输入是由外在的语言刺激和反馈构成的 b，语言输入通过正面的反馈和纠正得到强化 c，通过语言形式的操练可以达到语言学习的目的。
2）心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定性因素。
语言输入不过是语言习得发生的“触发”因素而已，语言输入是贫乏的，学习者不可能通过外在的语言输入获得完整的语言能力。
3）“互动论”：认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”强调将语言输入环境与语言习得内在因素两者结合起来；社会互动理论主要是从社会语言学的角度来研究语言输入环境与第二语言习得的关系。
3、学习策略的含义是什么？学习策略如何分类？学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
1）Skehan（1989）根据学习者处理学习情境的能力来分：主动参与策略、解释与确认策略根据学习者的方法素质来分：跨语言比较策略、归纳策略根据学习者的评价能力来分：监控策略、自我评价策略2）O’Malley（1987）根据信息加工模型分类：认知策略（重复策略、记笔记策略、关联策略）；元认知策略（直接注意策略、自我管理策略）；社会/情感策略（合作策略、要求解释策略）3）Oxford的分类（1990）直接策略：直接影响语言学习，需要对语言学习进行心理操作间接策略：通过集中注意、计划、评价自我、控制焦虑感和增加与他人合作机会等间接影响语言学习4、如何区分下列概念：母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言？母语通常是指学习者所属种类、社团使用的语言，也叫本族语，母语通常是指儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言；目的语也称目标语，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言，它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言；第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言；第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言，包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言5、简述社会文化理论的主要内容及意义主要内容：调节论：主要用于解释儿童的认知发展，在语言的调节下，儿童的认知从“客体调控”阶段发展到“他人调控”阶段，最后到“自我调控”阶段。
二语习得导论习题集
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------二语习得导论习题集二语习得导论习题集一、填空 1. 在儿童语言发展的研究中，（）是指学会一种语言的某一方面和最终学会整个语言的过程或结果。
这个研究的领域通常称作（）。
2.习得与学会的区别在于：前者被视为一种（）过程，它是达到外语流利表达的主要动力；后者则被视为一种（）的过程，它监测习得的进展并引导说话人的语言运用。
3.（）是指一个人幼年学会的第一种语言，并且这种语言会被用来进行社会交际。
4.（）是指一个人生下来后接触到的第一种或几种语言，但是这种（些）语言不一定会进入社会交际。
5.目的语是指（）语言。
6.（）第二语言学习者所使用（掌握）的一种语言系统，或者是学习者某一时间的第二语言状态，它既不同于第一语言，也不同于第二语言。
7.认知策略是指学习者藉以执行语言学习任务两大类学习策略的其中之一，另一类为（）。
8.（）指学习者用以提高学习及记忆能力，特别是在执行具体课堂任务和活动使用的过程和行为。
1 / 149.（）指的是人们已建立起的第一语言的习惯对学习新语言、建立新的语言习惯的过程产生的影响。
表现为中介语中所包含的第一语言的特点。
10.迁移这个概念始于（）心理学指导下的语言学习理论。
11.在第二语言学习中，学习者无论被纠正了多少次均会重复一个错误的形式直至语言水平达到相当高的程度，这种现象被称为（）。
12.（）是指一群体的语言、文化和价值体系在与另一不同语言、文化和价值体系的群体相互交流中产生变化的过程。
13.语言习得的关键期假设（亦称作自然成熟说）理论认为，儿童的语言发展过程实际上是（）的自然成熟过程。
14.随着儿童年龄的增长，发音器官、大脑等制约语言的神经机制逐渐成熟，这个过程大约是（）岁以前完成，这个阶段最适合语言学习，过了这个阶段，学习语言就不那么容易了。
第二语言习得考试试题
第二语言习得考试试题一、选择题（每题 2 分，共 40 分）1、第二语言习得中的“中介语”是指（）A 学习者母语和目的语之间的过渡语言B 学习者在学习过程中创造的一种独立语言C 教师为帮助学习者而使用的简化语言D 一种国际通用的辅助语言2、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的个体差异因素（）A 学习动机B 性格特点C 社会环境D 认知风格3、在第二语言习得中，“输入假说”的提出者是（）A 克拉申B 乔姆斯基C 皮亚杰D 布鲁纳4、学习者在第二语言习得过程中出现的“石化”现象，指的是（）A 语言能力停止发展B 语言错误固定化C 学习兴趣丧失D 学习方法不当5、以下哪种教学方法更注重语言的交际功能（）A 语法翻译法B 直接法C 听说法D 交际法6、第二语言习得中的“情感过滤假说”认为，以下哪种因素会影响语言输入的吸收（）A 自信心B 焦虑程度C 学习态度D 以上都是7、对于儿童和成人在第二语言习得方面的比较，以下说法正确的是（）A 儿童学习速度更快B 成人学习效果更好C 儿童在语音方面更有优势D 成人在语法方面更有优势8、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的语言输出的作用（）A 检验语言知识B 提高语言流利度C 促进语言输入的理解D 减少语言错误9、学习者在第二语言习得中，对目的语规则的过度概括所产生的错误属于（）A 语际错误B 语内错误C 诱导错误D 随机错误10、以下哪种语言环境更有利于第二语言习得（）A 课堂教学环境B 自然语言环境C 双语环境D 单一语言环境11、在第二语言习得中，“监控假说”认为，学习者的语言输出主要受到（）的监控。
A 潜意识B 有意识C 情感因素D 语言规则12、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的学习策略（）A 认知策略B 元认知策略C 情感策略D 语法策略13、对于第二语言习得中的“文化适应”，以下说法错误的是（）A 有助于语言学习B 只是了解文化知识C 包括价值观的适应D 能提高交际能力14、以下哪种测试方法更能准确测量学习者的第二语言实际运用能力（）A 标准化测试B 口语测试C 书面测试D 听力测试15、第二语言习得中的“关键期假说”认为，语言学习的最佳年龄是（）A 儿童时期B 青少年时期C 成年时期D 没有固定年龄16、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的外部因素（）A 教学方法B 教材质量C 学习者年龄D 语言环境17、在第二语言习得中，“可理解输入”的特点不包括（）A 略高于学习者现有水平B 有趣且相关C 语法复杂D 大量重复18、以下哪种反馈方式对第二语言习得最有效（）A 积极反馈B 消极反馈C 直接纠错D 引导自纠19、学习者在第二语言习得中出现的回避现象，主要是为了（）A 避免错误B 节省时间C 简化表达D 显示个性20、以下关于第二语言习得和第一语言习得的比较，错误的是（）A 学习动机不同B 学习环境相似C 认知能力有差异D 语言输入质量不同二、简答题（每题 10 分，共 30 分）1、请简述第二语言习得中的“输入假说”的主要内容。
第二语言习得 考试复习题
第二语言习得期中考试复习题1. acquisition& learning➢The term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term “learning” is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language. Now most of the researchers use them interchangeably, irrespective of whether conscious or unconscious processes are involved2. incidental learning & intentional learning➢While reading for pleasure a reader does not bother to look up a new word in a dictionary, but a few pages later realizes what that word means, then incidental learning is said to have taken place.➢If a student is instructed to read a text and find out the meanings of unknown words, then it becomes an intentional learning activity. ngauage➢Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication .That is to say , language is systematic (rule-governed ), symbolic and social.nguage Acquisition Device➢The capacity to acquire one’s FIRST LANGUAGE , when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mech anism or apparatus.5.Contrastive analysis❖Under the influence of behaviorism, researchers of language teaching developed the method of contrastive analysis (CA) to study learner errors. Its original aim is to serve foreign language teaching.6.Error analysis❖Error analysis aims to 1) find out how well the learner knows a second language, 2) find out how the learner learns a second language, 3) obtain information on common difficulties in second language learning, and to 4) serve as an aid in teaching or in the preparation and compilation of teaching materials (Corder, 1981).It is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language system s.7.interlanguage❖It refers to the language that the L2 learner produced .❖The language produced by the learner is a system in its own right.❖The language is a dynamic system, evolving over time.8.Krashen and His Monitor Model❖ 1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis❖ 2. The Monitor Hypothesis❖ 3. The Natural Hypothesis❖ 4. The Input Hypothesis❖ 5. The Affective Filter Hypothsis9. input hypothesis❖Its claims : The learner improves and progresses along the “natural order” when s/he receives second language “input” that is one step beyond his or her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage “i”, then acquisition takes place when s/he is exposed to “Comprehensible Input” that belongs to level “i+1”.10. affective filter hypothesis❖The hypothesis is based on the theory of an affective filter, which states that successful second language acquisition depends on the learner’s feelings. Negative attitudes (including a lack of motivation or self-confidence and anxiety) are said to act as a filter, preventing the learner from making use of INPUT, and thus hindering success in language learning.11.Shumann’s Acculturation Model❖This model of second language acquisition was formulated by John.H.Schumann(1978), and applies to the natural context of second language acquisition where a second language is acquired without any instruction in the environment. Schumann defines acculturation as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture or rather , the social and psychological integration of the learner with the target language group.12.Universal Grammar⏹The language faculty built into the human mind consisting of principles and parameters.⏹This is the universal grammar theory associated with Noam Chomsky.⏹Universal Grammar sees the knowledge of grammar in the mind as having two components: “principles＂that all languages have incommon and “parameters” on which they vary.13.M acLaughlin’s Information processing model☐SLA is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill that must progress from controlled processing to automatic processing.14.Anderson’s ACT☐This is another general theory of cognitive learning that has been applied to SLA☐Also emphasizes the automatization process.☐Conceptualizing three types of memory:1. Working memory2. Declarative long term memory3. Procedural long-term memory15.fossilization☐It refers to the phenomenon in which second language learners often stop learning even though they might be far short of native-like competence. The term is also used for specific linguistic structures that remain incorrect for lengthy periods of time in spite of plentiful input.munication strategies⏹Communication strategies, known as CSs, consist of attempts to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction.They are characterized by the negotiation of an agreement on meaning between the two parties.1.What it is that needs to be learnt in language acquisition?➢Phonetics and Phonology➢Syntax➢Morphology➢Semantics➢Pragmatics2.How experts study the children’s acquisition➢Observe young children’s learning to talk.➢Record the speech of their children➢Create a database➢Have a single hypothesis3.What are learning strategies? Give examples ?➢Intentional behaviour and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new information .➢Learning strategies are classified into :1. meta-cognitive strategies2. cognitive strategies3. socio-affective strategies4.What are the factors influencing the success of SLA ?●Cognitive factors :1. Intelligence2. Language aptitudenguage learning strategies●Affective factors:nguage attitudes2.Motivation5.What are the differences between the Behaviorist learning model and that of Mentalist?➢Behaviorist learning model claims that children acquired the L1 by trying to imitate utterances produced by people around them and by receiving negative or positive reinforcement of their attempts to do so. Language acquisition, therefore, was considered to be environmentally determined.6.What are the beneficial views obtained from the studies on children’s L1 acquisition?1. Children’s language acquisition goes through several stages2. These stages are very similar across children for a given language, although the rate at which individual children progress through them ishighly variable;3. These stages are similar across languages;4. Child language is rule-governed and systematic, and the rules created by the child do not necessarily correspond to adult ones;5. Children are resistant to correction;6. Children’s mental capacity limits the n umber of rules they can apply at any one time, and they will revert to earlier hypotheses when two ormore rules compete.7.What are the differences of error analysis from contrastive analysisContrastive analysis stresses the interfering effects of a first language on second language learning and claims that most errors come from interference of the first language. (Corder ,1967). However, such a narrow view of interference ignores the intralingual effects of language learning among other factors. Error an alysis is the method to deal with intralingual factors in learners’ language (Corder, 1981).it is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language systems .Error analysis is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners’ inte rlanguage and a target language, while contrastive analysis between languages. (native language and target language)8.What are UG principles and parameters?➢The universal principle is the principle of structure-dependency, which states that language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence.➢Parameters are prnciples that differ in the way they work or function from language to language. That is to say there are certain linguistic features that vary across languages.9.What role does UG play in SLA？➢Three possibilities :1. UG operates in the same way for L2 as it does for L1.2. The learner’s Core grammar is fixed and UG is no longer available to the L2 learner, particularly not to th e adult learner.3. UG is partly available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2. There are other factors and they may interfere with the UGinfluence.10.What are classifications of communication strategies?Faerch and Kasper characterizes CSs in the light of learners’ attempts at governing two different behaviors and their taxonomies are achievement and reduction strategies , and they are based on the psycholinguistics.➢Achievement Strategies:⏹Paraphrase⏹Approximation⏹Word coinage⏹Circumlocution⏹Conscious Transfer⏹Literal translation⏹Language switch (borrowing)⏹Mime⏹Use body language and gestures to make communication open⏹Appeal for assistance➢Reduction Strategies⏹Message abandonment（topic shift）:Ask a student to answer the question :How old are you ? She must utter two orthree sentences to answer the question, but she mustn’t tell her age.⏹Topic avoidance(Silence)。
第二语言习得 考试复习题
第二语言习得期中考试复习题1. acquisition& learning➢The term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term “learning” is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language. Now most of the researchers use them interchangeably, irrespective of whether conscious or unconscious processes are involved2. incidental learning & intentional learning➢While reading for pleasure a reader does not bother to look up a new word in a dictionary, but a few pages later realizes what that word means, then incidental learning is said to have taken place.➢If a student is instructed to read a text and find out the meanings of unknown words, then it becomes an intentional learning activity. ngauage➢Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication .That is to say , language is systematic (rule-governed ), symbolic and social.nguage Acquisition Device➢The capacity to acquire one’s FIRST LANGUAGE , when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mech anism or apparatus.5.Contrastive analysis❖Under the influence of behaviorism, researchers of language teaching developed the method of contrastive analysis (CA) to study learner errors. Its original aim is to serve foreign language teaching.6.Error analysis❖Error analysis aims to 1) find out how well the learner knows a second language, 2) find out how the learner learns a second language, 3) obtain information on common difficulties in second language learning, and to 4) serve as an aid in teaching or in the preparation and compilation of teaching materials (Corder, 1981).It is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language system s.7.interlanguage❖It refers to the language that the L2 learner produced .❖The language produced by the learner is a system in its own right.❖The language is a dynamic system, evolving over time.8.Krashen and His Monitor Model❖ 1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis❖ 2. The Monitor Hypothesis❖ 3. The Natural Hypothesis❖ 4. The Input Hypothesis❖ 5. The Affective Filter Hypothsis9. input hypothesis❖Its claims : The learner improves and progresses along the “natural order” when s/he receives second language “input” that is one step beyond his or her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage “i”, then acquisition takes place when s/he is exposed to “Comprehensible Input” that belongs to level “i+1”.10. affective filter hypothesis❖The hypothesis is based on the theory of an affective filter, which states that successful second language acquisition depends on the learner’s feelings. Negative attitudes (including a lack of motivation or self-confidence and anxiety) are said to act as a filter, preventing the learner from making use of INPUT, and thus hindering success in language learning.11.Shumann’s Acculturation Model❖This model of second language acquisition was formulated by John.H.Schumann(1978), and applies to the natural context of second language acquisition where a second language is acquired without any instruction in the environment. Schumann defines acculturation as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture or rather , the social and psychological integration of the learner with the target language group.12.Universal Grammar⏹The language faculty built into the human mind consisting of principles and parameters.⏹This is the universal grammar theory associated with Noam Chomsky.⏹Universal Grammar sees the knowledge of grammar in the mind as having two components: “principles＂that all languages have incommon and “parameters” on which they vary.13.M acLaughlin’s Information processing model☐SLA is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill that must progress from controlled processing to automatic processing.14.Anderson’s ACT☐This is another general theory of cognitive learning that has been applied to SLA☐Also emphasizes the automatization process.☐Conceptualizing three types of memory:1. Working memory2. Declarative long term memory3. Procedural long-term memory15.fossilization☐It refers to the phenomenon in which second language learners often stop learning even though they might be far short of native-like competence. The term is also used for specific linguistic structures that remain incorrect for lengthy periods of time in spite of plentiful input.munication strategies⏹Communication strategies, known as CSs, consist of attempts to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction.They are characterized by the negotiation of an agreement on meaning between the two parties.1.What it is that needs to be learnt in language acquisition?➢Phonetics and Phonology➢Syntax➢Morphology➢Semantics➢Pragmatics2.How experts study the children’s acquisition➢Observe young children’s learning to talk.➢Record the speech of their children➢Create a database➢Have a single hypothesis3.What are learning strategies? Give examples ?➢Intentional behaviour and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new information .➢Learning strategies are classified into :1. meta-cognitive strategies2. cognitive strategies3. socio-affective strategies4.What are the factors influencing the success of SLA ?●Cognitive factors :1. Intelligence2. Language aptitudenguage learning strategies●Affective factors:nguage attitudes2.Motivation5.What are the differences between the Behaviorist learning model and that of Mentalist?➢Behaviorist learning model claims that children acquired the L1 by trying to imitate utterances produced by people around them and by receiving negative or positive reinforcement of their attempts to do so. Language acquisition, therefore, was considered to be environmentally determined.6.What are the beneficial views obtained from the studies on children’s L1 acquisition?1. Children’s language acquisition goes through several stages2. These stages are very similar across children for a given language, although the rate at which individual children progress through them ishighly variable;3. These stages are similar across languages;4. Child language is rule-governed and systematic, and the rules created by the child do not necessarily correspond to adult ones;5. Children are resistant to correction;6. Children’s mental capacity limits the n umber of rules they can apply at any one time, and they will revert to earlier hypotheses when two ormore rules compete.7.What are the differences of error analysis from contrastive analysisContrastive analysis stresses the interfering effects of a first language on second language learning and claims that most errors come from interference of the first language. (Corder ,1967). However, such a narrow view of interference ignores the intralingual effects of language learning among other factors. Error an alysis is the method to deal with intralingual factors in learners’ language (Corder, 1981).it is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language systems .Error analysis is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners’ inte rlanguage and a target language, while contrastive analysis between languages. (native language and target language)8.What are UG principles and parameters?➢The universal principle is the principle of structure-dependency, which states that language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence.➢Parameters are prnciples that differ in the way they work or function from language to language. That is to say there are certain linguistic features that vary across languages.9.What role does UG play in SLA？➢Three possibilities :1. UG operates in the same way for L2 as it does for L1.2. The learner’s Core grammar is fixed and UG is no longer available to the L2 learner, particularly not to th e adult learner.3. UG is partly available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2. There are other factors and they may interfere with the UGinfluence.10.What are classifications of communication strategies?Faerch and Kasper characterizes CSs in the light of learners’ attempts at governing two different behaviors and their taxonomies are achievement and reduction strategies , and they are based on the psycholinguistics.➢Achievement Strategies:⏹Paraphrase⏹Approximation⏹Word coinage⏹Circumlocution⏹Conscious Transfer⏹Literal translation⏹Language switch (borrowing)⏹Mime⏹Use body language and gestures to make communication open⏹Appeal for assistance➢Reduction Strategies⏹Message abandonment（topic shift）:Ask a student to answer the question :How old are you ? She must utter two orthree sentences to answer the question, but she mustn’t tell her age.⏹Topic avoidance(Silence)。
对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案
对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案第一章单元测试1、判断题：习得与学习二者之间的关系是割裂的。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、单选题：最早发现习得与学习存在区别的是语言学家（）选项：A:乔姆斯基B:斯蒂芬?克拉申C:洪堡特D:斯韦恩答案: 【斯蒂芬?克拉申】3、多选题：关于习得与学习的关系，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:可以用两个三角形表示；B:这两个三角形是倒置的；C:这两个三角形是部分交叠的；D:这两个三角形是完全重叠的。
答案: 【可以用两个三角形表示；;这两个三角形是倒置的；;这两个三角形是部分交叠的；】成人完全可以做到和儿童一样习得外语。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、判断题：儿童习得外语的能力总体上高于成人。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、判断题：传统语言课堂收到的质疑越来越多，我们应该遵循习得规律，改革创新教学模式和方法。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】7、判断题：最早获得的语言一定是最熟悉的。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他最早接触的是汉语，成长过程中主要说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是汉语；B:他的第一语言是汉语；C:他的第二语言是英语；D:他的母语是英语。
答案: 【他的母语是汉语；;他的第一语言是汉语；;他的第二语言是英语；】9、多选题：一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他成长过程中只接触和说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是英语；B:他的第一语言是英语；C:他没有外语；D:他的外语是英语。
答案: 【他的母语是英语；;他的第一语言是英语；;他没有外语；】10、判断题：第一语言是语言学的概念，母语更多的牵涉到民族学问题。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】11、判断题：语言学多是理论研究，心理学、心理语言学等多是实验研究。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】第二章单元测试1、多选题：关于大脑和语言习得，行为主义心理学派有两个非常著名的观点，分别是（）。
第二语言习得试题及答案
第二语言习得试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共10分）1. 第二语言习得理论中，克拉申的“输入假说”主张学习者需要接收到什么样的语言输入？A. 完全理解的输入B. 可理解的输入C. 无理解的输入D. 超过理解的输入答案：B2. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于什么？A. 模仿B. 强化C. 内化D. 社会互动答案：B3. 在语言习得中，“临界期”假说主张语言学习的最佳时期是？A. 任何年龄B. 儿童时期C. 青少年时期D. 成年时期答案：B4. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为语言技能的发展遵循一定的顺序，以下哪项不是该假说的内容？A. 语法结构的习得顺序是固定的B. 词汇的习得顺序是固定的C. 发音的习得顺序是固定的D. 语言习得的速度是个体差异决定的答案：D5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调以下哪个因素在语言学习中的作用？A. 认知发展B. 社会互动C. 语言输入D. 语言输出答案：B二、填空题（每空1分，共10分）1. 语言习得的“监控假说”是由________提出的。
答案：克拉申2. 语言习得中的“输入假说”认为，学习者需要接收到________的输入。
答案：可理解的3. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为，语言技能的发展遵循一定的________。
答案：顺序4. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于________。
答案：强化5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调________在语言学习中的作用。
答案：社会互动三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. 简述克拉申的“输入假说”。
答案：克拉申的“输入假说”认为，为了习得第二语言，学习者需要接收到略高于其当前语言水平的可理解输入，这样的输入被称为“i+1”输入。
2. 描述斯金纳的操作条件反射理论在语言习得中的应用。
答案：斯金纳的操作条件反射理论认为，语言习得是通过强化机制实现的。
当学习者正确使用语言时，他们会受到奖励（强化），这会增强他们使用正确语言形式的倾向。
第二语言习得复习题
第二语言习得复习题第二語言習得複習題一、名詞解釋1.第二語言：指相對於第一語言來說，除兒童幼年最先接觸和習得の語言，在此後習得の語言就是第二語言。
2. 第一語言：指兒童幼年最先接觸和習得の語言。
3. 母語：指學習者所屬種族、社團使用の語言，也稱作“本族語”。
4，目の語：也叫目標語，一般指學習者正在學習の語言。
5，第二語言習得：簡稱SLA，是指人們在獲得母語(第一語言)の基礎上習得另一種或幾種語言の過程。
也叫“二語習得”6，語言習得機制：喬姆斯基提出人腦中存在一個“語言習得機制”（LAD），它有以下一些特點：1.具有遺傳性，為人類獨有。
2.能使兒童加工語言材料，判斷語言體系の發展，建立抽象規則。
3.可能已經具備一些普遍の語言特征，這些特征可以在所有人類語言中找到，因此，許多語法屬性可能是先天存在於人類の大腦中，無需學習。
7，工具型動機：學習者對目の語群體沒有興趣，學習目の語只是為了掌握一個工具，用來提高自己の知識水平、改善社會地位。
8，習得與學習：克拉申認為“習得”通常指在自然狀態下“下意識”の語言獲得，而“學習”一般是指“有意識”の語言獲得。
前者稱為“內隱學習”，後者稱為“外顯學習”9，中介語：語言學習者在學習第二語言時所擁有の一種獨立の語言系統,這種語言系統在結構上既不是學習者の母語也不是目の語,而是介於兩者之間。
中介語系統在語音、詞匯、語法、文化等方面都有表現。
但它又不是固定不變の，而是隨著學習の發展，逐漸向目の語の正確形式靠攏。
10，普遍語法：喬姆斯基認為普遍語法是由一些原則條件和規則構成の系統，這些所有人類語言共有の因素是或特性是必然の而不是偶然の，原則系統和規則系統。
11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker於1972年在其中介語理論中提出の。
僵化是存在於“潛在の心理結構”中の一種機制，表現為某種母語背景の第二語言學習者會在目の語習得の某個階段上停滯不前，無論學習者年齡大小，也無論其是否繼續學習12，外國人話語：所謂“外國人話語”並不是指外國人の話語，而是指對外國人說の話語。
二语习得考试题库
二语习得笔记一、二语习得1、什么是二语习得？（p3）人们学习母语外的一种语言的途径。
这种学习可以是课堂上的，也可以是课堂外的。
2、第二语言习得的目的是什么？（p4）二语习得的目标之一是对二语习得进行描述，另一个目标是对二语习得进行解释，鉴别内部因素和外部因素，这些因素可以用来解释二语习得者在二语习得过程中所使用的方法。
外部因素之一是学习发生的社会环境，社会环境影响二语习得者必须使用目的语进行交流(听和说)的机会，并且影响学习者对于二语习得的态度；另一个外部因素是学习者接收到的语言输入。
内部因素是指学习者的认知机制，而认知机制受学习者的母语、百科知识、交际策略以及它的语言普遍性知识的影响。
最后一个内部因素是学习者的个体差异，这包括学习者的一些常规因素的差异，比如，学习者的语言学能以及学习动机的不同，另外学习策略的不同也属于学习者的个体差异。
总的来说，二语习得的目标是描述二语习得的进程，并且对之进行解释，解释为什么有的学习者看起来要好于其他的学习者。
二、偏误和偏误分析1、偏误分析的作用是什么？（p14）①它们是学习者语言的一个显著特色，这就提出了“学习者为什么会产生偏误？”的重要问题。
②有助于教师了解学习者产生的偏误，便于教学。
③学习者在自我改错时有助于学习者习得。
2、偏误分析的步骤①偏误的辨别②偏误的描写③偏误的解释④偏误的评估3、偏误归类的方法（p18）①按语法范畴归类：我们可以把所有关于动词的偏误聚集起来，然后在我们的案例中识别出不同种类的动词偏误（比如过去时态的动词偏误）。
②按识别学习者的话语与重建的目的语的差异的一般方法归类，包括遗漏（漏掉了句中应有的语法成分而导致的偏误）、误用（用一种语法形式代替另一种语法形式）、错序（在话语中，把词语按错误的顺序排列）三、行为主义和心理主义在看待语言习得方面有何不同？(p31)行为主义：根据行为主义理论，语言习得就和任何其他种类的习得一样，包括习惯的形成。
二语习得博士入学考试复习题
二语言习得考试复习题1. acquisition& learning➢The term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term “learning” is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language. Now most of the researchers use them interchangeably, irrespective of whether conscious or unconscious processes are involved2. incidental learning & intentional learning➢While reading for pleasure a reader does not bother to look up a new word in a dictionary, but a few pages later realizes what that word means, then incidental learning is said to have taken place.➢If a student is instructed to read a text and find out the meanings of unknown words, then it becomes an intentional learning activity. ngauage➢Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication .That is to say , language is systematic (rule-governed ), symbolic and social.nguage Acquisition Device➢The capacity to acquire one’s FIRST LANGUAGE , when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mechani sm or apparatus.5.Contrastive analysis❖Under the influence of behaviorism, researchers of language teaching developed the method of contrastive analysis (CA) to study learner errors. Its original aim is to serve foreign language teaching.6.Error analysis❖Error analysis aims to 1) find out how well the learner knows a second language, 2) find out how the learner learns a second language, 3) obtain information on common difficulties in second language learning, and to 4) serve as an aid in teaching or in the preparation and compilation of teaching materials (Corder, 1981).It is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language system s.7.interlanguage❖It refers to the language that the L2 learner produced .❖The language produced by the learner is a system in its own right.❖The language is a dynamic system, evolving over time.8.Krashen and His Monitor Model❖ 1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis❖ 2. The Monitor Hypothesis❖ 3. The Natural Hypothesis❖ 4. The Input Hypothesis❖ 5. The Affective Filter Hypothsis9. input hypothesis❖Its claims : The learner improves and progresses along the “natural order” when s/he receives second language “input” that is one step beyond his or her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a le arner is at a stage “i”, then acquisition takes place when s/he is exposed to “Comprehensible Input” that belongs to level “i+1”.10. affective filter hypothesis❖The hypothesis is based on the theory of an affective filter, which states that successful second language acquisition depends on the learner’s feelings. Negative attitudes (including a lack of motivation or self-confidence and anxiety) are said to act as a filter, preventing the learner from making use of INPUT, and thus hindering success in language learning.11.Shumann’s Acculturation Model❖This model of second language acquisition was formulated by John.H.Schumann(1978), and applies to the natural context of second language acquisition where a second language is acquired without any instruction in the environment. Schumann defines acculturation as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture or rather , the social and psychological integration of the learner with the target language group.12.Universal Grammar⏹The language faculty built into the human mind consisting of principles and parameters.⏹This is the universal grammar theory associated with Noam Chomsky.⏹Universal Grammar sees the knowledge of grammar in the mind as having two components: “principles＂that all languages have incommon and “parameters” on which they vary.13.M acLaughlin’s Information processing model☐SLA is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill that must progress from controlled processing to automatic processing.14.Anderson’s ACT☐This is another general theory of cognitive learning that has been applied to SLA☐Also emphasizes the automatization process.☐Conceptualizing three types of memory:1. Working memory2. Declarative long term memory3. Procedural long-term memory15.fossilization☐It refers to the phenomenon in which second language learners often stop learning even though they might be far short of native-like competence. The term is also used for specific linguistic structures that remain incorrect for lengthy periods of time in spite of plentiful input.munication strategies⏹Communication strategies, known as CSs, consist of attempts to deal with problems of communication that have arisen in interaction.They are characterized by the negotiation of an agreement on meaning between the two parties.1.What it is that needs to be learnt in language acquisition?➢Phonetics and Phonology➢Syntax➢Morphology➢Semantics➢Pragmatics2.How experts study the children’s acquisition➢Observe young children’s learning to talk.➢Record the speech of their children➢Create a database➢Have a single hypothesis3.What are learning strategies? Give examples ?➢Intentional behaviour and thoughts that learners make use of during learning in order to better help them understand, learn or remember new information .➢Learning strategies are classified into :1. meta-cognitive strategies2. cognitive strategies3. socio-affective strategies4.What are the factors influencing the success of SLA ?●Cognitive factors :1. Intelligence2. Language aptitudenguage learning strategies●Affective factors:nguage attitudes2.Motivation5.What are the differences between the Behaviorist learning model and that of Mentalist?➢Behaviorist learning model claims that children acquired the L1 by trying to imitate utterances produced by people around them and by receiving negative or positive reinforcement of their attempts to do so. Language acquisition, therefore, was considered to be environmentally determined.6.What are the beneficial views obtained from the studies on chi ldren’s L1 acquisition?1. Children’s language acquisition goes through several stages2. These stages are very similar across children for a given language, although the rate at which individual children progress through them ishighly variable;3. These stages are similar across languages;4. Child language is rule-governed and systematic, and the rules created by the child do not necessarily correspond to adult ones;5. Children are resistant to correction;6. Children’s mental capacity limits the numb er of rules they can apply at any one time, and they will revert to earlier hypotheses when two ormore rules compete.7.What are the differences of error analysis from contrastive analysisContrastive analysis stresses the interfering effects of a first language on second language learning and claims that most errors come from interference of the first language. (Corder ,1967). However, such a narrow view of interference ignores the intralingual effects of language learning among other factors. Error analy sis is the method to deal with intralingual factors in learners’ language (Corder, 1981).it is a methodology of describing Second Language Learners’ language systems .Error analysis is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners’ interla nguage and a target language, while contrastive analysis between languages. (native language and target language)8.What are UG principles and parameters?➢The universal principle is the principle of structure-dependency, which states that language is organized in such a way that it crucially depends on the structural relationships between elements in a sentence.➢Parameters are prnciples that differ in the way they work or function from language to language. That is to say there are certain linguistic features that vary across languages.9.What role does UG play in SLA？➢Three possibilities :1. UG operates in the same way for L2 as it does for L1.2. The learner’s Core grammar is fixed and UG is no longer available to the L2 learner, particularly not to the a dult learner.3. UG is partly available but it is only one factor in the acquisition of L2. There are other factors and they may interfere with the UGinfluence.10.What are classifications of communication strategies?Faerch and Kasper characterizes CSs in the light of learners’ attempts at governing two different behaviors and their taxonomies are achievement and reduction strategies , and they are based on the psycholinguistics.➢Achievement Strategies:⏹Paraphrase⏹Approximation⏹Word coinage⏹Circumlocution⏹Conscious Transfer⏹Literal translation⏹Language switch (borrowing)⏹Mime⏹Use body language and gestures to make communication open⏹Appeal for assistance➢Reduction Strategies⏹Message abandonment（topic shift）:Ask a student to answer the question :How old are you ? She must utter two orthree sentences to answer the question, but she mustn’t tell her age.⏹Topic avoidance(Silence)。
对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案
第一章单元测试1、判断题：习得与学习二者之间的关系是割裂的。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、单选题：最早发现习得与学习存在区别的是语言学家（）选项：A:乔姆斯基B:斯蒂芬•克拉申C:洪堡特D:斯韦恩答案: 【斯蒂芬•克拉申】3、多选题：关于习得与学习的关系，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:可以用两个三角形表示；B:这两个三角形是倒置的；C:这两个三角形是部分交叠的；D:这两个三角形是完全重叠的。
答案: 【可以用两个三角形表示；;这两个三角形是倒置的；;这两个三角形是部分交叠的；】成人完全可以做到和儿童一样习得外语。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、判断题：儿童习得外语的能力总体上高于成人。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、判断题：传统语言课堂收到的质疑越来越多，我们应该遵循习得规律，改革创新教学模式和方法。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】7、判断题：最早获得的语言一定是最熟悉的。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他最早接触的是汉语，成长过程中主要说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是汉语；B:他的第一语言是汉语；C:他的第二语言是英语；D:他的母语是英语。
答案: 【他的母语是汉语；;他的第一语言是汉语；;他的第二语言是英语；】9、多选题：一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他成长过程中只接触和说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是英语；B:他的第一语言是英语；C:他没有外语；D:他的外语是英语。
答案: 【他的母语是英语；;他的第一语言是英语；;他没有外语；】10、判断题：第一语言是语言学的概念，母语更多的牵涉到民族学问题。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】11、判断题：语言学多是理论研究，心理学、心理语言学等多是实验研究。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】第二章单元测试1、多选题：关于大脑和语言习得，行为主义心理学派有两个非常著名的观点，分别是（）。
二语习得复习汇总
A General ReviewⅠ. Short & Long answers1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence?Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture. The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, and even somewhat divergent meanings for the “same” lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker’s total communicative competence differs from that of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA?a)L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language3.What is the difference between linguistic competence & communicative competence (CC)?Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammatically correct expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studies linguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by “an ideal speak-listener”.Communicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to “what a sp eaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”, such as a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax , morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.4.Why is CC in L1 different from L2?L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their native language community. L2 learning may be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances.5.What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation?Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends.6.Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How could this affect the feedback providedto students?. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they consider input to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input a necessary trigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: consider comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA;b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language processing; (2) connectionist framework: consider the quantity or frequency of input structures to largely determine acquisitional sequencing;c) From the perspective of social approaches: interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing.ⅱ. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNs aware that their usage is not accept able in some way, and which provides a model for “correctness”. While children rarely receive such negative evidence in L1, and don’t require it to achieve full native competence, corrective feedback is common in L2 and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that is the desired goal.7.Explain ZPD. How would scaffolding put a student in ZPD?Zone of Proximal Development, this is an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance. Mental functions that are beyond an individual's current level must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently. One way in which others help the learner in language development within the ZPD is through scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them individually. It is not something that happens to learners as a passive recipient, but happens with a learner as an active participant.8.Explain why some learners are more successful than others from the perspective of S-C theory?The S-C framework supports the view that some learners may be more successful than others because of their level of access to or participation in a learning community, or because of the amount of mediation they receive from experts or peers, and because of how well they make use of that help.9.What are the macrosocial factors that influence SLA?(1)Global and national status of L1 and L2 (2)Boundaries and identities(3)Institutional forces and constraints (4)Social categories (5)Circumstances of learning10.What are the advantages of young learners and old learners respectively?Young L2 learners are more likely to acquire the language in a naturalistic setting; they are more likely to use the L2 in highly contextualized face-to-face situation. Older learners succeed in SLA t o the level of being able to “pass” for a native speaker when social motivation is strong enough.11.What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist, sociolinguists and socialpsycholinguists?（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.（2）Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.12.What are the differences between second language, foreign language, library language and auxiliarylanguage?（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.（4）An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.13.Why are some learners more (or less) successful than others?The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies;sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.14.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age.The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:●Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of another language;● A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;●Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 is required;●Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language;● A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires proficiency in another language;● A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;●An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies orliteratures.15.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning?（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages.Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage.American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if onlyEnglish surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.16.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively?The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.17.How does intermediate states process?The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved in interlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct” in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.18.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)?Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.19.What is a facilitating condition for language learning?While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.20.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity for language.The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition was prominently espoused by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be lear ned from the input they receive: Childrenoften hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehowable to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for allof the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subsetof possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints whichallow them to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned: Children’s access to gen eral constraints and principles whichgovern language could account for the relatively short time it takes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for thefact that it does so systematically and without any “wild” divergences. This could be so because innateprinciples lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition tothe lack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire afirst language at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles arethus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input: In spite of the surfacedifferences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent ofthis similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by ling uists, but also innate representations in every young child’s mind.21.Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is thedifference between the two?Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes the information content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.22.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective?(1) Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is notessentially unlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;(2) Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involve either innate knowledge or abstractionof rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.23.What are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective?(1)Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate to language acquisition and use inimmediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction.(2) Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relate language acquisition and use to broaderecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.24.What are the characteristics of an interlanguage?1)Systematic. At any particular point or stage of development, the IL is governed by rules which constitute thelearner’s internal grammar.2)Dynamic. The system of rules which learners have in their minds changes frequently, or is in a state of flux,resulting in a succession of interim grammars.3)Variable. Although IL is systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use.4)Reduced system, both in form and function.25.What are the five components of language knowledge?Linguists have traditionally divided language into the following five components for purposes of description and analysis:(1)vocabulary(lexicon) (2)morphology(word structure) (3)phonology(sound system) (4)syntax(grammar) (5)discourse(ways to connect sentences and organize information)Please do3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25 (共17题)in your exercisebooks.Ⅱ.Definition1.Second Language Acquisition (SLA):a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who arelearning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood,usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first” language.3.Second language (L2): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primarylanguage of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first”language.4.Target language:The language that is the aim or goal of learning.5.Foreign language:A second language that is not widely used in the learners’ immediate social context, but ratherone that might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.6.Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books andjournals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’s L1.7.Auxiliary language:A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.8.Linguistic competence:The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.9.Linguistic performance:The use of language knowledge in actual production.municative competence:A basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociol inguistics defined as “what a speakerneeds to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community” (Saville-Troike 2003) 11.Pragmatic competence:Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning withincommunicative situations.12.Multilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.13.Monolingualism:The ability to use only one language.14.Simultaneous multilingualism:Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.15.Sequential multilingualism:Ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already beenestablished.16.Innate capacity:A natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn or acquire language.17.Child grammar:Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of productionand comprehension.18.Initial state:The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge aboutlanguage structures and principles that are in learner s’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.19.Intermediate state:I t includes the maturational changes which take place in “child grammar”, and the L2developmental sequence which is known as learner language.20.Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.21.Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.22.Negative transfer: I nappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.23.Phonology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.24.Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences, such as ordering andagreement.25.Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.26.Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.27.Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’sTransformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.28.Minimalist program:The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Principles andParameters model.This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.29.Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learnerproduction which depend on contexts of use.30.Accommodation theory:A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usuallyunconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.31.Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not onlyfacilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of a common language to at least some extent.2.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differs in systematic ways from languageaddressed to native or very fluent speakers.3.Interaction Hypothesis:The claim that modifications and collaborative efforts which take place in socialinteration facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing.4.Symbolic mediation: A link between a person’s current mental state and higher order functions that is providedprimarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (of language, and of learning in general). Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.5.Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated with the variable element.6.Microsocial context:features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events withinwhich language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.7.ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development, an area of potential development where the learner can only achieve thatpotential with assistance. Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultur al Theory.8.Scaffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbalcollaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance.9.Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual's own mind, viewed by Vygosky as asociocultural phenomen.10.Interpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occur between people.11.Social institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, or practice to regulate and organize the lifeof people in public domains: e.g. politics, religion, and education.12.Acculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavioral patterns.13.Formal L2 learning: formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions thatare established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.rmal L2 learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settings where people contact—andneed to interact with—speakers of another language.1.Contrastive Analysis (CA): an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement (S-R-R): learners respond to the stimulus (linguistic input), and reinforcement strengthens the response; they imitate and repeat the language that they hear, and when they are reinforced for that response, learning occurs.3.Interference: There will be transfer in learning of elements acquired in L1 to L2. When the L1 structure is used inappropriately in the L2, the transfer is called interference.4. Error Analysis (EA):the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners’ creative ability to construct language. It is based on the description and analysis of the actual learner errors in L2.6. Interlanguage (IL): is the intermediate state of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2. It has the following characteristics: systematic; dynamic; variable; reduced system, both in form and function.Ⅲ. Final exam questions1. Choose the best answer from the three possible choices.（每小题2 分，共20 分）2. Define the following terms（每小题5 分，共25 分）3. Short & Long answers（每小题8 分，共40 分）4. Answer the following questions, you should write at least 200 words.（每小题15分，共15 分）。
第二语言习得概论考研复习
第二语言习得概论考研复习Standardization of sany group #QS8QHH-HHGX8Q8-GNHHJ8-HHMHGN#★1. SLA (Second language acquisition) is the process by which a language other than the m o t h e r t o n g u e i s l e a r n t i n a n a t u r a l s e t t i n g o r i n a c l a s s r o o m. ★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars. Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)Motivation ，Age ，Learning strategy4.Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning . it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.When applied to SLA, the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.5. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning.The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.6. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)7. What is contrastive analysis (CA)Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.8. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.10. Definition of Error analysis (EA)the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, .It involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.11. Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one’s L1, or the negative transfer of one’s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners’ transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules12. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communication. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.13. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy, Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy:Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.14. Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies. 15. Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.16. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representation, Key word, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, Inferencing17. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamics; attitudes to the teacher and course materials; learning techniques General factors:age; aptitude; cognitive style; motivation; personality18. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation工具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits, that is, the learner’s goal is functional. Resultative motivation:因果性动机 Learners’ motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential construct:Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudesTask motivation: the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks.★19. Definition –interlanguageInterlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language. (Larry Selinker)It is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language.It suggests that learners’ language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.★ of fossilizationFossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stop to learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language. That is to say, the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.21. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization: the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions. Permanent fossilizationThis means the learne r’s language stops evolving for ever. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.22. Causes of fossilizationInternal: Motivation; Communicative needs; Acquisition deviceExternal: Communicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.. “I don’t understand you” )★23. Definition of UGCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines ‘universal grammar’ as ‘the properties inherent in the human mind’. Universal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.24. MarkednessMarkedness refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are ‘special’ or ‘less natural’ or ‘less basic’ than others.Linguists working in the Chomskyan school suggest that linguistic rules can either be part of the core grammar . the universal rules) or be part of the periphery.Core rules are considered to be unmarked and therefore easily acquired.Periphery roles are considered to be and therefore different to learn.25.Krashen’s Monitor ModelKrashen’s monitor model mainly consists of the following five hypothses:(1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,., acquisition and learning.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis:SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners’ first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting).Implications:Errors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning – tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis cIt laims a move along the developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input. We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are nowComprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learner’s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner’s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.(4) The affective filter hypothesisSLA is affected by factors like Motivation, Self-confidence,Anxiety and so on.Learners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.(5) Monitor hypothesisBoth language learners and native speakers typically try to correct any errors in what they have just said. This is referred to as monitoring.Krashen uses the term Monitoring (with a big M) to refer to the way the learner used learnt knowledge to improve utterances produced by means of acquired knowledge.26. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.★27. LAD (language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★28. critical age period hypothesisIt claims that there a period when language acquisition can take place naturally and effortlessly, but after a certain age the brain is no longer able to process language input in this. Researchers differ over when the critical period comes to an end.★29. field independent vs. field independentLearners are different in the ways of receiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling information.Field dependents operate holistically . they see the field as a whole),Whereas field independents operate analytically . they see the field in terms of its component parts).★30. input vs. intakeInput refers to the language learners are exposed serves as the data which learners must use to determine the rules of the target language.However, not all available input is processed by the learner, either because some of it is not understood or because some of it is not attended to.That part of input that is processed, assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system is referred to as intake.★ vs. aptitude vs. intelligenceAttitudes refer to the learner’s beliefs about factors such as the target language culture, their own culture, their teacher and the learning tasks they are given.Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a second language.Intelligence refers to the general ability to master academic skills.32. competence vs. performanceWhen learners acquire a L2, they internalize rules which are then organized into a system. This constitutes their competence.The actual use of this system to comprehend and produce utterances is referred to as performance.33. OvergeneralizationIt refers to the extension of some general rule to items not covered by this rule in the target language.34. foreigner talk vs. teacher talkWhen native speakers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.When teachers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.35. formulaic speech vs. patternsFormulaic speech consists of expressions which are learned as unanalysable wholes and employed in particular occasions.Patterns are one type of formulaic speech. They are unanalysable units which have one or more open slots, . ‘Can I have a —’。
《第二语言习得理论》复习题库 附参考答案.doc
《第二语习得理论》复习纲要第一章引言1、二语习得研究者的研究对象一般是群体，而不是个体，你如何看待这个问题？10二语习得研究中，研究者的研究对象一般是群体，研究结论也是对某个群体而言。
但作为二语教学的老师，他更加关注一个个的个体，他关心的是如何让每一个学生很好的掌握第二语言。
这种情况下，二语习得研究者得到的结论，很可能对进行教学的老师的指导意义不是很大。
因此，二语习得研究者有必要加强对个体的研究，而不是局限于群体。
2、你认为什么是学外语的最好方式？9第二章人1、什么是一语习得的行为主义模型？提出者是？16-17一语习得的天生论模型的理论基础是乔姆斯基的转换生成语法，天生论认为人的大脑中有一个语言习得的机制，小孩出生后在任何一个语言环境中，都能利用这个语言习得机制学会所在环境的语言。
这种观点与观察到的现象是一致的，所以有较强的解释力。
2、什么是一语习得的天生论模型？18-193、什么是一语习得的社会互动模型，提出者是？20-214、什么是文化适应模型？如何评价？24-255^ 什么是perceived social distance?（另一个是social distance,在文化适应模式节）26 perceived social distance 是与social distance 相关的一个概念o Social distance 通常指人们在社会经济地位方面的差别，而perceived social distance则指学习者内部因素的差别（比如对讲所学语言的人的态度，对讲这种语言的社会的态度，对讲这种语言的人的文化价值观念的态度等）。
Acton 研究了perceived social distance与学习成绩之间的关系,研究结果表明，态度介于两种语言文化价值观的学生，学习成绩最理想。
6、文化适应分哪几个阶段？29-307、什么是言语适应模型？是谁提出来的？30-31二语学习者对所学语言文化的态度影响学习过程，言语适应模型认为人们之间的交谈包含三个不同的过程，即交谈双方保持他们各自的说话方式，让各自的说话方式与对方显得越发不同，双方采用对方的说话特点以相互靠拢。
二语习得复习汇总
A General ReviewⅠ. Short & Long answers1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingualcommunicative competence?Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture.The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, and even somewhat divergent meanings for the “same” lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker’s total communicative competence differs from that of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA?a)L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language3.What is the difference between linguistic competence & communicativecompetence (CC)?Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammatically correct expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studies linguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by “an ideal speak-listener”.Communicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to “what aspeaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particularlanguage community”, such as a language user's grammatical knowledge ofsyntax , morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge abouthow and when to use utterances appropriately.4.Why is CC in L1 different from L2?L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their nativelanguage community. L2 learning may be part of second culture learning andadaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differsgreatly with circumstances.5.What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation? Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change theirpronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use tosound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for whynative speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat differentvarieties of the target language when they have different friends.6.Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How couldthis affect the feedback provided to students?. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they considerinput to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to andimitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input a necessarytrigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: considercomprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account forSLA;b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language processing; (2) connectionist framework: consider the quantity or frequency of input structures to largely determine acquisitional sequencing;c) From the perspective of social approaches: interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing.ⅱ. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way, and which provides a model for “correctness”. While children rarely receiv e such negative evidence in L1, and don’t require it to achieve full native competence, corrective feedback is common in L2 and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that is the desired goal.7.Explain ZPD. How would scaffolding put a student in ZPD?Zone of Proximal Development, this is an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance. Mental functions that are beyond an individual's current level must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently. One way in which others help the learner in language development within the ZPD is through scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them individually. It isnot something that happens to learners as a passive recipient, but happens witha learner as an active participant.8.Explain why some learners are more successful than others from theperspective of S-C theory?The S-C framework supports the view that some learners may be more successful than others because of their level of access to or participation in a learning community, or because of the amount of mediation they receive from experts or peers, and because of how well they make use of that help.9.What are the macrosocial factors that influence SLA?(1)Global and national status of L1 and L2 (2)Boundaries and identities(3)Institutional forces and constraints (4)Social categories (5)Circumstances of learning10.What are the advantages of young learners and old learners respectively? Young L2 learners are more likely to acquire the language in a naturalistic setting; they are more likely to use the L2 in highly contextualized face-to-face situation. Older learners succeed in SLA to the level of being able to “pass” for a native speaker when social motivation is strong enough.11.What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist,sociolinguists and social psycholinguists?（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.（2）Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.12.What are the differences between second language, foreign language,library language and auxiliary language?（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.（4）An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.13.Why are some learners more (or less) successful than others?The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad la bel “learners” for somedimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies; sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.14.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at anolder age.The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:●Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of anotherlanguage;● A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic orother specific domains;●Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 isrequired;●Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of anotherlanguage;● A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requiresproficiency in another language;● A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered byknowledge of another language;An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies or literatures.15.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning?（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.16.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2respectively?The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.17.How does intermediate states process?The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved in interlanguage development. Twomajor types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct” in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.18.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)?Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.19.What is a facilitating condition for language learning?While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.20.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacityfor language.The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition was prominently espoused by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learnedfrom the input they receive: Children often hear incomplete orungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they aresomehow able to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammaticalinput is not incorporated into their L1 system. Further, children arecommonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for all of the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subset of possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints which allow them to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned: Children’s access togeneral constraints and principles which govern language could account for the relatively short time it takes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for the fact that it does so systematically and without any “wild”divergences. This could be so because innate principles lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition to the lack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles are thus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input: In spite of the surface differences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child’s mind.21.Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study oflanguage acquisition. What is the difference between the two?Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes the information content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.22.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLAfrom a psychological perspective?(1) Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill,and that learning L2 is not essentially unlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;(2) Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involveeither innate knowledge or abstraction of rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.23.What are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective?(1)Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate tolanguage acquisition and use in immediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction.(2) Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relatelanguage acquisition and use to broader ecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.24.What are the characteristics of an interlanguage?1)Systematic. At any particular point or stage of development, the IL isgoverned by rules which constitute the learner’s internal grammar.2)Dynamic. The system of rules which learners have in their minds changesfrequently, or is in a state of flux, resulting in a succession of interimgrammars.3)Variable. Although IL is systematic, differences in context result in differentpatterns of language use.4)Reduced system, both in form and function.25.What are the five components of language knowledge?Linguists have traditionally divided language into the following five components for purposes of description and analysis:(1)vocabulary(lexicon) (2)morphology(word structure) (3)phonology(sound system) (4)syntax(grammar) (5)discourse(ways to connect sentences and organize information)Please do3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25 (共17题)in your exercisebooks.Ⅱ.Definition1.Second Language Acquisition (SLA):a term that refers both to the study ofindividuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that isacquired naturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual sett ing may have more than one “first” language.3.Second language (L2): A language that is acquired naturally in earlychildhood, usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first” language.4.Target language:The language that is the aim or goal of learning.5.Foreign language:A second language that is not widely used in thelearners’ immediate social context, but rather one that might be used forfuture travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.6.Library language:A second language that functions as a tool for furtherlearning, especially when books and journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’s L1.7.Auxiliary language:A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.8.Linguistic competence:The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.9.Linguistic performance:The use of language knowledge in actualproduction.municative competence:A basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) ofsociolinguistics defined as “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular langua ge community” (Saville-Troike 2003) 11.Pragmatic competence:Knowledge that people must have in order tointerpret and convey meaning within communicative situations.12.Multilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.13.Monolingualism:The ability to use only one language.14.Simultaneous multilingualism:Ability to use more than one language thatwere acquired during early childhood.15.Sequential multilingualism:Ability to use one or more languages that werelearned after L1 had already been established.16.Innate capacity:A natural ability, usually referring to children’s naturalability to learn or acquire language.17.Child grammar:Grammar of children at different maturational levels that issystematic in terms of production and comprehension.18.Initial state:The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought toinclude the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.19.Intermediate state:I t includes the maturational changes which take place in“child grammar”, and the L2 developmental sequence which is known as learner language.20.Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable stateof adult grammar.21.Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2structure.22.Negative transfer: I nappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2use. Also called interference.23.Phonology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of suchsystems generally.24.Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words withinsentences, such as ordering and agreement.25.Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.26.Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and theirmeanings.27.Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguisticframework that followed Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative Grammar.It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.28.Minimalist program:The internally focused linguistic framework thatfollowed Chomsky’s Principles and Parameters model. This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.29.Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that exploressystematic differences in learner production which depend on contexts of use.30.Accommodation theory: A framework for study of SLA that is based on thenotion that speakers usually unconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.31.Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky whichclaims that interaction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of acommon language to at least some extent.2.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differsin systematic ways from language addressed to native or very fluent speakers.3.Interaction Hypothesis:The claim that modifications and collaborativeefforts which take place in social interation facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing.4.Symbolic mediation: A link betw een a person’s current mental state andhigher order functions that is provided primarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (of language, and of learning in general). Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.5.Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated withthe variable element.6.Microsocial context:features of setting/situation and interaction whichrelate to communicative events within which language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.7.ZPD:Zone of Proximal Development, an area of potential developmentwhere the learner can only achieve that potential with assistance. Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.8.Scaffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learnerperform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance.9.Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual'sown mind, viewed by Vygosky as a sociocultural phenomen.10.Interpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occurbetween people.11.Social institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, orpractice to regulate and organize the life of people in public domains: e.g.politics, religion, and education.12.Acculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting tothose values and behavioral patterns.13.Formal L2 learning:formal/instructed learning generally takes place inschools, which are social institutions that are established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.rmal L2 learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place insettings where people contact—and need to interact with—speakers of another language.1.Contrastive Analysis (CA): an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement (S-R-R): learners respond to the stimulus (linguistic input), and reinforcement strengthens the response; they imitate and repeat the language that they hear, and when they are reinforced for that response, learning occurs.3.Interference: There will be transfer in learning of elements acquired in L1 to L2. When the L1 structure is used inappropriately in the L2, the transfer is called interference.4. Error Analysis (EA): the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners’ creative ability to construct language. It is based on the description and analysis of the actual learner errors in L2.6. Interlanguage (IL): is the intermediate state of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2. It has the following characteristics: systematic; dynamic; variable; reduced system, both in form and function.Ⅲ. Final exam questions1. Choose the best answer from the three possible choices.（每小题2 分，共20 分）2. Define the following terms（每小题5 分，共25 分）3. Short & Long answers（每小题8 分，共40 分）4. Answer the following questions, you should write at least 200 words.（每小题15分，共15 分）。
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1.第二语言习得研究发展的路径（P19）（1）。
上世纪六十年代的第二语言习得研究的理论初创阶段。
在这一时期，第二语言习得研究与第二语言教学研究尚未分离。
当时站主导地位的是以行为主义为心理学基础的“对比分析”方法。
（2）上世纪70年代，第二语言习得研究已经发展成为一个独立的研究领域，是第二语言习得研究大发展的阶段。
偏误分析应运而生，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
还有两个重要的理论研究和创建，一是以Dulay和Burt为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究二是克拉伸的“监控模式”等（3）上世纪80 年代，第二语言习得研究作为一个独立的学科开始逐渐走向成熟。
受其他学科的影响构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点形成了不同的理论视角，如语言学视角、社会语言学视角、认知视角等。
2.语言输入观P181：（1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位。
行为主义学习理论认为外在因素是语言习得的决定因素，否定学习者内在因素的作用。
（2）与行为主义学习理论相反，心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定因素。
（3）“互动论”的观点。
Elis认为，在互动论的旗帜下包括两个不同理论：一是以认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”二是“社会互动理论”。
认知互动理论不单单强调语言输入环境的重要性，也不仅仅强调语言习得内在因素的重要性，而是将两者结合起来。
3.学习策略的含义P304：学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
学习策略的分类P306：（一）Skehan(1989)的分类：1.根据学习者处理学习情景的能力来分（1）主动参与策略（active task approach）学习者主动寻找学习机会，并参与练习活动，反映积极。
（2）解释与确认策略（clarification and verification）学习者利用查字典和意译的方式，获得词语等的应用实例，并从句子里确认词语等的意义。
2.根据学习者的方法素质来分（1）跨语言比较策略学习者把母语和目的语进行对比，推论出二者的同和异。
（2）归纳策略对语言形式进行归纳分析，找出一定规律。
3. .根据学习者的评价能力来分：（1）监控策略学习者验证自己的假设，自我纠正，注意错误产生的原因。
（2）自我评价策略根据精确性和完整性来检验自己语言学习的成果。
（二）O’Malley等（1987）的分类：O’Malley等根据信息加工模型把学习策略分为三类1.认知策略学习者对学习材料进行直接的分析、转换或综合以解决问题。
这些策略都具有认知处理的功能。
（1）重复策略学习者通过练习和不出声的复述，反复模仿语言结构。
（2）记笔记策略学习者把口头呈现的的重要的语言点记录下来。
（3）关联策略学习者把新信息和记忆里的旧信息相联系。
2.元认知策略学习者利用认知处理知识，通过计划、监控和评价来管理语言学习。
这类策略具有执行功能。
（1）直接注意策略学习者对语言输入里的某些方面进行集中注意，从而忽略干扰事物。
（2）自我管理策略学习者了解哪些条件可以有助于学习，并可以自己创造安排这些条件。
3.社会/情感策略学习者自己选择与其他学习者或目的语者进行接触的方式。
（1）合作策略学习者与其他学习者合作学习，以获得更多的反馈，并共同分享信息，模仿语言行为。
（2）要求解释策略学习者向教师或目的语本族语者要求重复、意译和解释某种语言现象。
（三）Oxford 的分类学习策略直接策略记忆/认知/补偿策略简介策略元认知/情感/社会策略Ellis认为Oxford的分类是最好理解的1.直接策略直接影响语言学习，需要对语言进行心理操作。
2.简介策略通过集中注意、计划、评价自我、控制焦虑和增加与他人合作机会等间接影响语言学习。
4．如何区分：母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言。
P2对于学习者来说，“母语”与“目的语”是一对相对的概念。
“母语”通常是指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
“目的语”也称“目标语”，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言。
第一语言和第二语言是按照人们获得语言的先后顺序来区分的两个概念。
第一语言指人出生以后首先接触并获得的语言。
第二语言指人们在获得第一语言以后再学习和使用的另一种语言。
5.简述社会文化理论的主要内容及意义P166主要内容（1）调节论社会文化理论认为，在个人与社会的发展中，语言起到了不可忽视的调节作用。
维果茨基指出，正像人类要通过工具作用于物质世界一样，人类通过符号工具调节与他人的关系，调节自己的行为。
在这些符号中，语言是最重要的调节工具，是连接个体与社会的桥梁。
（2）最近发展区最近发展区是实际发展水平与潜在发展水平之间的距离。
（3）个体话语与内在言语在第二语言形成的初级阶段，使用的第二语言只为了实现和他人的交流，带有明显的社会性，这时的语言是社会语言；随着学习者与他人的互动增多，学习者能慢慢的感悟到语言点特征，但还不能完全掌握，这时会出现个体话语，标志着语言已经从社会层面向个人层面过渡，学习者掌握语言的能力正在提高；最后，当学习者能完全掌握语言时，个体话语会自动消失内化为内在语言，成为学习者语言体系的一部分，同时也成为学习者思维的工具。
（4）活动理论“活动”指在社会文化环境中的集体互动、交流合作等社会实践。
对第二语言学习者来说，社会性的活动为学习者提供了机会，使学习者能够接触语言的知识和技能，把外在的语言形式内化为自己的语言体系。
意义：首先，从学科交叉来讲，社会文化理论体系原本是心理学领域的认知发展理论，被引入到第二语言习得研究中，拓宽了第二语言习得研究的视野。
其次，从社会文化理论的内容来看，社会文化理论提出了不同于以往的新观点：(1)社会理论认为语言是思维的工具，具有调节个人行为和调节与他人关系的作用，人类的高级认知功能也是在参与社会文化活动中通过语言的调节形成的（2）对于习得过程的解释，社会文化理论不同于行为主义倡导的新习惯的形成，也不同于心灵学派普遍语法中原则与参数理论，而是关注学习的社会属性，将习得看做学习者通过社会互动，将外在语言形式内化为自己的思维，实现都语言自我调控的过程，把学习者、社会、语言联系在一起。
最后，从语言习得的过程来看，最近发展区、活动理论等指导下的教学方法确实起到了促进学习者习得进程的作用。
局限：（1）研究范围比较小，（2）研究很多都是在课堂中进行的，不能反映自然状态下的习得状况。
（3）研究的时间比较短，缺乏长时间的纵向研究（4）对第二语言习得研究关注的语言习得速度等方面的问题，社会文化理论几乎没有提到。
6.“习得”“学习”这两个过程P4在第二语言习得研究中，习得和学习是一对对应的概念。
习得是指“非正式”的语言获得。
学习是指“正式”的语言规则学习，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。
就语言获得的心理过程而言，习得通常是指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得，而学习一般的指“有意识”的语言知识的获得。
就语言获得的知识类型而言，通过习得方式获得的是“隐形语言知识”，通过学习方式获得的是“显性语言知识”。
7.自动化处理：自动化处理迅速而且大都受到分散的注意，以并行处理方式运作，是通过练习建立起来的，受信道容量的限制很少，一旦形成很难改变。
控制性处理：控制性处理较慢，以序列方式运作。
因为它是临时性的，而且大都受到集中注意的控制，受信道容量的限制。
控制性处理可以灵活地用于变化着的环境。
8. 什么是歧义容忍度；什么是移情；什么是关键期假说190,286歧义容忍度主要指学习者对具有歧义性、陌生性、异质性的学习材料或对象所持有的一种态度，这种态度涵盖着从主动接受到消极抵制之间的不同层面，如第二语言学习中遇到的语义不明、所指不清、发音含混等现象。
移情就是能体会他人的情感。
移情首先是一个理解的心理过程，消除隔阂，在情感上充分理解他人的经历和感受，从而接受他人的思想，以达到对他人情感的理解和认同。
其根本的问题是要设身处地的为他人着想，从而达到情感方面的沟通并预测相互间某种行为可能对他人带来的影响。
所谓“关键期”又称“临界期”，是指人生发展的某个特定阶段。
在这个阶段，人可以在没有外部干预、不需要教授的条件下，轻松、快速地习得一门语言。
自然语言习得的关键期是2岁开始至青春期（约12、3岁左右）到来之前。
此阶段人的大脑具有可塑性，语言习得能够自然而轻松的进行。
9. 请比较“陈述性知识”、“程序性知识”和“内隐知识”“外显知识”这两对概念的区别和联系255,4“陈述性知识”是关于事实的信息，人们可以了解并报告出来；它的掌握是有或无的状态，必须是被完整的获得；学习者通过被告知可以突然的获得；可以被学习者意识到，能从口头上来交流；习得方式有两种：对环境信息进行编码，对以往目标的结果进行存储。
“程序性知识”是关于如何完成不同认知任务的知识；它的掌握可能是部分的；通过技能练习而逐渐获得的；一般不被学习者意识到，不能从口头上来交流；习得方式：类推。
外显知识是通过学习者有意识地关注语言形式得来的知识，可以用语言来表达，形式练习可以促进其发展。
内隐知识是通过交际来使用语言从而无意识地获得发展的知识，完全不能用语言表达出来，功能练习可以促进其发展。
10. 可教性假设的基本含义是什么？252只有当所教的语言结构接近学习者现阶段在自然环境中有能力习得的语言结构时，正式课堂教学才能促进语言习得；超越学习者心理语言接受程度的课堂教学无法帮助他们掌握所教的内容，也无法使他们跨越语言的发展阶段，这就是“可教性假设”。
11. 行为主义和心灵主义在看待语言习得方面有何不同？82行为主义学习理论认为，语言不是一种思维现象，而是一种行为。
语言学习过程就是人们的行为形成过程，这种行为和人类的其他行为一样，是习惯的养成，是对外界刺激不断作出反应的结果。
因此，外在环境因素是语言学习的关键所在。
心灵主义语言学习理论从人的大脑本身去寻找语言习得的答案，认为语言习得是在人类与生俱来的大脑语言习得机制和实际语言接触共同作用的基础上，由学习者主动建构起来的，在这个过程中学习者是参与的、主动的、具有创造性的。
外界因素对语言习得所能发挥的作用是有限的，12.什么是普遍语法？202乔姆斯基认为，“普遍语法是由一些原则、条件和规则构成的系统。
这些所有人类语言具有的因素或特征是必然而不是偶然的。
当然，我指的是生物学上的必然性而不是逻辑上的必然性。
普遍语法表达的是人类语言的本质，而且在所有人类语言中都是不变的。
”13.什么是语言习得的逻辑问题？213儿童的语言能力是不可能通过所接触的有限的语言输入获得的。
儿童如果没有先天的语言习得机制的帮助，是不可能在贫乏的语言输入的基础上发现目的语规则的，由于语言输入的贫乏，儿童只能借助于普遍语法来获得母语的语言能力。