语言学第一学期期末

Chapter11.Design features of language(1) Arbitrariness任意性---linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.a. arbitrary relationship between the sound and meaning;b. on syntactic句法levelc. Conventionality规约性(2)Duality二重性---By duality is meant the property of having two level of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization”( J.Lyons)(language is hierarchical/ Stratification阶层: levels on levels)(3)Displacement移位性---enables the user to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.(4)Creativity创造性---Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness/Use of finite means to create infinite number of sentences.2.Functions of Language(1)informative信息功能---instrument of thought and expression of ideas.(2)interpersonal function人际功能---used to establish and maintain interpersonal relationship(3)performative施为功能---used to change the social status of persons.(4)emotive function感情功能---to get rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress,etc.(5)phatic communication寒暄交谈---to maintain a comfortable relationship without involving any factual content.(6)recreational function娱乐功能---Similar to poetic function.Ballad song, for the fun of it.(7)metalingual function元语言功能---We can use language to talk about language 3.Main branches of linguistics(1) phonetics语音学---study of speech sound: articulatory/ auditory/ acoustic(2)phonology音系学---the study of sound patterns and sound systems of language.(3)morphology形态学---Studies the word formation of a language (and the rules governing the formation of words in a particular language.)(4)syntax句法学---Studies the principles of forming and understanding correct sentences in a language.(5)semantics语义学---Studies how meaning is encoded in a language. Word-phrase-sentence meanings(6)pragmatics语用学---How language is actually used in various contexts. Or, the meaning in contexts.4.Important distinction in linguistics(1)descriptive描写式vs. Prescriptive规定式Prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are(2)synchronic共时vs. Diachronic历时Synchronic refers to today and diachronic refer to the past(3)langue语言and parole言语Langue: an abstract system of sings and rules; the language of a speech communityParole: the spoken word, the individual’s actual realization of language(4)competence语言能力and performance语言运用Linguistic competence: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rulesPerformance: the actual use of language in concrete situationsChapter25. Phonetics (divisions; speech organs;)(1)studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.(2)3 divisions: articulatory phonetics发音语音学Acoustic phonetics声学语音学Perceptual/auditory phonetics听觉语音学(3)speech organs/ vocal organs: those parts of the human body involved in theproduction of speech1)The lungs, the trachea/windpipe气管，the throat, the nose, the mouth2)3 cavities声腔of the vocal tract声道：mouth/oral cavity口腔Nose/Nasal cavity鼻腔Pharynx/Pharyngeal cavity咽腔3)vocal folds声带：apart---voiceless清音Close together---voiced浊音Totally closed---glottal stop促音/声门塞音(4) The IPA: international phonetic alphabet国际音标表a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, includingdiacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation.Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1)the sound segments: consonants: pulmonic肺气流音Non-pulmonic非肺气流音V owels2)other symbols: consonants involving more than one place or manner ofArticulation3)diacritics变音符6.Consonants and vowels (How are they defined or described?)(1) Consonants1)definition: sounds characterized by a constriction or closure at one or morepoints along the vocal tract.2)How a consonant is defined: In terms of its place and manner (and voicing)of articulation3)Manner发音方式and Place发音部位of articulationA)The manner of articulation is the method that the consonant is articulated,such as nasal, stop;a. Stop (plosive)塞音:A speech sound which is produced by stopping theair stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. they are[ p,b, t,d, k.g ]b. Nasal 鼻音: [ m,n ]c. Fricative（摩）擦音: A speech sound which is produced by allowing theair stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. They are [ f,v,s,z,h ]d. Approximant近音: [ w, r, j ]e. Lateral边音: [ l ]f. Trill颤音:[ r ]g.Tap触音: GA: letter, waterh. Flap 闪音: sorting,dirtyi. Affricate塞擦音：church, dredgeB)The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the articulators of theconsonant act, such as bilabial, alveolar, or velar.a.Bilabial A speech sound which is made with the two lips双唇音[ p, b, m ]biodental ~ with the lower lip and the upper front teeth唇齿音[ f,v ]c.Dental 齿音think, thatd.Alveolar ~with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge齿龈音[ t,d,n,s,z, ]e.Postalveolar 齿龈后音sheep, garagef.Retroflex 卷舌音g.Palatal 硬腭音yes, yeth.V elar A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and thesoft palate.软腭音[k，g]i.Uvular A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.小舌音Fr: votrej.Pharyngeal 咽音k.Glottal 声门音4)V oiced and V oicelessThe phonation method of a consonant is whether or not the vocal cords arevibrating during articulation of a consonant. When the vocal cords arevibrating, the consonant is voiced; when they're not, it's voiceless.(2) V owels:A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.1) Cardinal vowels基本元音in the diagram: a set of hypothetical positions forvowels used as reference point.2) Criteria used for description:1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back. Front /back2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low. High / low (levels of tongue height)3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading. Rounded/ unrounded (lip-rounding)4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.Tense/lax Long/short3)Monophthong vowels单元音/Diphthongs 二合元音/Triphthongs 三合元音(3)the sound of English1) Received Pronunciation(RP): also called the Queen's (or King's) English andBBC English, is the accent of Standard English in England, with arelationship to regional accents similar to that of other European languages.2) General American(GA): the widely accepted accent used by most educatedspeakers in the USA.Phonology:(1)coarticulation协同发音：Speech is a continuous process; sounds are often influenced by their neighboring sounds. When simultaneously or overlapping articulations occur,we call it coarticulation.1)Anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音: the sound is influenced by thesound that follows.2)Perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音: the sound shows the influence ofthe preceding sound.(2)Aspirated送气音：when the phoneme /p/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak , it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /p/ occurs in the word like speak , it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. peak(3) phonemes音位：the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning, e.g./p/, /t/, /e/.(4)minimal pairs最小对比对：Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning.E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning. (5) Allophones音位变体：Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones.Phonological processes and rules:(1) Assimilation同化现象: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.1)Regressive assimilation逆同化: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.2)Progressive assimilation顺同化: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.a)Devoicing清音化: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.b) nasalization鼻化音c)dentalization 齿化音d) velarization 软腭音(2)Epenthesis插入音：the lack of a consonant between vowels requires the nasal [n] to be added to the article a. For that matter, we treat the change of a to an as an insertion of a nasal sound. Technically, this process of insertion is known as epenthesis.Distinctive features:区别特征A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.(1) binary features二分特征: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent.1)[consonantal]: distinguish between consonants and vowels2)[sonorant]:distinguish between obstruent阻塞音(stops, fricatives and affricates) and sonorants (all other consonants and vowels)3)[nasal]4)[voiced](2)place features:1) labial唇音2)coronal舌冠音3)dorsal舌面音4)radical舌根音Suprasegmentals超音段特征:Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.(1)the syllable structure音节结构1）Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. Monosyllable单音节/ polysyllable多音节Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.2）syllable structure:Onset节首Rhyme韵基: Nucleus节核(the vowel within the rhyme)Coda节位(the consonant after the vowel)(2) Stress重音Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.(3)Intonation语调(4)Tone声调Chapter 37.Formation of words (morphemes, compounding forms, lexical change) Morpheme词素:(1)morpheme: the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and -s in boys.Morphology形态学: Morphology studies the internal structure of words, andthe rules by which words are formed.(2) types of morphemes:1) Free morphemes自由词素: those may make up words themselves.e.g. a, teach, divide, like, love,friend. They are mono-morphemic words.Bound morphemes粘着词素：those may not make up words themselves.E.g.un-, -less, ab-, -ly, -ful, ismCompounds: a type of poly-morphemic words that consist of free morphemes only.2) Root, affix, and stemRoot词根: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is, the part left when all affixes are removed.Affix词缀: the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.Prefix前缀; suffix后缀; infix中缀Stem词干: any morpheme or combination to which an inflectional affix格变词缀is added.3) inflectional affix屈折(格变)词缀and derivational affix派生词汇Inflectional affix: The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational affix: The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.Differences: Inflectional affixes are A. less productive B.do not change the word class of the word they attached to C. Add or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake D. In English, most are suffixes.(3) morphological change and allomorph1) Allomorph词素变体：il-, im-, and ir- are exceptional variation forms of one morpheme in-, these variation forms are called Allomorphs. Allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sound to which it attaches.2) Morphological change: takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.W ord(1)word and lexical termsWord: boy, checkLexical terms: boys and boy; check, checks, checking, checked(2)features: stability/ relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性/ a minimum free form(3)Classification of words1)variable and invariable words 可变化词、非变化词V ariable words may have inflective changes, e.g. Follow, followingInvariable words do not have inflective endings, e.g. Since, when, seldom2) Grammatical words语法词and lexical words词汇词Grammatical: (functional功能词):Words performing grammatical functions, such as conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.Lexical: (content实义词): words mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs,adjectives, adverbs.3) Closed-class words封闭类词and open-class words开放类词Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4) Word class词类This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. 9 classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection感叹词, and article.Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories.I.Particles助词: the infinitive marker “to,”the negative marker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”etc.II.Auxiliaries助动词: e.g.can, be, will, seemIII.Pro-forms代词形式: refers to the closed set of items which can be used to substitute nominal groups or single nouns, verbal groups, adjective groups, oradverbial groups. E.g. So is mine.IV.Determiners限定词:refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrasehas.E.g. s ome, all, the, a(n)W ord formationFrom Morpheme to W ord:(1)the inflectional way of formationInflection: indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case; the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems.e.g. Table/tables; talk/talks;boy/boy’s (2)the derivational way of formation1)Derivation:shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged. E.g. Fool/foolish; tall/tallish, smoker/nonsmoker2)Compound: refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.Endocentric compound: self-control, eye-entertaining, etcExocentric compound: takehome, playboy, breakthroughLexical change(1)Invention 发明法：Coke, nylon(2)Blending 混成法：smoke+fog---smog/ boat+hotel---boatel(3)Abbreviation / clipping缩写：bicycle--bike; telephone--phone; influenza--flu(4)Acronym缩略语：WTO, UNESCO, AIDS(5)Back-formation逆构词法：televise---television(appeared earlier)(6)Analogical creation类推构词work-wrought-worked/beseech-besought-beseeched(7)Class shift词性转换/zero-derivation or conversion: engineer N--V(8)Borrowing外来词1)Loanwords借词: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language they enter, e.g. English borrow au pair from French, tea from Chinese.2)Loanblend混合借词：a process in which part of the form if native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E.g. Coconut, China-town3)Loanshift借词义变：a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E.g. English Artificial satellite from Russian4)Loan translation翻译借词/calque：in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language. E.g. English black humor from French humour noir.Chapter 4Syntax:the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages.Syntactic relations句法关系(1) positional relation/ word order位置关系/词序It refers to sequential arrangement of words in a language. A manifestation of one aspect of syntagmatic relations.Syntagmatic relations组合关系: a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between weather and the others in the following sentence: If the weather is nice, we’ll go out. Observed by F.de Saussure. Also called horizontal relations, chain relations. This relation is used to classify languages in the world. 6 types: SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS(2)relation of substitutability替代关系(associative relations联想关系/paradigmatic relations纵聚关系/vertical relations纵向关系/ choice relations选择关系)：It refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure, or groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.Paradigmatic relations: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.(3)relation of co-occurrence同现关系：(partly syntagmatic, partly paradigmatic)Words of different sets of clauses may permit,or require,the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence,e.g., a noun phrase may be preceded by an adjective and followed by a verb.Grammatical construction语法结构and its constituents(1)Grammatical construction:External syntax:a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole. E.g. Clausal type, phrasal typeInternal syntax: a description of the construction’s “make-up”. E.g. Sub, predicate (2)Immediate constituents 直接成分：constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which maybe a sentence or a word group or a word.(3)Endocentric and Exocentric constructions1) Endocentric construction向心结构：one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. E.g. These two oldest stone bridges2) Exocentric construction离心结构：it refers to a group of syntactically relate words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Center” or “Head” inside the group. Includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate constriction(v.+obj) and connective(be+complement) construction. E.g. The boy smiled./ seemed angry./kicked the ball./hid behind the door.(4)Coordination and subordination1)coordination并列：a common syntactic pattern in English or other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help ofa conjunction such as and, but and or. E.g. The lady or the tiger2)subordination从属：refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. E.g two dogs/swimming in the lake;Subordinate clauses: complement clauses补语分句, adjunct (or adverbial) clauses修饰/状语分句, and relative clauses关系分句. I believe that he is right. Syntactic Function句法功能Shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts fo the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators谓语动词, modifiers, complements, etc.(1)Subject: grammatical subject/ logical subject(2)Predicate谓语(3)Object: direct object/ indirect objectCategory范畴(1)Number数A grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.(2)Gender性displays such contrasts as “masculine”, “feminine”, “neuter”, or “animate”and “inanimate”, etc., for the analysis of word classes. When word items refer to the sex of the real-world entities, we natural gender(the opposite is grammatical gender).(3)Case格Used in the analysis of word class to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three ways: inflection, following a preposition, word order.(4)Agreement一致关系/Concord协同关系may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall becharacterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., “man runs”, “men run”. “Government”requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category.Phrase, clause and sentence(1)Phrase: nominal phrase/ verbal phrase/ adjectival phrase/ prepositional phrase/adverbial phrase(2)Clause: a constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a clause. Finite clauses/non-finite clauses(3)Sentence:Recursiveness递归性By “recursiveness”we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”（1）Conjoining连接refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, (and, but, or)e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.”（2）Embedding 嵌入refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, e.g., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.”Beyond the Sentence(1) Sentential Connection句子连接1) Hypotactic主次连接:(subordinate clauses)2) Paratactic并联连接：(coordinate clauses)(2)Cohesion衔接A concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text. Discoursal/ textual cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation词汇搭配, lexical repetition词汇重复, reference指称, substitution替代, etc.Chapter 5Semantics: the study of meaning, usually in language. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical.(1)Connotation: emotive feelings, values etc. that inheres in the word and expression.Examples: politician/statesman(2)Denotation: what a word denotes, refers to.(3)Sense relations:1) synonymy同义关系: the technical name for the sameness relation.e.g buy/purchase, thrifty/economical, tall/high2)antonymy反义关系：the name for oppositeness relation.3 sub-types:A. Gradable antonymy等级反义关系: good/bad, long/short, big/smallB. Complementary antonymy互补反义关系：alive/dead, male/female,boy/girl, innocent/ guiltyC. Converse antonymy逆向反义关系：buy/sell, lend/borrow, give/receive,husband/wife, employer/employee 3)hyponymy上下义关系：superordinate上坐标词(class name):flowerHyponyms下义词(the members):rose, jasmine,lily。