英语语言学概论 Chapter_2_English_Linguistics
语言学 Linguistics笔记
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------语言学Linguistics笔记Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacemen t Language can be used1/ 38to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力 Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用 performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
27037本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理Chapter2Linguistics
Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。
It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。
It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。
2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。
语言学导论课件 语言学LINGUISTICS
duality二重性: language as a system with 2
subsystems/structures/levels---meaningless sounds and units of meaning grouped and regrouped with sounds
creativity (productivity)创造性: provides opportunities for sending
4.The functions of Language
6 functions(by Jacobson): referential,poitic,emotive,conative,phatic,
metalingual function(所指、诗学、感情、意动、
元语言功能)
3 functions(by Halliday):
COMMENT: Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's distinction are very similar. They differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
communication system. Human language is ‘unique’,or,language is human specific.
英语语言学导论
Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics●What is language?As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication●Features of human language⏹Creativity◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding novel messages.◆The grammatical rules and the words of a language are finite, but thesentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.⏹Duality◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings.◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences ofspeech sounds.⏹Arbitrariness◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.⏹Displacement◆There is no limit in time or space for language.◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture.⏹Cultural transmission◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.⏹Interchangeability◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.⏹Reflexivity◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.●Functions of language – three meta-functions⏹The ideational function◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.⏹The interpersonal function◆To get along in a community.⏹The textual function◆To form a text.●What is linguistics?⏹Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language.⏹Branches of linguistics◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions●Phonetics●Phonology●Morphology●Syntax●Semantics◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions●Pragmatics●Psycholinguistics●Sociolinguistics●Applied linguistics●Computational linguistics●Neurolinguistics⏹Modern linguistics began in the early 20th century. It founder is the Swissscholar, Ferdinand de Saussure.(索绪尔)Chapter 2 Phonetics●What is phonetics?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds. (It studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.)●Description of speech sounds⏹Description of English consonants◆General feature: obstruction◆Criteria of consonant description●Places of articulation●Manners of articulation●V oicing of articulation◆Places of articulation●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified toproduce a sound.⏹Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]⏹Labiodental: [f] [v]⏹Interdental: [ ] [❆]⏹Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]⏹Palatal: [☞] [✞] [t☞] [d✞] [j]⏹Velar: [k] [g] [☠]⏹Glottal: [h]◆Manners of articulation●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it iscompletely blocked or partially obstructed.⏹Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]⏹Fricatives: [s] [z] [☞] [✞] [f] [v] [ ] [❆] [h]⏹Affricates: [t☞] [d✞]⏹Liquids: [l] [r]⏹Glides: [w] [j]⏹Nasals: [m] [n] [☠]◆V oicing of articulation●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds areproduced.⏹V oiced sounds⏹V oiceless soundsChapter 3 Phonology●What is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of language.●Discovering phonemes⏹Contrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be incontrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs andminimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one soundin the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by onesegment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented bythe English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.Therefore, they are separate phonemes.⏹Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be incomplementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number offeatures, they are allophones of the same phoneme.●Syllable structure⏹ A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.⏹Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.⏹The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset andfollowed by one or more consonants called the coda.Chapter 4 Morphology●What is morphology?Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and the formation of words.●Morphemes and allomorphs⏹The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.⏹The different morphs of the same morpheme are called allomorphs.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes: can be used independently as a word◆Bound morphemes: are the morphemes which cannot be used as a word,they must be attached to the other morphemes.●Formation of new words⏹Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create aderived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes tothe word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a differentlanguage origin.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.⏹Compounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is thecombination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words fromthe three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the threeclasses.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech ofthe word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of thecomponents.⏹Conversion◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class intoanother class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.⏹Clipping◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one ormore syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informaloccasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even informal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarelyused in their complete form.⏹Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfastand lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word inthe textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind ofmachine that is like both a plane and a bike).⏹Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a realor supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed fromtelevision. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefixtele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in theword television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.⏹Acronyms and abbreviations◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initialletters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer thanabbreviations, which are read letter by letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations andscientific terminology.⏹Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals orplaces. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originatingfrom the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slicesof bread so that he could eat while gambling.⏹Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existingmorphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases whereindustry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak andCoca-cola.Chapter 5 Syntax●What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of sentence formation.⏹Immediate constituent (IC) analysis◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of thesentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Eachsection is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cutinto constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituentanalysis.◆Examples:●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but alsovertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity andthe hierarchy of sentence structure.●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.◆Two advantages of IC analysis:●It can analyze some ambiguities.●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar⏹Background and the goal of TG grammar◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.⏹Syntactic categories◆Noun Phrase (NP)◆Verb Phrase (VP)◆Sentence (S)◆Determiner (Det)◆Adjective (Adj)◆Pronoun (Pro)◆Verb (V)◆Auxiliary Verb (Aux)◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)◆Adverb (Adv)⏹Phrase structure (PS) rules◆S →NP VP(Det) (Adj) N◆NP →{Pro◆VP →(Aux) V (NP) (PP)◆PP →P NPChapter 6 Semantics●What is semantics?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.●Lexical sense relations⏹Synonymy◆Synonyms are words which have different forms but similar meanings.●Dialectal synonyms –lift/elevator, flat/apartment●Synonyms of different styles –gentleman/guy●Synonyms of different registers –salt/sodium chloride●Synonyms differing in affective meaning –attract/seduce●Synonyms differing in collocation –beautiful/handsome,able/capable◆Synonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesivedevice. In order to avoid repetition the writer/speaker needs to use asynonym to replace a word in the previous co-text when he/she wants tocontinue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to createcohesion of the text.⏹Antonymy◆Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.●Gradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite to each other, but thepositive of one word does not necessarily imply the negative of theother. For example, the words hot and cold are a pair of antonyms,but not hot does not necessarily mean cold, maybe warm, mild orcool. Therefore, this pair of antonyms is a pair of gradableantonyms.●Complementary antonyms –words opposite to each other and thepositive of one implies the negative of the other: alive/dead●Reversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote the same relationor process from one or the other direction: push/pull, up/down,teacher/student◆Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use.Oxymoron and antithesis based on antonymy. Gradable antonyms maygive rise to fuzziness.⏹Homonymy◆Homonyms are words which have the same form, but differentmeanings.●Homographs – words which are identical in spelling, but different inmeaning and pronunciation: tear [♦☪☜] (v.)/tear [♦♓☜] (n.)●Homophones –words which are identical in pronunciation, butdifferent in spelling and meaning: see/sea●Full homonyms –words which are identical in spelling andpronunciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to ababy/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)◆Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.⏹Polysemy◆ A polyseme is a word which has several related senses.◆Polysemy is based on the intuition of native speakers as well as theetymology or history of words.⏹Hyponymy◆Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.◆Tiger, lion, elephant and dog are hyponyms of the word animal. Wordslike animal are called superordinates.◆This kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchicalwork.●Sentencial sense relations – semantic relations of sentences⏹Sentences may be related in sense. I will illustrate sense relations within andbetween sentences.◆Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.◆Contradiction: The bachelor is married.◆Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.◆Synonymousness: John broke the glass./The glass was broken by John.◆Entailment: The meeting was chaired by a spinster./The meeting waschaired by a woman.◆Presupposition: Sam has returned the book./Sam borrowed the book.⏹These semantic relations are found within or between meaningful sentences.There are sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. Thesesentences are said to be semantically anomalous. For example:◆Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.◆The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.Chapter 7 Pragmatics●What is pragmatics?Pragmatics can be defined as the analysis of meaning in context.●Speech acts⏹In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information.They actually do something through talking or writing in variouscircumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.⏹Types of speech acts◆Locutionary speech act – the action of making the sentence◆Illocutionary speech act – the intentions◆Perlocutionary speech act – the effects◆Of these dimensions, the most important is the illocutionary act.●Cooperation and implicature⏹Conversational Implicature◆In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people aretalking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly andsuccessfully. In accepting speakers’ pres uppositions, listeners have toassume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense ofcooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are notnormally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevantinformation from one another.◆However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often notthe literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied inthe words is called conversational implicature. For example:[1]A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.◆In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is notanswering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accuratetime, but through saying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving arough time. The answer B gives is related to the literal meaning of thewords, but is not merely that. That is often the case in communication.The theory of conversational implicature is for the purpose of explaininghow listeners infer the speakers’ intention through the words.◆The study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), theAmerican philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people areobserving a set of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as tocommunicate effectively through conversation. He calls this set of rulesthe cooperative principle (CP) elaborated in four sub-principles(maxims), that is the cooperative principle.⏹The Cooperative Principle◆Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage atwhich it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talkexchange in which you are engaged. The maxims are:●Quantity⏹Make your contribution as informative as is required (for thecurrent purposes of the exchange).⏹Do not make your contribution more informative than isrequired.●Quality – Try to make your contribution one that is true.⏹Do not say what you believe to be false.⏹Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.●Relation – Be relevant.●Manner – Be perspicuous.⏹Avoid obscurity of expression.⏹Avoid ambiguity.⏹Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).⏹Be orderly.◆We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriateamount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. Thecooperative principle given by Grice is an idealized case ofcommunication.Chapter 11 Second Language Acquisition (SLA)●What is SLA?The term language acquisition refers to t he natural process of children’s language development.To summarize, second language acquisition(SLA) may be defined as the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or ina classroom.◆Contrastive analysis●Compare the target language with the mother tongue.◆Error analysis●Describing errors⏹Omission-He came into _ classroom with a book in _ hand.⏹Addition/wordy-My child goes to his school.⏹Selection-I hope/wish…⏹Disordering-I yesterday went to … (I, yesterday, went to …/I went to …yesterday)Chapter 12 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (FLT)⏹Syllabus design and material development。
语言学导论 Unit 2 The sounds of English
Review
What are the major defining features that natural languages possess?
Major contents
3.1 Linguistics and its branches 3.2 Vowels and consonants 3.3 Phones, phonemes, and allophones 3.4 Phonological rules 3.5 English syllables 3.6 Stress, tone, and intonation
Phoneme 音位
the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.
linguistics, etc. applied linguistics:
language testing, stylistics, discourse analysis, text linguistics, computation linguistics, etc.
Phonetics vs. phonology
英语语言学English Linguistic
Chapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistic and English LinguisticLinguistic 的目的 aims at developing a theorygeneral linguistic 一般语言学 descriptive linguistic 描述性语言学general linguistic (一般语言学 ) 为 descriptive linguistic (描述性语言学) 提供了framework(框架), 这也就是为什么 general linguistic 能够被分析和被描述.General linguistic and descriptive linguistic are complementary to each other (相互补充).English linguistic is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2.The nature of languages (语言的本质) 1. language is a system 2. language is symbolic3. language is a system of vocal symbolsThe system of language is called langue 1.language is a systemthe speaker ’s speech is called paroleCompetence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situation2. language is symbolic ( 语言是象征意义的)3. language is a system of vocal symbols ( 语言是一种声音符号)语言学侧重研究的是 speech 不是 written formReason1. Biologically (生物上来讲) 儿童学习说比学习读写早得多.2. Functionally (功能上来讲) 日常生活中口语使用比书面语频繁的多.3. Historically ( 历史而言) 口头语使用在书面语之前,当今世界有许多语言并没有留 下 文 字 记录Language is arbitrary Language is creativeLanguage is double-structured Language is changeableLanguage is arbitrarya linguistic symbol is composed of two things speechsound( form)形式and the idea( meaning) 意义Language is creativeLanguage is double-structuredgrammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless语法上的有意义,声音上的无意义.Language is changeableWhat is the nature of human language?In a short , it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsThe unique features like creativity(创造力)duality of structure (结构的双重性)changeability(易变性)3.Scientific method (科学方法)1. collecting data ( 收集数据)2.forming a hypothesis (提出假设)3.testing the hypothesis (验证假设)4.drawing conclusions (得出结论)An important principle of the scientific method Objectivity 客观性Three biases 三种偏见1.some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced有的语言是原始的有的语言是先进的.2.only the standard variety is the pure form of a language只有标准的语体才是纯正的语言3.change is not natural for living language and such a change is a sign ofcorruption and decay语言变化是不自然的变化,变化是衰败的现象.Sources of data 资料的来源Collecting data 是研究的首要工作. 假如这语言学家不懂那门语言,他可以找一个informant ( 为语言学调查提供资料的当地人)Rules construction语言描述的首要工作是construct rules ( draw conclusion) 得出结论How does a linguist construct a rule?书本p15页中4.The goal of linguistics 语言学的目的establish a model of a native speaker’s competence建立一种本族语言的模式literal model 具体模式physical modelmodeltheoretical model 理论模式conceptual modelEg. Which types does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to?---- theoretical model / conceptual model 理论模式两个特性explicitness 明确性the rules of the langue the model contains are clearlydefined某一门语言的规则定义非常明确generative 生成性use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite numberof sentences用有限的规则创造无限的句子四种研究的方向Phonological 音位知识Morphological 词法知识Syntactic 句法知识Semantic 语义知识Phonological 音位知识sound and sound patterns of his language研究语音和语音模式Morphological 词法知识how a word is formed如何构词的模式Syntactic 句法知识whether a sentence is true or not句子是否符合语法Semantic 语义知识meaning of a language 语言的意义5.Sub-branch of linguistics 语言学的分支6.The father of modern linguistics—Saussure现代语言学之父(瑞士人come from Swiss)现代语言学开始于20世纪,但是发展迅速,有两大流派(two schools) Structure linguistics 结构语言学Transformational-generative Grammar 转换生成语法TG-grammar为什么说Saussure是现代语言学的奠基人呢?1.’’ A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory<<普通语言学>>是第一本真正意义上的语言学专著.2. The distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic andparadigmatic,langue and parole. Show us a brief explanation of these basic and significant distinctions.书中关于共时研究和历时研究, 横向关系和纵向关系, langue 和parole的阐述很明了.4. A few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguisticstudy and exerted great influence on the latter development of linguistics.其中的一些理论成为语言学的基础对后来的语言学发展影响很大.Chapter 2 phonetics 语音学定义phonetics is known as the science that studies speech sounds of all human languageThree sub-branches 三个分支articulatory phonetics 发音语音学acoustic phonetic 声学语言学auditory phonetic 听觉语言学发音器官articulatorsWhat is vocal tract?-- The speech organs above the larynx from the vocal tract 喉以上的器官称之为vocal tractConsonants and vowels 辅音和元音Consonant : is a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked or partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that theair escapes with audible friction气流完全封闭或部分封闭，或开口小并且有摩檫V owels ：is a speech sound that the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced withvibration of the vocal cords.气流不受阻碍，发音时声带一定振动。
英语语言学导论《简明英语语言学概论》
Chapter 2 Phonology
Phonology vs. phonetics Both are related to the study of speech sounds Phonetics: of general nature, and interested in
all the speech sounds used in all human languages Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication
(two ways of how phonetically similar sounds are related) ◆minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal set.
(Chomsky) From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements
Spoken language precedes the written language everywhere in the world and most writing systems are derived from the vocal sounds.
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。
An Introduction to Linguistics《语言学概论》
2. Arbitrariness（任意性）── Except the very few onomatopoeic words (e.g. cuckoo, mew, bang, ding-dong, ping-pang), there is no necessary relationship between the sign/sound and what the sign/sound means (e.g. a dog, un chien,
(* Why is duality regarded as an important feature of human language? Because: i. A far greater number of messages can be sent; ii. No animal commun （不受时空限制性） ── Human language can cope with any subject what ever, and it does not matter how far away the topic is in time and space. （语言可以用来表达任何时间、任 何地点的任何抽象或具体的人、事、物）.
5.Cultural transmission （文化传递特性/从头学
的必要性） ── The details of the linguistic system must be learned anew from the beginning by each speaker. Without the environment of language and communication, language can’t be acquired .
英语语言学概论知识点总结
英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。
英语语言学概论整理(1-7)
Chapter 1 Language语言1.★What is language?(ok)linguisticsymbol and what the symbol stands for. Itbecause words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but2.★What are the design features of language? (ok)Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication(Charles Hockett). They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.3.What are the design features of language? （具体）I.Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehendingindefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language，including sentencesthey never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one hasever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an Africangibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understa nd it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language,thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).II.arbitrariness (任意性) （核心）Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. By “arbitrariness”, wemean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog mightbe a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language istherefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be somesound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, whichare motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to beone word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivatedwords, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the wordsthat make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.III.（symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.）IV.discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.V.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, aseasily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things,things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be somethingthat had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When adog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone thatexists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a boneto be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is anunspeakable tiny share.VI.duality of structure (结构二重性) Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At thefirst, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units(such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence ofsegments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units ofmeaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets ofstructures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings oflanguage. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can bearranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we havedictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for aperson to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication systemenjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.VII.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather thanby inheritance. This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generationto generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by eachspeaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it“language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language aperso n learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barkingsystem. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The WolfChild reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” whenhe was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain humanlanguage.VIII.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. (1) Interchangeability means that anyhuman being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and onother occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to makeme happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differe ntiationin the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yetin principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a womancannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the otherperson is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker andthe first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possibleand acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), andcertain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboringdogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” andwhich listening.4.Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.5.What functions does language have?6.★(Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions ofchildren’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s langua●Instrumental function(工具功能)refers to the fact that language allows speakers to getthings done. It allows them to control things in the environment .people can cause thingsto be done and happen through the use of words alone.●Regulatory function(调节功能)refers to language used in an attempt to control eventsonce they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others . People do try tocontrol themselves through language.●Representational function(表现功能)refers to the use of language to communicateknowledge about the world ,to report events ,to make statements ,to give accounts , toexplain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language isrepresented by all kinds of record-keeping .●Interactional function(互动功能)refers to language used to ensure social maintenance.Phatic communication is a part of it .●Personal function(自指性功能)refers to language used to express the individual’sfeelings ,emotions and personality. A person’s individuality is usually characterized byhis or her use of personal of communication.●Heuristic function(启发功能) [osbQtq`kf`h] refers to language used in order toacquire knowledge and understanding of the world .language may be used for learning.Questions can lead to answers , argumentation to conclusion and hypothesis-testing tonew discoveries. It provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the differentdisciplines .Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the world theylived in and to construct possible answers.●Imaginative function(想象功能)refers to language used to create imaginary system,whether these are literary works ,philosophical systems or utopian visions one the onehand ,or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand .II.Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇◆phatic function（寒暄功能）: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for settingup a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanginginformation or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?”“Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.◆directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get thehearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform th is function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direct ion too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”◆informative function(信息功能): Language serves an “informational function” when used totell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.◆interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an“interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well,e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note thatrhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.◆expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal somethingabout the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.◆evocative function(感情功能): The “evocative function” is the use of language to createcertain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.◆performative function（表达功能）: This means people speak to “do things” or performactions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are pe r formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1.What is linguistics?1）“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It may be a study of language ,the history of history of language ,the function of language ,etc. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)./2）Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language.It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human languages, guided by three canons of science:(i) exhaustiveness: it strives for thorough-goingness in the examination of relevant materials;(ii)consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement;(iii)economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is to be preferred to one that is longer or more complex.The subject matter of linguistics is all natural languages, living or dead. It studies the origin, growth, organization, nature and development of language and discovers the general rules and principles governing language.It has two main purposes. One is that it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theory established. The other is that it examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.2.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?✧general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学) The formerdeals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.✧synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachroniclinguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.✧theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The formercopes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.✧microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)at its narrowest. theformer studies only the structure of language system. at its broadest , the latter deals with everything that is related in any way at all to languages and language .3.Linguistics :the scienceThe scientific method of linguistic study involves the following steps(Wen Qiufang):1)Gather data concerning languages ;2)Construct a tentative rule based on the data obtained;3)Examine the tentative rule against the further data and make necessary changes;4)Finalize the rule which must be able to account for all the relevant data.Mei Deming gives a similar summarization of the process of linguistic study:1)Linguistic facts observed ;2)Generalizations made about the linguistic facts;3)Hypotheses formulated to explain the linguistic facts;4)The hypotheses tested and examined by more and further observations;5) A certain linguistic theory of language constructed.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of thetheory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significantgeneralizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.4.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages. ///// It is the scientific study of speech sounds, including the articulation, transmission and reception of specch sounds, the description and classification of speech sounds.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.//// it is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized, the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and shape of syllables. It can be considered the functional pnonetics of a particular languange.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed./// It is concerned with the internal organization, the formation of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processes.Syntax: it is the grammar of sentence construction, dealing with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not. ///5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences./// It is concerned with the study of meaning in all its aspects, examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.6) Pragmatics. 语用学/// it is the study of meaning in context, in use. It deals with particularutterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.5.some distinction in linguisticslangue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstrac t linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rulesof his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Inother words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similarto, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.synchronic and diachronic(共时与历时) The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope. (1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language newscope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the lastcentury and theretofore.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.6.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsWhat are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.2.Phonetics sub-branchess◆articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds iscalled articulatory phonetics.◆acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission ofspeech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.◆auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.3.How are the vocal organs formed?(p29-30)The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.4.the definition of consonant and vowelconsonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.5.The place of articulation:（辅音分类）◆bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped orrestricted by the two lips.◆Labiodentals: consonant brought about by bringing the bottom lip to the upper teeth.◆Dentals/interdentals: consonant for which the flow of air is restricted by catching the tonguebetween the teeth .◆Alveolars: consonant produced by bringing the tip of the tongue into contact with the upperteeth-ridge to create the obstruction.◆Post-alveolars: consonant produced by bringing the tip of the tongue to the rear part of thealveolar ridge.◆Alveo-palatals: consonants formed by putting the tongue at the very front part of the hardpalate,near the alveolar ridge. Palatals: consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the hard palate.◆Velars: consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the soft palate.◆Glottals: sounds produced by bringing the vocal cords momentarily together to create theobstruction.6.classifications of English consonants7.★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.8.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(三)(填空题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（三）（填空题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguisticsnguage, broadly speaking, is a means of _________ communicaiton.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed ___________.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. Thisfunction is _______.4.Linguistics is the scientific study of ______.5.Modern linguistcs is _________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discoverwhat language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.6.The description of a language as it changes through time is a _______ study.7.Saussure put forward two important concepts. _________ refrs to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.8.Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s _______. Chapter 2 Phonology1.__________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing thesounds of speech.2.Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound.These movemnts have an effect on the ______ coming from the lungs.3.Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth arebrought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing ______.4.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _____ and the lips.5.consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without _______.6.In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because ofthe two phonemes /f/-/v/. This is an example for illustrating ________.7.In English there are a number of ______, which are produced by moving from onevowel position to another through intervening positions.8.________ is the smallest linguistic unit.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ______ and ______ root.2.An _________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an ________ is pronounced asa word.3.Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _______.4.All words may be said to contain a root ________.5.______ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.6.________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of itsinflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa. 7.words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the _______level.8. A word formed by derivation is called a _______, and a word formed bycompounding is called a ________.Chapter 4 Syntax1. A _________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number ofwords to form a complete statement, question or command.2.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called _____ rules, whoseoperation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.3. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time standsstrucutrally alone is known as a ______ clause.4.The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place iscommonly termed ________ structure.5._______ construciton refers to two or more words, phrases or clauses havingquivalent syntactic status.6.IC analysis emphasizes the _____ structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting ofword groups first.7.XP may contain more than just X. e.g. the “NP”the girl who is watering theflowers” consists of Det, N and S, with Det being the ____, N the head, and s the complement.8._____ relaitons refers to the strucutreal and logical funcitonal relations betweenevery noun phrase and sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics1._________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.2.“Charge” and “accuse” are said to be _____ synonyms.3._______ opposites may be een in terms of degrees of quality involved.4.Predication analysis is to break down predicaitons into their constituents:_____and _____.5.______ sentences express judgment.6.we call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as ______.7.We call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as ______.8.The hyponyms under the same superordinate are called _____.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.In making conversation, the genral principle that all participants are expected toobserve is called the ______ Principle proposed by J. Grice.2. A ____ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveyingliteral meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.3._______ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.4.______ are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to somefuture course of action.5. A _____ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.6.________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.7._________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and werenot verifiable.8.All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same______ point, but they differ in their strength or force.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or aparticular variety of language.2.3.The ______ language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.4. A _________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as anative language in some speech community.5. A linguistic ________ refer to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“polite” society from general use.6.Taboo and ______ are two faces of the same communication coin.7.Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _______.8.In terms of sociolinguistics, ________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of aperson’s language.9.In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak morethan one language. As a characteristic of societies, ________ inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different cultures and different languages.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1 knowledge.This process is called lanugage _______.2.Such errors as “teached” and “womans” are caused by _____.3.The __ of the learner’s interlanguage is believed to be a major source of incorrectforms resistant to further instruction.4.In second language learning, instrucmental motivation occurs when the learner;sgoal is functional, and _____ motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.5.The description of a language development at some point in time is _____ study.6.______ holds that where two languages are similar, positive transfer would occur;where they are diffferent, negative transfer, or interference, would result.7._________ Denativization an d____ are both thought to be the causes for theinterlanguage variation.8.____ holds L1 can be viewed as a kind of “input from the inside”, thus transfer isnot “interference” but a cognitive preocess.Chapter 12 Language and Brain1.The localization of cognitive and perceptual function in a particular hemisphere ofthe brain is called ___________.2.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the______ cortex.3.Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nervecells called _________.4.Psychological research suggests that the two hemispheres difer in the manner inwhich they treat incoming stimuli, the right hemisphere processing stimuli ______ (as wholes) and the left _____ (by parts).5.The acts of comprehending and producing language are performed within theconstraints of our information processing system. This system consists of three structural components: sensory stores, _____ memory, and ______ memory, along with a set of contro processes that govern the flow of information within the system.6.Of particualr importance to speech and language funciton is the massivetransverse fiber tract called the _____, by means of which the two hemispheres are able to communicate with each other in the form of electrical impulses.7.When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we mayregard thought as “_________ speech,” and speech as “over thought.” In such a case speaking and thingking take place simultaneously.8.The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two thrusts: linguistic ______ and linguistic____________.。
English Linguistics
Aristotle‟s camp
Behaviorism or empiricism (行为主义 经验主义） Our brain was blank when we were born. Language is a social, empirical entity. Language is learned from practice. All the varieties of language should be regarded as equal.
Exercises
1. ___ held that there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. 2. __ argued that knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language. 3. In ancient China, a famous philosopher named____ reasoned that a name was accepted through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention. 4. According to __, knowledge of L is the result of the interaction of UG and later experience.
English Linguistics 英语语言学课件
Cultural transmission
----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). • Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. • A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. • The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.
Language is symbolic in nature
• Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare
(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。
《英语语言学概论》-课程教学大纲
《语言学概论（英）》课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息课程代码：16083302课程名称：语言学概论（英）英文名称：Introduction to Linguistics For Students of English课程类别：专业课学时：32学时学分：2学分适用对象: 英语专业考核方式：考查先修课程：专业技能课二、课程简介《语言学概论（英）》课程是英语专业必修课程，为英语语言文学各专业本科生提供语言学的基础理论知识。
本课程介绍现代语言学一个世纪以来语言研究各个领域所取得的重要成果，包括语言学的重要区分、语言的定义、特征和功能，重点介绍结构主义语言学、生成语法理论对语言的三个层面即音系、语法和语义的描述，即语言学的核心分支音系学、形态学、句法、语义学和语用学的基本概念和理论以及分析方法。
同时，会用马克思主义的语言观来评价语言学家的研究路径。
通过本课程的学习，学生应掌握语言学基本概念、理论知识和分析方法，并能运用所学理论和方法分析和解释语言现象。
Introduction to Linguistics for Students of English is a compulsory course, providing the students of English majors with some basic theories and specialized knowledge in linguistics. The course, starting from Saussure’s language views, introduces the important research achievements in the scope of linguistics, important distinctions in linguistics, definition of language, design features of language and functions of language. The important points of this course lie in the description of sound system, structure system and meaning system, namely, the core branches of linguistics: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics from perspectives of structuralism, generative grammar. Meanwhile, Marxist language view will be used to evaluate some linguistic theories and approaches. After the study of the course, the students will learn the basic concepts and theories in linguistics and methods for linguistic researches. They are expected to be able to apply the linguistic concepts and theories to analyze and explain language phenomena.三、课程性质与教学目的《语言学概论（英）》课程是为英语专业本科生开设的英语专业必修课之一。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(选择题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（四）（选择题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguisticsnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal sysmbols used for human _____.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Language is _______.A. instinctiveB. non-instincitveC. staticD. genetically transmitted3. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang4. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ____.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative5. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play accoridng to the functiona of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. Emotive.B. Phatic.C. Performative.D. Interpersonal.6. Which branch of lingusitcs studies the similarities and differences among languages?A. Diachronic linguistics.B. Synchronic linguistics.C. Prescriptive linguistics.D. comparative linguistics.7. _____ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. _____ deals with language application to other fields, particualrly educaiton.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsChapter 2 Phonology1.Pitch variation is known as ______ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a _____ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as ____.A. gottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula4. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the centerare known as ____ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering5. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called ____.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones6. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phonetics.B. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phonetics.D. Neither of them.7. Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation?A. [z]B. [w]C. [θ]D. [v]8. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]Chapter 3 Morphology1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as _____.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _______ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are _____ morphemes in the word denationalizaiton.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation5. ______ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. AffixationB. Back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition6. The word TB is formed in the way of _______.A. acronymyB. clipppingC. initialismD. blending7. The words like cosmat and sitcom are formed by ______.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformationD. acronymy8. The stem of disagreements is _____.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreementChapter 4 Syntax1.The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is ______.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome2. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves” isa _____ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complex.3. _____ is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.A. MorphologyB. syntaxC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics4. ________ does not belong to major syntactic categories.A. Auxiliary 助动词B. NPC. ND. PP5. The term __ is used in a narrow sense to conclude only reflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other.A. pronominalB. anaphorC. re-expressionD. binding6. In Halliday’s view, the _________ funciton of language is realized as the transitivity system in clauses as a representation of experience.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. social7. The criterion used in IC analysis is ___________.A. transformationB. conjoiningC. groupingD. substitutability8. __________ is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.A. ConcordB. GovernmentC. BindingD. C-commandChapter 5 Semantics1. Cold and hot are a pair of _____ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converseness2. Idioms are _____.A. sentencesB. naming unitsC. phrasesD. communication units3. “John hit Peter” and “Peter was hit by John” are the same _______.A. propositionB. sentenceC. utteranceD. truth4. Bull: [BOVINE] [MALE] [ADULT] is an example of ______.A. componential analysisB. predication analysisC. compositionalityD. selection restriction5.When the truth of sentence (a) guarantees the truth of sentence (b), and the falsity of sentnece (b) guarantees the falsity of sentnece (a), we can say that _____.A.sentence (a) presupposes sentence (b)B. sentence (a) entails sentence (b)C. sentence (a) is inconsistent with sentence (b)D. sentence (a) contradicts sentence (b)6. “Socrates is a man” is a case of ________.A. two-place predicateB. one-place predicateC. two-place argumentD. one-place argument7. “John killed Bill but bill didn’t die” is a(n) _____.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction8.. Lexical ambiguity arises from polysymy or __ which can not be determined by the context.A. homonymyB. antonymyC. meronymyD. synonymyChapter 6 Pragmatics1._________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics2. ___________ found that natural language had its own logic and conclude cooperative principle.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones3. The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ______.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. sociolinguisticsD. psycholinguistics4. ________ proposed that speech act can fall into five general categories.A. AustinB. SearleC. SapirD. Chomsky5. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the ____.A. declarationsB. directivesC. commissivesD. expressives6. Speech Act Theory was proposed by _____ in 1962.A. SaussureB. AustinC. ChomskyD. Grimm7. The maxim of quantity requires ________.A. contribute as informative as requiredB. do not contribute more than is requiredC. do not say what has little evidenceD. both A and B8. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called _______.A. commissivesB. directivesC. expressivesD. declarativesChapter 8 Language and society1. In sociolinguistics, ____ refers to a group of institutionalized social situations typically constrained by a common set of behavioral rules.A. domainB. situationC. societyD. community2. _____ is defined as any regionally or socially defined human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country3. _____ variation of language is th emost discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocietyC. StylisticD. Idiolectal4. ________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communicaiton.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language5. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in ____ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending6. _______ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal7. Probably the most widespread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is ____.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English8. ______ in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on a continuum from casual to formal according to the type of communicative content.A. Regional variationB. Social variationC. Stylistic variationD. Idiolectal variationChapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1. Negative transfer in learning a second language is known as ________.A. interferenceB. interlanguageC. fossilizationD. acculturation2. Intelligibility means that any human being can be both a producer and a ________ of messages.A. senderB. receiverC. mediumD. none of above3. ________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. LearningD. Acquisition4. _______ are devised to reveal what a learner knows: the rules he is using and the systems and categories he is working with.A. experimentsB. quasi-experimentsC. testsD. tasks5. ________ sees errors as the result of the intrusion of L1 habits over which the learner had no control.A. error analysisB. performance analysisC. contrstive analysisD. discourse analysis6. ________ is the language used when speakers are communicationg spontaneously and freely and consequently not atteding to the forms they choose.A. careful styleB. vernacular styleC. cognitive styleD. style continnum7. The characteristic of languistic environment for L2 acquisition is that linguistic adjustments and ______ have been made to non-native speakers.A. noisy utterancesB. caretaker speechesC. ill-formed structuresD. conversational adjustments8. ________ theories of learning of learning hold that an organism’s nuture, or experience, is of more importance to development than its nature, or innate contributions.A. EnvironmentalistB. NativistC. InteractionalD. MentalistChapter 12 Language and Brain1.______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology2. When we speak, words are sent to _______, which determines the details of their form and pronunciation.A. Broca’s areaB. Wernicke’s areaC. the angualr gyrusD. motor area3. When we listen, the word is heard and comprehend via ______ area.A. Broca’sB. motorC. neuronsD. wernicke’s4. ___________ is the mental functions under the control of the right hemisphere.A. Language and speechB. CalculationC. Holistic reasoningD. Associative thought5. Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is known as the _______.A. brain lateralizaitonB. linguistic lateralizationC. right ear advantageD. cerebral plasticity6. At the age of four, children ____________.A. can master the essentials of their mother tongueB. can only babble several soundsC. can name the things around them onlyD. Can write out the grammatical rules of their language7. ________ refers to the gradual and suconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. LearningB. CompetenceC. PerformanceD. Acquisition8. Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experienced the world differently, that is relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of ______________.A. linguistic determinationB. linguistic relativismC. linguistic nativismD. linguistic behaviorism。
语言学 第二章
Three branches:
Diacritics（发音符号/辨音符）: the set of symbols in IPA, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do. pit [phit]
In term of place of articulation:
Bilabial: lips together [p] [b] [m] [v] Labiodental: lower lip against front teeth [f][v] dental: tongue between teeth[ ][ ] Alveolar: tongue near alveolar ridge on roof of mouth [t][d][s][z][n][l][r] Palatal: tongue on hard palate[ ][ ][ ][ ][j] Velar: tongue near velum[k][g][] Glottal: space between vocal folds [h]
5. Phonetic transcription
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet):
A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle：one letter to represent one speech sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any lge in which it appears. The
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2.3 sub-branches of linguistics
• • • • • • phonetics(语音学） Phonology(音系学） Morphology(形态学，语素学） Syntax(句法学） Semantics(语义学） Pragmatics(语用学）：meaning in uS performance (by Chomsky) • One: One’s knowledge of his native language, esp, the system of rules. • One:the actual speaking, or what is said at a specific situation. like driving/swimming • Langue: sociological, competence: pshychological.
2 synchronic L VS diachronic L
• Synchronic Linguistics(共时语言学): study a language at a particular pointor stage at time. • Diachronic Linguistics(历时语言学) or historical L(历史语言学): • Study the historical development of a Lg and rules of language change.
The meaning of “grammar”
• • • • • Grammar: syntactic rules(句法规则) Grammar: linguistic theory(语言理论) What is language: System, arbitrary, productive, langu/parole, Competence/performance, ……..
• 3 theoretical linguistics VS applied linguistics(应用语言学): • theoretical Linguistics: general theory of language: • applied Linguistics: apply the theory of language to all practical problems or tasks. •
• 3, synchronic VS diachronic(by Sussure 素绪耳) • The study and desscription of Lg at a point or stage in time • The studies the change of language over a period of time. • Linguistics mainly focus on synchronic study.
Brief history of linguistics
• Traditional grammar: prescriptive(规定性) Modern linguistics: descriptive(描写性)(所有语 言平等) de Saussure(素绪耳): the father of modern linguistics. structural linguistics: Lg structure transformational generative grammar(转换生 成语法) : Noam Chomsky(乔姆斯基) systemic-functional grammar(系统功能语法): M. A. K. Halliday(韩礼德): function, meaning
• 4 speech VS writing:speech is more important than language for: • children learn speech earlier, • Speech is used more often than writing • Speech is used much earlier than writing by human beings, • Writing is derived from speech.
2.4 some distinctions
• 1 langue VS parole(Lg VS speech): • One: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of speech community. • One: the concrete act of speaking in an actual situation by a individual speaker: • Abstract, stable, systematic VS specific,subject to personal and situaltional constraints
• • •
毛泽东 叫我们 下乡. 邓小平 …….. 下海. 江泽民 ……... 下岗
• 7. verbal communication(言语交际) VS non-verbal communication(非言语交际): • The use of language to communicate with each other. • The use of other means except Lg is non-verbal communcation: gesture, distance, body language.
• 4, microlinguistics(微观语言学) VS macrolinguistics(宏观语言学) • One deals with the structures, rules, principles of language: 语音学,句法学,语 义学) • One studies everything related to language:社会，心理、大脑、文体、人种、 语言政策…..
summary
•
langue VS parole • competence VS performance • synchronic VS diachronic • syntagmatic paradigmatic
• • speech VS writing linguistic behaviour potential VS actual linguistic behaviour verbal communication VS non-verbal one
• In the broad sense(广义), AP refers to all the aplication to the solution of all the possible problems, like machine translation • In its narrow sense, AP refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,esp, foreign language teaching.
Chapter 2:Linguistics
The scope of linguistics
• 1 What is linguistics: It is a scientific study of language:structure,history,function, • mechanism,rules, principles…. • It is scientific in that the study is systematic and objective(客观)
• 5 comparative historical linguistics(历 史比较语言学）VS contrastive linguistics(对比语言学） • One studies the origin and the historical development of some related languages, like the Indo-European language. • One studies the similarities and differences of two or more languages.
Guiding principles
• 1 consistency(一致性): No contradiction(矛盾）in the theory or description. • 2,adequacy(充分性）:the theory or description should cover all the relevant data. • 3 simplicity(简洁，简单）：the rule or principle should be brief and simple, easy to understand.
• 5 linguistic behaviour potential(潜势) VS actual linguistic behaviour by Halliday: • What a speaker can say VS what he actually says.
• 6. syntagmatic relation(组合关系) VS paradigmatic relation(聚合关系): • The horizontal(水平的)sequential(序 列)linear relation between elements in a sentence, “ I like John” • The vertical(垂直)substitutional relation at a particular place in a structure or sentence, I like John/Mary/Bill/Tony.