Characteristics of Implicature

合集下载

语言学题库

语言学题库：Chapter 11. Read the following passage carefully and then state your own position concerning the use of knowing some linguistics. ( 2007, 中国人民大学研究生入学试题)One famous scholar says that language is an interesting subject to study on its own right, for the simple reason that everybody uses it every day. It is unbelievable that we know very little about something we are so familiar with. Just a few questions will arouse our interest in language. Why should we call the thing we sit on chair? Can’t we call chair table and table chair? How is ti that children don’t seem to make a big effort in learning their first language while we adults have to word very hard to learn a second language? Why can we talk about yesterday and last year while cats and dogs never seem to make noises about their past experience? Do you think we can think as clearly without language as with language? Does language determine what we think or thought determines what we say? These questions make us curious about language and linguistics can satisfy our curiosity. To seek the answer to any of these questions is a good reason for studying linguistics.I. Please disambiguate each of the following ambiguous sentences by means of tree diagrams.1. She showed her baby pictures.2. The old man was drinking in the open air.3. John left directions for Tom to follow.4. The young bachelor hit the color ball.5. Leave the book on the shelf.6. John saw a girl with a telescope.7. more beautiful flowers8. I went to the bank. (? Polysemy/ homonymy)II. To what extent can we say that constituent analysis is more informative than traditional linear structure analysis?Key points: 1) what is IC Analysis?2) What is traditional linear structure analysis? The weakness of the approach.3) The advantage of IC Analysis北京师范大学2007 年硕士研究生入学考试（英语语言学试题）第一部分：基础题本专业所有方向的考生都必须答此部分试题（1-8题）1. Define the following concepts. (20 points)1) Phoneme2) Deep Structure and Surface Structure3) Speech Act Theory4) The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis2. Explain why the sentence John saw a girl with a telescope is ambiguous, and explicate the ambiguity by drawing two or more syntactic trees for the sentence. (10 points)3. What are gradable antonyms? Explain the concept with example. (10 points)4. Read the following passage and state what wrong is with the use of “hello”from thesocio-cultural perspective.A group of Chinese girls who just arrived at the U.S for their university educationdecided to visit the city of New York together. Since their school was not very far from the city, so they planned to take a Greyhound bus to go there at the weekend. Saturday morning, they got up early and after two hours’ drive thy got to the downtown of the city. They stayed there for a couple of hours, shopping sn sightseeing happily. Everything seemed OK until it was the time for them to go back---- they suddenly realized that they lost their way back to the Greyhound bus station. What made the situation worse was that it was getting darker. In despair, they stopped at a corner on the street and decided to ask for help. At this moment they saw a young couple passing by so they said “Hello!” to this couple. To their surprise, thee couple looked at them coldly and hustled on. Having no way out, they approached to the next group of passersby and tried a louder “Hello!” this time. Again they got nothing but a cold shoulder from these city people.5. Compare and Contrast the following Pairs of terms. Use examples if necessary. (20 points)1) Language learning and language acquisition2) Field dependence and field independence3) Contrastive analysis and error analysis6. Scholars have tried to explain how human beings acquire or learn the language. There are twomajor schools of thought in language learning theories, empiricism and mentalism. Please define and explain these two terms, and then make comments with your own point of view. (10 points)7. It is believed that the study of language (linguistics) is closely related to language teaching. Inwhat ways do you think linguistic studies contribute to the research and practice of language teaching? (10 points)8. Some language teachers argue that we should “teach the language” rather than “teach about thelanguage”. What are the major differences between these two approaches to language teaching?(10 points)南开大学2007年硕士研究生入学考试英语语言学试题I Define each of the following terms (8%)1. Approximant2. Coarticulation3. Arbitrariness4. Complementary distributionII. Work out the distinction features of the following sounds. (10%)1. [t h] ______________________________________________2. [w] _______________________________________________3. [v ] _______________________________________________4. [ɵ ] _________________________________________________5. [ l ] ________________________________________________III. Fill in the blanks with the words that are most appropriate in the given context. (8%)1. In terms of the meanings expressed by words, they can be classified into _____ words and_______ words.2. _______ is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology andmorphology.3. A sentence structure that is made up of layers of word groups is called a _____ structure. IV. Answer the following questions. (12%)1. Describe with tree diagrams the transformations involved in forming the question “Does Johnlike the book?”2. The British linguist F. R. Palmer argues that “There is no absolute distinction betweengradable antonyms and complementary antonyms.”Do you believe so? Support your view with examples.V. Answer the following questions and try to elaborate the points indicated in questions wit knowledge you have acquired. (12%)One of the characteristics of conversational implicature is CANCELLABILITY. What is the basic working principle of CANCELLABILITY? How can we use it to make our meaning well expressed?。

Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用

semantic
pragmatics
1.What Is Pragmatics?
• It is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader. • It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. • A general definition of pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
• • • • • •
Prediction analysis: DOG(BARK);BAG(BEING HEAVY) An utterance In a certain situation with a certain purpose Some possible interpretations How to understand the sentences depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
• 8.3.1 Relevance theory

CP 合作原则

Characteristics of implicature
Non-detachability: (不可分离性) A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic component of what is said, not to the linguistic form. E.g. He is a bad friend.
The maxim of Quantity
E.g. (1)甲：今天中午吃了什么？乙：蛋炒饭。 (2)酒馆
The maxim of Quality
E.g. (1) China is a developing country with a large population. (2) Syntax is more abstract than pragmatics.
Paul Grice (1913-1988) philosopher of language
Conversational Implicature
E.g. (1) A: Let‟s go to the cinema this evening. B: We‟ll have the English exam tomorrow. How can the speaker convey more (2) A: Can yousaid and the time? than what is tell me how the hearer can Well, the milkman has come. B: arrive at the speaker’s meaning?
Characteristics of implicature Click to add Title

语言学教程第八章知识点

Chapter EightPragmatics⏹Definition⏹Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, andspecifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.⏹In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced theword “Pragmatics” into literature.⏹莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：⏹句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。

⏹Teaching Focus⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 2. Speech act theory⏹ 3. The theory of conversational implicature⏹ 4. Post-Gricean Developments⏹ 1. Some basic notions⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹ 1.3 Context⏹ 1.4 Sentence and utterance⏹ 1.1 The definition of pragmatics⏹Various definitions:⏹The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.⏹The study of language in use.⏹The study of meaning in context.⏹The study o f speakers’ meaning,utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.⏹ 1.2 Pragmatics and semantics⏹Both semantics and pragmatics study the meaning of language.⏹没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究⏹语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义⏹语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究⏹语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究⏹语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realizationWhat essentially distinguishes them is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.⏹If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditionalsemantics (decontextualized);⏹If it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area ofpragmatics. (contextualized)⏹Semantics & Pragmatics⏹Peter bought a car.⏹It was Peter who bought a car.⏹It was a car that Peter bought.⏹What peter bought was a car.⏹句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果⏹语义学：这些句子都是同义的。

语言学重点章节介绍

语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。

他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。

王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。

而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。

虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。

北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。

（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。

我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。

不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。

下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。

这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。

我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。

一定要在理解的基础上记忆。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。

也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。

错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。

因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。

语言学考试题型标准答案

题型I．简答题5×1’=5’例：类似于自由词素、词根、词干、连着词素、曲折词素等待解释II．判断正误T/F 20×1’=20’例：动词是逆构词法中产生最多的词。

III．单项选择题20’例：奥斯丁、姆斯金、德莱斯提出的理论？IV．写音标10×1’=10’P35～36V．划分词素10×3×0.5’=15’VI．翻译10×1’=10’分英翻汉和汉翻英例：合作原则、聚合关系、组合关系、曲折后缀、词缀、前缀、后缀VII．选择答题2×5’=10’VIII．树形图给词，分析意思，是否有歧义？用树形图解释出来。

样卷AI．1. displacement2. pragnatics3. stem4. syntax5. hyponymyII. T/F9. Lang is arbitrary to the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to. F10. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language. F11. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in umber, and yet there is no limit to the umber of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. F12. Agreement is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each in terms of categories. T13. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use; it originated with John Langs Shaw Austin. T14.15.Vibretion of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voucing. F?16. The word ―flower‖ is the super ordinate of the typonyms ―rose‖―tulip‖ and ―rose‖. T 17．Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication. T18.The English sound [m]is a bilabial nasal voice. T19. A study of the features of the Chinese used in the Tang Dynasty in diachronic study. T?20.While English has borrowed most heavily form French, other languages have also made their contributions. F21. Inflectional affixs are those whose major function is to attach themselves to the morphemes to form a new word. F22. A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable. F23. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. F24. The phrase ―green house‖ with the first element stressed means ―a house which is green in colour‖ F25. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order. F26. The compound word ―book store‖ is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaning of its compounments. F27. Only when a maxim under cooperative principle is blatantly violated can the hearer know that it’s being violated and conversational implications arise. T28. The word ―photo graphically‖ is made up of 4 morphemes. TIII.29. The famous quotation from Romeo and Juliet arose by any other name world smell as sweet well illustrates: the conventional nature of language.30. If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it’s a said to be: descriptive.31. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? Phonology32. Phonetially, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element.33. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic……36. The word ―trasist~‖ is formed through: lending37. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of classed displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns.38. Concord is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.39. Chomsky uses the term performance to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic com.40. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][s][d][z][n] share the feature of P3541. Translate formational Generative Crammer was introduced by N. Chomsky in 1957.42. The relationship between ―married/ single‖ is complementary.43. Of the 3 speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because of this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.44. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are synomy~s.45. The function of the sentence ―A nice day, isn’t it?‖ is 寒暄46.47. We can do things with words ―this‖ is main idea of the speech act theory.48. The utterance―we are already working 25 hours a day, 8 days a week‖ obviously violates the maxim of quantity.IV.49. voiceless dental fricative50. high front tense unrounded vowel51. voiced alveolar stop52. high back tense rounded vowel53. voiceless bilabial stop54. voiced labiodental fricativeV.55. What are the 4 maxims of the cooperative Principle?56. What are the distinctions between inflectional affix and derivational affix? VIII.Leave the book on the shelf.①leave the book on the shelfPut the book on the shelf.②leave book on the shelfKeep away from the book on the shelfnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design Features of LanguageArbitrariness (Saussure)This feature means that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. DualityThe elements of the spoken language are sounds that do not convey meaning in themselves. CreativityBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. DisplacementThis means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3.Functions of Language(1) Informative FunctionLanguage serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker thinks, to give information about facts.(2) Interpersonal functionThis is by far the most important socio-logical use of language. People establish and maintain their status in a society.(3) Performative FunctionThis function is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.(4) Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. (5) Phatic communionIt refers to the social interaction of language which is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.(6) Recreational functionThis function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.(7) Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about language itself.4.What is linguistics?Linguistics is scientific discipline with the goal of describing language and speech in all relevant theoretical and practical aspects and their relation to adjoining disciplines.5.Main Branches of Linguistics*PhoneticsIt studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.* MorphologyIt is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning---morphemes and word-formation processes.*PhonologyIt studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.*SyntaxIt is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.*SemanticsIt examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.*PragmaticsIt is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.6.Important Distinctions in Linguistics*Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguistic study is DESCRIPTIVE if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is PRESCRIPTIVE it tries to lay down rules for “correct‖ behavior.* Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic description refers to a language description at some point in time;Diachronic description is about a language description as it changes through time.* Langue & paroleLANGUE refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;PAROLE refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.*Competence & performanceCompetence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language;Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance.7.CONSONANTS and VOWELSConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity;A vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.8.Manners of Articulation*Stop (or plosive)(爆破音): complete closure of the articulators involved so that the air-stream cannot escape through the mouth.There are two kinds of stops: oral stops and nasal stops* Fricative(摩擦音): close approximation of two articulators so that the air-stream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.* Approximant(无摩擦延续音):This is an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent air-stream is produced.* Lateral(舌边音): obstruction of the air-stream at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.* Affricates (破擦音)：When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates. In English there are two affricates.* Nasals (鼻音):When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English.* Glides (滑音):They are som etimes called ―semivowels‖. They are produced with a narrower passage between the lips and the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction. In English, they are [w,j]9.The place of Articulation* Bilabial(双唇音):In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. In English, bilabial sounds include [p,b,m]* Labiodental(唇齿音):In the obstruction of these sounds, the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f,v* dental(齿音):The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English.* alveolar(齿龈音):The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t,d,s,z,n,l,r]* palatal(颚音):The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.* velar(软腭音):The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum(软腭), or the soft palate.* glottal(喉音):The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English: [h].10.Classification of English vowels* Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.11.12.The Phoneme theoryThe phoneme simply refers to a ―unit of explicit sound contrast‖13.Allophones(音位变体)Peak and speak are not actually pronounced as they are transcribed in dictionaries.We know that in English there is a rule that this sound is unaspirated after /s/ but aspirated in other places. In what we have talked about, different variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution(互补分布) because they never occur in the same context.14.Assimilation(同化)*This is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.*There are two possibilities of assimilation:If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation(逆同化);The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation(顺同化).* Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown in the following:pancakesunglassesYou can keep them.He can go now.Define the following termsconsonant phoneme allophoneWhat is assimilation?15.SuprasegmentalsThe syllable structureStressIntonationTone16.Identification of words*StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement.* Relative uninterruptibility:This means that new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing can be used to insert in the three parts of the word disappointment: dis+appoint+ment.* A minimum free form:This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as ―the maximum free form‖ and word ―the minimum free form‖, the latter being the smallest unit that can constitutea complete utterance.17.Classification of wordsVariable & invariable words*Variable words refer to those that we can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms, for the word write, there are several grammatically different forms: wrote, written, writing* Grammatical words & lexical words:Those which express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words, also known as function words. Those which have lexical meanings,i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words, also known as content words.* Closed-class words and open-class words:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items. The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.New expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.* Word class:Traditionally, we had such word classes as ―n. adj. v. adv. prep. etc.‖ But here are some of the categories newly introduced:a. ParticlesThey include the infinitive m arker ―to‖, the negative marker ―not‖ and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as ―get by‖, ―do up‖, ―look back‖.Chapter Three: Morphologyb. AuxiliariesAuxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs, but linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class:Negation: I can’t come. *I wantn’t come.Inversion: Is he coming? *Keeps he coming?Code: I’ll come and so will Bill.*I intend to come and so intend Bill.Emphasis: He has come. *He seems to come.c. Pro-formIn order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, it is advisable to regard pro-form as a separate word class.Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: Jane’s hiding there, behind the door.d. Determiners:This is a new word class which refer to words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference: the, a, some, all, etc.Quirk, et al proposes that there are three subclasses of determiners:Predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third,etc.Central determiners: the, a, this, that, these, those, etc.Postdeterminers.next, last, past, other, (a) few, much, etc.18.The formation of word* Morpheme & morphologyMorpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g.boys---boy+-schecking---check+-ingdisappointment---dis-+appoint+-mentMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. For example, the verb purify consists of two parts: pur(e) and –ify, from which we can work out a rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective. This is a morphological rule that may explain the formation, of a set of verbs ended with –ify, such as simplify, beautify, amplify,etc.* Types of morphemesa. Free morpheme and bound morphemeMorphemes can be classifies into two types.Those which may occur alone, i.e. those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. E.g. close, dog, nation are free morphemes. All monomorphemic words are freemorphemes. And polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds.Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur alone and must appear with another morpheme, e.g.nations---nation+-s; dogs---dog+-sworked---work+-ed; reading---read+-ingThe word distempered has three morphemes: dis-, temper, -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme while dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes* Root, affix and stemPolymorphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.a. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, i.e.it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved, e.g.bound morphemes: inter-, -al, -isminternationalismroot: nationAll words contain a root morpheme.b. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three types: prefix, suffix and infix, depending on the position with reference to the root or stem of the word.prefix: dis-, mono-, poly-, un-, pre-, in-, re-suffix: -er, -ism, -ify, -tion, -ly, -ologyinfix: tooth/teeth, foot/feetA root may be free or bound, but an affix is naturally bound. Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words such as black in blackboard, blackbird,blacksmith. And there are few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive, in receive, perceive and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit; -cur in incur, recur and occur.c.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.* Inflectional affix and derivational affixThis is also a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. Inflectional affixes in English are used to show various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case, e.g. –(e)s, -ing, -er, -est, -’s, -ed. Inflectional affixes do not change the word class while derivational affixes very often change the lexical meaning.19.Inflection and word formationInflection: It is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached, e.g.a. number: table/tables, car/carsb. person, finiteness and aspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc. case: boy/boy’s, John/John’sWord formation: It refers to the process of word variations signalling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational type(derivation).pound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as icecream, sunrise.b.Derivation: It shows the relation between roots and affixes.20.Morpheme and phonemeA phoneme is the smallest unit of sound and a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar. A single may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. The phoneme /z/ in goes represents the third-person singular present tense morpheme –es, but /z/ occurs very often when it has nothing to do with this specific morpheme.Let’s look at the following examples:a. boysb. boy’sc. raiseIn a, the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme; in b, it represents the morpheme that means the possessive case. But in c, it means nothing at all.21.Lexical change*Invention(新创词语)Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, Xeros Frigidaire, granola* Blending(混成法)It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word. E.g.(See P97)*Abbreviation(缩写词)It is also called clipping, i.e. a new word is created by the following processes:i. Cutting the final part: ii. Cutting the initial partadvertisement ----- ad aeroplane ---- planebicycle ---- bike telephone ---- phonetelevision ---- telly omnibus ----- busiii. Cutting both the initial and final partsinfluenza ---- flu refrigerator ---- fridge* Acronym (缩略语)It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E.g.WTO--World Trade Organization （世贸组织）UNESCO--United Nations Education Science &Cultural Organization (联合国教科文组织)scuba—self-contained underwater breathingapparatus (配套的水下呼吸器)*Back-formation (逆构词法)It refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E.g.television/televise editor/editlaser / lase calmative/calm*Analogical creation (类推造字法)In the conjugation of some English verbs, there is a co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular. E.g.old newwork wrought workedbeseech besought beseechslay slew slayedChapter Three: Morphology* Borrowing (借用词)English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. E.g.Chinese: taji, chowmien, wok, kung-fu, etc.There are several types of processes with regard to borrowing. Let’s take a look at the following:ii. Loanblend (混合借词)：It is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E.g.coconut (Spanish+English)China-town (Chinese+English)iii. Loanshift（转移借词）:It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E.g.bridge from Italian ―ponte‖;artificial satel lite from Russian ―sputnik‖iv. Loan translation (翻译借词)：This is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.E.g. ―almighty‖ translated from Latin ―omnipotens‖―free verse‖ translated from Latin’s ―verse libre‖―black humor‖ translated from French ―humour noir‖22.Semantic changeThere are five types of semantic changes:Broadening(词义扩展)：It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. E.g.―holiday‖ used to mean ―holy day‖;it means ―a day for rest‖.(more examples on P108)Narrowing (词义缩小)：The original meaning can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. E.g.―meat‖ used to mean ―food‖ in the 7th century;but the meaning is restricted to ―the edibleflesh of mammals‖.(More examples on P108)Meaning shift(词义转换)：This means that the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above. What makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. E.g. ―bead‖ originally means ―prayer‖, but later it refers to ―the prayer bead‖, finally ―small, ball-shaped p iece of glass, metal or wood.‖Class shift(词类转换)：By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notionto a process or attribution. It is also known as zero-derivation or conversion. E.g.―engineer‖ as n. means ―a person trained in a branch of engineering‖, but it means ―to act as an engineer‖ when used as a verb.Folk etymology (俗词源学、民间词源)：It refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.23.SyntaxThis word is derived from Greek and is composed of two morphemes: /syn/(together) + /tax/(to arrange). In linguistics, it refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences. Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.24.Syntagmatic relation (组合关系)It is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. There are syntactic and semantic conditions that the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet. For example,a. The boy kicked the ball.b. *Boy the ball kicked the.c. *The ball kicked the boy.25.Horizontal Relations. (替代词关系)26.Paradigmatic relation (聚合关系)It is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.For example, what should be filled in the blank?The _______ is smiling.Only singular human nouns like boy, girl, man, woman, student, baby, doctor, nurse, etc.27.Endocentric and exocentric constructions*Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It also known as a headed construction.*Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases.Endocentric constructions may be further divided into two subtypes:Exocentric construction is defined as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center, or head, in it. Prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, e.g.prepositional phrases: in the school, on the desksubordinate clauses: if he is going28. CategoryNumber: 数字 Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural …Gender: 性别Gender displays such contrasts as ―masculine: feminine: neuter ‖.Case: 场合Agreement: 认同29. <Leech> Semantics7 types of meanings (G. Leech, 1974):7. ThemanticAssociative meaning (meaning （主题意义）—what is communicated by the way inwhich the message is organized in terms of order & emphasis.联想意义)：2. Connotative meaning —what is communicated by virtue of what language（内涵意义）refers to.3. Social meaning —what is communicated of the social circumstances of（社会意义）language use.4. Affective meaning —what is communicated of the feelings & attitudes of the（情感意义）speaker/writer.5. Reflected meaning —what is communicated through association with another（反映意义）sense of the same expression.6. Collocative meaning —what is communicated through association with words（搭配意义）which tend to occur in the environment of another word.1. Conceptual meaning Logical, cognitive, denotative content30. The referential theory. <Ogden, Richards> The meaning of Meaning。

天津外国语大学801英语语言文学历年考研真题

手握住把做圆摇，任井在上有规地
做圆圈。井
嘎嘎地呻吟，声音低、古、
，犹如病重的喘声。
斗子被提
口
时，腾一手抓住它的骨，倒井的里。打的源自清，有如般的甘甜。它旱天不
，天不涝，像一位慈的亲，无论夏、风
霜，始滋着里的一又一。
天人们要在井见面，特收以后和傍
unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.
5) _____refers to the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
Section Four:英语语言学方向分 (70 points) Questions in this section are set for applicants to the MA program of English Linguistics. 1.Multiple Choice: (20 points) Directions: Fill in the blanks with appropriate linguistic terms or answer the questions as required. Write the answers on the ANSWER SHEET. 1) ____means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 2) ____________ deals with the way in which speech sounds are produced. 3）____________ refers to a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. 4）____________is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a

IMPLICATURE 语用学

A: Shall we hold the football match tomorrow?
B: It is raining.
Semantic and literal meaning: his answer unrelated to the question. Intended meaning: the football match will be canceled as ground is wet and slippery after the rain.
(c) Carmen: I hear you’ve invite Mat and Chris. Dave : I didn’t invite Mat. (Did Dave invite Chris?) →Dave invited Chris.
The notion of implicature provides some explicit account of how it is possible to mean more than what is actually “said” , or more than what is literally expressed.
a) Tom : Are you going to Mark‟s party tonight? Annie : My parents are in town. (No.) Shared knowledge : Annie‟s relation with her parents b) Tom : Where‟s the salad dressing? Gabriel : We‟ve run out of olive oil. (There isn‟t any salad dressing.) Shared knowledge : Oliver oil is a possible ingredient in salad dressing and they only use salad dressing made from olive oil.

chapter8 Language in Use

Semantics and Pragmatics
Semantics: what language means
(sentence meaning)
Pragmatics: what people mean
(speaker’s meaning) （utterance meaning）
Similarity
• The utterance which performs an act is called a performative (行事话语)。
•I name the ship the Queen Elizabeth. •I declare the meeting open. •I resign. •I pronounce you husband and wife.
• Though performatives cannot be true or false, they can be felicitous or infelicitous.
Felicity Conditions
• Felicity Conditions (合适条件) are conditions needed for success or achievement of a performative.
Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaning
Difference
• Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning • Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context • Pragmatic = meaning - semantics

语言学教程Chaer 8 Language in Use

• Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988)
• William James lectures at Harvard in 1967
• Logic and Conversation in
1975
.
24
• Grice’s theory Logic and Conversation is an attempt at explaining how a hearer gets from what is said to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.
long as you both shall live?
.
17
• Features of performatives • First person singular • Speech act verbs / performative verbs:
– The present tense – Indicative mood – Active voice
• The Cooperative Principle (CP)
.
25
• Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
.
26
• Maxim of Quality:
– Do not say what you believe to be false. – Do not say something if you lack adequate

考研语言学第八章笔记

笔记Pragmatics:It is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker's meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.* pragmatics and semantics区别1.Pragmatics' interpretation depends more on who the speaker of the sentence is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used.= it depends more on the context.2.It takes context into consideration while semantics concentrates on the study of literal meaning without context.3.It can also be defined as the study of language in use.Pragmatics and semantics 联系Semantics: studies the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning.Pragmatics: studies the side more closely related to the context, the more indetermined side, or something extra.Speech Act TheoryPerformatives施为句and constatives叙事句Performatives: the statements which are used to do something. They do not describe a fact and they are not verifiable. (宣布，命名，许诺，打赌）I name this ship the Queen ElizabethI bequeath this watch to my brother.I promise to finish it in time.I find you guilty. You did it. Thank you. I order you to turn right. People are warned to keep off the grass.I state that I am alone responsible.I declare the meeting open.Constatives: the statements are used to state/describe a fact.They are verifiable.First i open the door then i sit next to the door.Though performatives cannot be true or false, there are still conditions for them to meet to be appropriate.----Austin, Felicity Conditions1.There must be a relevant conventional procedure. The relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.2.The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.3.The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.因为适合条件不够完善，只能使用于部分情况，所以Austin放弃了他最初对叙事句和施为句的区分，建立了另外一套模式来解释如何通过语言事实行为。

The Theory of Conversational Implicature会话含义理论

Be perspicuous (明白易懂的). 1. Avoid obscurity of expression; 2. Avoid ambiguity; 3. Be brief (avoid prolixity); 4. Be orderly. e.g: A: Let's get the kids something. B: Ice cream would be nice. (√) B: Okey, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M-S. (×)
3) relation maxim 关联原则
Be relevant. e.g: A: I am out of petrol. B: There is a garage at the corner. (√) B: It is sunny today. (×)
4) manxim 数量准则
1. Make your conteibution as informative as required (for the current purpuses of the exchange); 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. e.g: A: What date is your birthday? B: December 26. (√) B: December 26, the day after the Christmas Day. (×)
The Cooperative Principle (CP) 合作原则
to explain the mechanisms( 机制，原理 ) by which people interpret conversational implicature or to explain why people often mean more than what they say, Grice proposed the Cooperative Principle and introduced 4 conversational maxims. And the violations in the second half of Grice's “Logics and Conversation”.

IMPLICATURE 语用学 ppt课件

→Dave did not fix the leak.
(c) Carmen: I hear you’ve invite Mat and Chris. Dave : I didn’t invite Mat.
(Did Dave invite Chris?)
→Dave invited Chris.
ppt课件
as ground is wet and slippeprpyt课a件fter the rain.
5
There is a gap between what is literally said and what is implied. So in this case, implicature helps to explain how some seemingly unrelated sentences come to mean the same. With the help of context , the use of implicature makes our language use more colorful. We may express the same meaning in different ways to suit appropriate context.(何自然)
Scale of quantity: some most all Scale of frequency: sometimes often always Scale of coldness: cool cold freezing
ppt课件
8
We normally assume that, where speakers have a scale of values at their disposal, they will chose the one that is truthful and optimally informative. So we normally draw the implicature ‘not any of the higher values on the scale’.

2011年天津外国语大学英语专业(语言学)真题试卷.doc

2011年天津外国语大学英语专业（语言学）真题试卷(总分：62.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、单项选择题(总题数：20，分数：40.00)1.______ is a central vowel.（分数：2.00）A.[e]B.[i]C.[u]D.[a]2.Which of the following is a pair of relational opposites?（分数：2.00）A.single vs. marriedB.hot vs. coldC.alive vs. deadD.husband vs. wife3.Which of the following is a minimal pair?（分数：2.00）A.pet, kidB.put, pestC.cave, shaveD.must, taste4.Which of the following ways of word-formation does not change the grammatical class of the stems?（分数：2.00）poundB.inflectionC.derivationD.coinage5.Which of the following statements is true?（分数：2.00）rynx is what we sometimes call "Adam"s apple".B.The International Phonetic Alphabet uses narrow transcription.C.There are two nasal consonants in English.D.It is sounds by which we make communicative meaning.6.A ______has been added to Chomsky"s first model of grammar as shown in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax(1965).（分数：2.00）A.set of rewriting rulesponent of categoriesC.semantic componentD.word classification7.According to the manner of articulation,[m]is a______.（分数：2.00）A.bilabialB.plosiveC.nasalteral8."I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago. " This shows that language has the design feature of______.（分数：2.00）A.arbitrarinessB.creativityC.dualityD.displacement9.______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（分数：2.00）nguepetencemunicative competenceD.Linguistic potential10.Which of the following is an "inflectional suffix"?（分数：2.00）A.-istB.-aryC.-ingD.-ify11.In today"s grammar we normally say that English does not have a " future tense". This is because in English ______.（分数：2.00）A.the future is not expressed by morphological changeB.the future can be expressed in many waysC.the future belongs to the category of "aspect"D.the future is expressed by modal verbs12.______is a phenomenon that in some speech communities two languages exist side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes.（分数：2.00）A.BilingualismB.DiglossiaC.PidginD.Creole13.______ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.（分数：2.00）A.RegisterB.Linguistic repertoireC.IdiolectD.Dialect14.Which of the following is NOT included in the three classes of syntactic relations?（分数：2.00）A.positional relationsB.relations of co-occurrenceC.relations of expansionD.relations of substitutability15.All of the following are characteristics of implicature EXCEPT______.（分数：2.00）A.conventionalityB.non-detachabilityC.cancellabilityD.calculability16."He has already trunked two packs" is an example of______error.（分数：2.00）A.anticipationB.exchangeC.morpheme-exchangeD.perception17.The criterion used in IC analysis is______.（分数：2.00）A.constructionB.constituentC.structureD.substitutability18.According to G. Leech, who recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics, ______ makes up the central part.（分数：2.00）A.conceptual meaningB.connotative meaningC.social meaningD.thematic meaning19."The Club" is a device for blocking an automobile"s steering wheel, thus protecting the car from being stolen. And one of its ads reads:The Club ! FD Anti-theft device for cars Police Say: " Use it" or Lose It In terms of the Gricean theory, what maxim is exploited here?（分数：2.00）A.the maxim of mannerB.the maxim of relevanceC.the maxim of qualityD.the maxim of quantity20.What semantic relation do the following sentences have?A. I saw a girl.B. I saw a child.（分数：2.00）A.contradictionB.entailmentC.synonymD.Presupposition二、名词解释(总题数：6，分数：12.00)21.semantic field theory(3 points)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 22.favourite sentence type(4 points)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 23.free variation(3 points)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 24.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis(4 points)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 25.endocentric construction(3 points)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 26.back formation(3 points)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________三、写作题(总题数：5，分数：10.00)27.Choose any THREE of the following questions to analyze. Write the number of the question and your answer on the ANSWER SHEET.Discuss the major contributions of Saussure to modern linguistics.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ ment on the "innateness hypothesis".（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 29.Explain the purpose and significance of reconstruction in historical linguistics and the method employed by historical linguists.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 30.How do you interpret the distinctions between language acquisition and language learning?（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________31.How do you comment on the two frequently used analogies for attempted inference on the origin of language: the acquisition of speech by children and the structures and characteristics of so-called "primitive" languages?（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________。

英语专业(语言学)历年真题试卷汇编25

英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编25(总分：72.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、填空题(总题数：5，分数：10.00)1.There has been a maxim in 1which claims that "You are what you say". (中山大学2008研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：quantity）解析：解析：格莱斯的数量准则指1．使你的话语如(交谈的当前目的)所要求的那样信息充分；2．不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。

即说你该说的。

2.The theory of conversational implicature was proposed by 1. (中山大学2008研)（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：Grice）解析：解析：格赖斯认为一定存在一些管理话语产生和理解的机制。

他把这种机制称为合作原则，在这个大原则下有四条准则，它们分别为数量、质量、关系和方式准则。

3. 1were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. （分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：Performatives）解析：解析：施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。

4.In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the 1principle proposed by J. Grice.（分数：2.00）填空项1:__________________ （正确答案：正确答案：Cooperative）解析：解析：通常在对话中，所有的参与者都被希望能够遵守由格莱斯提出的合作原则，这样就不会有会话含义的产生。

Chapter 3 Conversational__ Implicature

Types of implicature

meaning-nn what is said what is implicated

conventionally
generalized
conversationally
particularized
Huang1994, 2009:57 Davis 1998

Those spot meant measles. Those spot meant measles, but he hadn‟t got measles. (Semantically anomalous) 格赖斯指出自然意义和非自然意义的区别可用逻辑方法把握。当x means p表达的是自然意义时, x means p为真, p就为真,它们之间有一种逻辑蕴含关系。
Levinson(1983:128-129)认为 “however, moreover, besides, anyway”等起连接作用的词， “sir, madam, mate, your honour”等称呼语都有常规意义。
Characteristics/properties of conventional implicature: 与会话含义相同的特点：不是真值条件意义，不是明说的一部分。与会话含义完全不同的特点： 1. 常规含义不具备可取消性(non-cancelability)； 2. 常规含义是可分离的(detachability)； 3. 常规含义是确定性的(determinacy)； 4. 常规含义不需要推导(non-caculability)； 5. 常规含义是规约性的(conventionality)。

The essence of meaningnn is that it is communication which is intended to be recognized as having been intended. Meaningnn is a matter of expressing and recognizing intention.

语言学期末复习重点

第七章The essential elements suggested by this framework include 1) speech community(言语社团), 2) situation(场景), event and act, and 3) mnemonic SPEAKING components(交际民族学模式)an important figure in American anthropological linguistics---Benjamin Lee Whorf and his famous hypothesis concerning language, thought, and culture: Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses(萨丕尔-尔夫假说)What this hypothesis suggests is this: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,Consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ uniqu e ways of understanding the world.two versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed, a strong version and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version of this hypothesis, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative(相对), rather than categorical(绝对).some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. Among these factors, some major ones include a) class; b) gender; c) age; d) ethnic identity; e) education background; f) occupation; and g) religious belief.社会语言学(the sociolinguistics of language)cross-cultural communication1.When in Rome do as the Romans do 入乡随俗2.Put yourself in other’s shoes 换位思考3.One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison 萝卜青菜各有所爱Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding第八章If we divide meaning into two major sides: the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning (which is studied under the heading of semantics) and the side more closely related to the context,themore indeterminate side, or something extra (which is studied under the heading of pragmatics)Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use Austin revised the notes and changed the title from Words and Deeds (《言与行》)to How to Do Things with Words(《怎样用词做事》),Austin’s first shot at the theory is the claim that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.Austin argues that sentences like the following do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. So they arc called PERFORMATIVES.Ex. 8-2 said by a chemistry teacher in a demonstration of an experiment is not a performative. It is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking.The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences of this type are known as CONSTATIVES.A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论In his(Austin) opinion, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something. The first sense is an ordinary one(普通意义). That is, when we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.For example, when somebody says “Morning!”, we can ask a question like “What di d he do?” instead of “What did he say?” And the answer could be that he produced a sound, word or sentence------“Morning!” The act performed in this sense is called a Locutionary Act (发话行为).Within this act, however, Austin suggests that there is another act. In other words, when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood.In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force(语力) of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something, and the act performed is known as an Illocutionary Act(行事行为).The third sense in which to say something can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed. This act, which is performed through, by means of, a locutionaryact, is called a Perlocutionary Act (取效行为).The second major theory in pragmatics is t he theory of conversational implicature （会话含义理论）, proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice. This theory first became known to the public at Harvard in 1967. Part of the lectures was published in 1975 under the title of “Logic and Conversation”, on which we base our present introduction.The Cooperative Principle 合作原则Grice noticed that in daily conversations people do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. In order to avoid the logical use of implication(蕴含), which we touched on in the section on logical semantics, Grice coined the term implicature(含义)Cooperative Principle, or CP Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows: QUANTITY 数量QUALITY 质量RELATION 关系MANNER 方式Characteristics of Implicature 含义的特征(1)Calculability 可推导性(2)Cancellability 可取消性(3)Non-detachability 不可分离性(4)Non-conventionality 非常规性Relevance Theory 关联理论This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperbe r (斯波伯) and Deirdre Wilson (威尔逊) in 1986.The definition of this theory: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. 每一个明示交际行动，都传递一种假定：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。

语言学conversational-implicature

?需要上下文才能产生的会话含义specialfeaturesofimplicatures?cancellability可取消性?nondetachability不可分离性?calculability可推导性?nonconventionality非规约性?indeterminacy不确定性cancellability?addmoreclausetocanceltheimplicature
Special features of implicatures
Cancellability 可取消性 Non-detachability 不可分离性 Calculability 可推导性 Non-conventionality 非规约性 Indeterminacy 不确定性
Cancellability
Non-conventionality
The literal meaning remains the same in all contexts, but conversational implicature will vary or be lost as the context changes.
add more clause to cancel the implicature. 1) Bill has four books. (Implicature: Bill has only four books and no more or no less.) Bill has four books, perhaps five or more. 2) A: There is a young lady with him, sir. She is crying. B: Pretty? A: I should say she is pretty, sir, in a quite inoffensive way. You are the cream in my coffee. In fact, I don't like cream.

英语语言学重点名词解释汇总

Semantics is the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential Theory.The naming theory命名说According to it, the linguistic forms or symbols or words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stands for. So words are just names or labels for things.It is also called the referential theory （指称论）.Theory of the context of situation [ J. R. Firth (1890-1960) ]情景语境①The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.②The relevant objects.③The effects of the verbal action.The conceptualist view概念理论This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.It is also called ideational theory（观念论）Contextualism语境J. R. Firth 费斯The linguists hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. This view of meaning proposed by Bloomfield is illustrated by his story about Jack and Jill.According to Bloomfield, the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as “the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.”The Definition of senseSense refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.The definition of referenceReference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.What is culture?Broadly speaking, it means the total way of life of people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language.In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.Anthropological study of linguistics: study of language in a sociocultural context.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis定义Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world. Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.SociolinguisticsThe sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.Variationist perspective: 变异视角Variety 的定义People who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner.Dialect定义Varieties (变体)related to the user are normally known as dialectsRegister定义In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or ina particular social setting.1. Regional dialects are linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions.2. Social-class dialect, or sociolect 社会方言, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.3.Idiolect个人方言A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.4. Ethnic dialect种族方言A variety of language that is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation5. Standard dialect:Diglossia: Two distinct varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functionsMonolingual: Speakers of a single language control different varieties of that language. Bilingual: People develop some ability in a second language.High Context Culture:-Cultures that rely heavily on non-verbal and subtle situational cues in communication.Low Context Culture:- Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication. Definition of PragmaticsThe study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false. Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is.Conversational Implicaturea type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims【Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988)】The Cooperative Principle (CP)Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problemsIn linguistics, the theory of universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess, without having to learn them.Krashen’s Input HypothesisLearners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.“i+1” principleThe language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence so that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress.The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.Communicative competence{Dell Hymes}What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communicationTypes of syllabus The structural syllabus，The situational syllabus，The communicative syllabus，The task-based syllabusContrastive AnalysisA way of comparing the first language and the second language to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. (Gass and Selinker, 2001:72)Error Analysis Many errors made by the second language learners were caused by factors other than the first language interference.Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ competenceMistake: learner’s failure to perform their competence填空This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and RichardsThere are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation (相似关系), oppositeness relation (对立关系)inclusiveness relation (内含)Characteristics of implicature1) Calculability 可推导性2) Cancellability可取消性（依赖语境）3) Non-detachability不可分离性（依赖语义）4) Non-conventionality非规约性【Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures.】Leech七分法 1. 概念意义（conceptual）2. 内涵意义（connotative）3. 社会意义（social）4. 情感意义（affective）5. 反射意义（reflective）6. 搭配意义（collocative）7. 主题意义（thematic）。