土木工程专业英语正文课文翻译
完整版土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑吻合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建筑道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
土木工程专业英语(带翻译)
State-of-the-art report of bridge health monitoring AbstractThe damage diagnosis and healthmonitoring of bridge structures are active areas of research in recent years. Comparing with the aerospace engineering and mechanical engineering, civil engineering has the specialities of its own in practice. For example, because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at low amplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the nonstructural components, unforeseen environmental conditions, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage.All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. This paper firstly presents the definition of structural healthmonitoring system and its components. Then, the focus of the discussion is placed on the following sections:①the laboratory and field testing research on the damage assessment;②analytical developments of damage detectionmethods, including (a) signature analysis and pattern recognition approaches, (b) model updating and system identification approaches, (c) neural networks approaches; and③sensors and their optimum placements. The predominance and shortcomings of each method are compared and analyzed. Recent examples of implementation of structural health monitoring and damage identification are summarized in this paper. The key problem of bridge healthmonitoring is damage automatic detection and diagnosis, and it is the most difficult problem. Lastly, research and development needs are addressed.1 IntroductionDue to a wide variety of unforeseen conditions and circumstance, it will never be possible or practical to design and build a structure that has a zero percent probability of failure. Structural aging, environmental conditions, and reuse are examples of circumstances that could affect the reliability and thelife of a structure. There are needs of periodic inspections to detect deterioration resulting from normal operation and environmental attack or inspections following extreme events, such as strong-motion earthquakes or hurricanes. To quantify these system performance measures requires some means to monitor and evaluate the integrity of civil structureswhile in service. Since the Aloha Boeing 737 accident that occurred on April 28, 1988, such interest has fostered research in the areas of structural health monitoring and non-destructive damage detection in recent years.According to Housner, et al. (1997), structural healthmonitoring is defined as“the use ofin-situ,non-destructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for detecting changes that may indicate damage or degradation”[1]. This definition also identifies the weakness. While researchers have attempted the integration of NDEwith healthmonitoring, the focus has been on data collection, not evaluation. What is needed is an efficient method to collect data from a structure in-service and process the data to evaluate key performance measures, such as serviceability, reliability, and durability. So, the definition byHousner, et al.(1997)should be modified and the structural health monitoring may be defined as“the use ofin-situ,nondestructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for the purpose of identifying if damage has occurred, determining the location of damage, estimatingthe severityof damage and evaluatingthe consequences of damage on the structures”(Fig.1). In general, a structural health monitoring system has the potential to provide both damage detection and condition assessment of a structure.Assessing the structural conditionwithout removingthe individual structural components is known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) or nondestructive inspection. NDE techniques include those involving acoustics, dye penetrating,eddy current, emission spectroscopy, fiber-optic sensors, fiber-scope, hardness testing, isotope, leak testing, optics, magnetic particles, magnetic perturbation, X-ray, noise measurements, pattern recognition, pulse-echo, ra-diography, and visual inspection, etc. Mostof thesetechniques have been used successfullyto detect location of certain elements, cracks orweld defects, corrosion/erosion, and so on. The FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA, USA)was sponsoring a large program of research and development in new technologies for the nondestructive evaluation of highway bridges. One of the two main objectives of the program is to develop newtools and techniques to solve specific problems. The other is to develop technologies for the quantitative assessment of the condition of bridges in support of bridge management and to investigate howbest to incorporate quantitative condition information into bridge management systems. They hoped to develop technologies to quickly, efficiently, and quantitatively measure global bridge parameters, such as flexibility and load-carrying capacity. Obviously, a combination of several NDE techniques may be used to help assess the condition of the system. They are very important to obtain the data-base for the bridge evaluation.But it is beyond the scope of this review report to get into details of local NDE.Health monitoring techniques may be classified as global and local. Global attempts to simultaneously assess the condition of the whole structure whereas local methods focus NDE tools on specific structural components. Clearly, two approaches are complementaryto eachother. All such available informationmaybe combined and analyzed by experts to assess the damage or safety state of the structure.Structural health monitoring research can be categorized into the following four levels: (I) detecting the existence of damage, (II) findingthe location of damage, (III) estimatingthe extentof damage, and (IV) predictingthe remaining fatigue life. The performance of tasks of Level (III) requires refined structural models and analyses, local physical examination, and/or traditional NDE techniques. To performtasks ofLevel (IV) requires material constitutive information on a local level, materials aging studies, damage mechanics, and high-performance computing. With improved instrumentation and understanding of dynamics of complex structures, health monitoring and damage assessment of civil engineering structures has become more practical in systematic inspection andevaluation of these structures during the past two decades.Most structural health monitoringmethods under current investigation focus on using dynamic responses to detect and locate damage because they are global methods that can provide rapid inspection of large structural systems.These dynamics-based methods can be divided into fourgroups:①spatial-domain methods,②modal-domain methods,③time-domain methods, and④frequency- domain methods. Spatial-domain methods use changes of mass, damping, and stiffness matrices to detect and locate damage. Modal-domain methods use changes of natural frequencies, modal damping ratios, andmode shapesto detect damage. In the frequency domain method, modal quantities such as natural frequencies, damping ratio, and model shapes are identified.The reverse dynamic systemof spectral analysis and the generalized frequency response function estimated fromthe nonlinear auto-regressive moving average (NARMA) model were applied in nonlinear system identification. In time domainmethod, systemparameterswere determined fromthe observational data sampled in time. It is necessaryto identifythe time variation of systemdynamic characteristics fromtime domain approach if the properties of structural system changewith time under the external loading condition. Moreover, one can use model-independent methods or model-referenced methods to perform damage detection using dynamic responses presented in any of the four domains. Literature shows that model independent methods can detect the existence of damage without much computational efforts, butthey are not accurate in locating damage. On the otherhand, model-referencedmethods are generally more accurate in locating damage and require fewer sensors than model-independent techniques, but they require appropriate structural models and significant computational efforts. Although time-domain methods use original time-domain datameasured using conventional vibrationmeasurement equipment, theyrequire certain structural information and massive computation and are case sensitive. Furthermore, frequency- and modal-domain methods use transformed data,which contain errors and noise due totransformation.Moreover, themodeling and updatingofmass and stiffnessmatrices in spatial-domain methods are problematic and difficult to be accurate. There are strong developmenttrends that two or three methods are combined together to detect and assess structural damages.For example, several researchers combined data of static and modal tests to assess damages. The combination could remove the weakness of each method and check each other. It suits the complexity of damage detection.Structural health monitoring is also an active area of research in aerospace engineering, but there are significant differences among the aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering in practice. For example,because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at lowamplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the non-structural components, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage. Moreover,the level of modeling uncertainties in reinforced concrete bridges can be much greater than the single beam or a space truss. All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. Recent examples of research and implementation of structural health monitoring and damage assessment are summarized in the following sections.2 Laboratory and field testing researchIn general, there are two kinds of bridge testing methods, static testing and dynamic testing. The dynamic testing includes ambient vibration testing and forced vibration testing. In ambient vibration testing, the input excitation is not under the control. The loading could be either micro-tremors, wind, waves, vehicle or pedestrian traffic or any other service loading. The increasing popularity of this method is probably due to the convenience of measuring the vibrationresponse while the bridge is under in-service and also due to the increasing availability of robust data acquisition and storage systems. Since the input is unknown, certain assumptions have to be made. Forced vibration testing involves application of input excitation of known force level at known frequencies. The excitation manners include electro-hydraulic vibrators, forcehammers, vehicle impact, etc. The static testing in the laboratory may be conducted by actuators, and by standard vehicles in the field-testing.we can distinguish that①the models in the laboratory are mainly beams, columns, truss and/or frame structures, and the location and severity of damage in the models are determined in advance;②the testing has demonstrated lots of performances of damage structures;③the field-testing and damage assessmentof real bridges are more complicated than the models in the laboratory;④the correlation between the damage indicator and damage type,location, and extentwill still be improved.3 Analytical developmentThe bridge damage diagnosis and health monitoring are both concerned with two fundamental criteria of the bridges, namely, the physical condition and the structural function. In terms of mechanics or dynamics, these fundamental criteria can be treated as mathematical models, such as response models, modal models and physical models.Instead of taking measurements directly to assess bridge condition, the bridge damage diagnosis and monitoring systemevaluate these conditions indirectly by using mathematical models. The damage diagnosis and health monitoring are active areas of research in recentyears. For example, numerous papers on these topics appear in the proceedings of Inter-national Modal Analysis Conferences (IMAC) each year, in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural HealthMonitoring (once of two year, at Standford University), in the proceedings of European Conference on Smart materials and Structures and European Conference on Structural Damage AssessmentUsing Advanced Signal Processing Procedures, in the proceedings ofWorld Conferences of Earthquake Engineering, and in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural Control, etc.. There are several review papers to be referenced, for examples,Housner, et al. (1997)provided an extensive summary of the state of the art in control and health monitoring of civil engineering structures[1].Salawu (1997)discussed and reviewed the use of natural frequency as a diagnostic parameter in structural assessment procedures using vibrationmonitoring.Doebling, Farrar, et al. (1998)presented a through review of the damage detection methods by examining changes in dynamic properties.Zou, TongandSteven (2000)summarized the methods of vibration-based damage and health monitoring for composite structures, especially in delamination modeling techniques and delamination detection.4 Sensors and optimum placementOne of the problems facing structural health monitoring is that very little is known about the actual stress and strains in a structure under external excitations. For example, the standard earthquake recordings are made ofmotions of the floors of the structure and no recordings are made of the actual stresses and strains in structural members. There is a need for special sensors to determine the actual performance of structural members. Structural health monitoring requires integrated sensor functionality to measure changes in external environmental conditions, signal processing functionality to acquire, process, and combine multi-sensor and multi-measured information. Individual sensors and instrumented sensor systems are then required to provide such multiplexed information.FuandMoosa (2000)proposed probabilistic advancing cross-diagnosis method to diagnosis-decision making for structural health monitoring. It was experimented in the laboratory respectively using a coherent laser radar system and a CCD high-resolution camera. Results showed that this method was promising for field application. Another new idea is thatneural networktechniques are used to place sensors. For example,WordenandBurrows (2001)used the neural network and methods of combinatorial optimization to locate and classify faults.The static and dynamic data are collected from all kinds of sensorswhich are installed on the measured structures.And these datawill be processed and usable informationwill be extracted. So the sensitivity, accuracy, and locations,etc. of sensors are very important for the damage detections. The more information are obtained, the damage identification will be conducted more easily, but the price should be considered. That’s why the sensors are determinedin an optimal ornearoptimal distribution. In aword, the theory and validation ofoptimumsensor locationswill still being developed.5 Examples of health monitoring implementationIn order for the technology to advance sufficiently to become an operational system for the maintenance and safety of civil structures, it is of paramount importance that new analytical developments are ultimately verified with appropriate data obtained frommonitoring systems, which have been implemented on civil structures, such as bridges.Mufti (2001)summarized the applications of SHM of Canadian bridge engineering, including fibre-reinforced polymers sensors, remote monitoring, intelligent processing, practical applications in bridge engineering, and technology utilization. Further study and applications are still being conducted now.FujinoandAbe(2001)introduced the research and development of SHMsystems at the Bridge and Structural Lab of the University of Tokyo. They also presented the ambient vibration based approaches forLaser DopplerVibrometer (LDV) and the applications in the long-span suspension bridges.The extraction of the measured data is very hard work because it is hard to separate changes in vibration signature duo to damage form changes, normal usage, changes in boundary conditions, or the release of the connection joints.Newbridges offer opportunities for developing complete structural health monitoring systems for bridge inspection and condition evaluation from“cradle to grave”of the bridges. Existing bridges provide challenges for applying state-of-the-art in structural health monitoring technologies to determine the current conditions of the structural element,connections and systems, to formulate model for estimating the rate of degradation, and to predict the existing and the future capacities of the structural components and systems. Advanced health monitoring systems may lead to better understanding of structural behavior and significant improvements of design, as well as the reduction of the structural inspection requirements. Great benefits due to the introduction of SHM are being accepted by owners, managers, bridge engineers,etc..6 Research and development needsMost damage detection theories and practices are formulated based on the following assumption: that failure or deterioration would primarily affect the stiffness and therefore affect the modal characteristics of the dynamic response of the structure. This is seldom true in practice, because①Traditional modal parameters (natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shapes, etc.) are not sensitive enough to identify and locate damage. The estimation methods usually assume that structures are linear and proportional damping systems.②Most currently used damage indices depend on the severity of the damage, which is impractical in the field. Most civil engineering structures, such as highway bridges, have redundancy in design and large in size with low natural frequencies. Any damage index should consider these factors.③Scaledmodelingtechniques are used in currentbridge damage detection. Asingle beam/girder models cannot simulate the true behavior of a real bridge. Similitude laws for dynamic simulation and testing should be considered.④Manymethods usually use the undamaged structural modal parameters as the baseline comparedwith the damaged information. This will result in the need of a large data storage capacity for complex structures. But in practice,there are majority of existing structures for which baseline modal responses are not available. Only one developed method(StubbsandKim (1996)), which tried to quantify damagewithout using a baseline, may be a solution to this difficulty. There is a lot of researchwork to do in this direction.⑤Seldommethods have the ability to distinguish the type of damages on bridge structures. To establish the direct relationship between the various damage patterns and the changes of vibrational signatures is not a simple work.Health monitoring requires clearly defined performance criteria, a set of corresponding condition indicators and global and local damage and deterioration indices, which should help diagnose reasons for changes in condition indicators. It is implausible to expect that damage can be reliably detected or tracked byusing a single damage index. We note that many additional localized damage indiceswhich relate to highly localized properties ofmaterials or the circumstances may indicate a susceptibility of deterioration such as the presence of corrosive environments around reinforcing steel in concrete, should be also integrated into the health monitoring systems.There is now a considerable research and development effort in academia, industry, and management department regarding global healthmonitoring for civil engineering structures. Several commercial structural monitoring systems currently exist, but further development is needed in commercialization of the technology. We must realize that damage detection and health monitoring for bridge structures by means of vibration signature analysis is a very difficult task. Itcontains several necessary steps, including defining indicators on variations of structural physical condition, dynamic testing to extract such indication parameters, defining the type of damages and remaining capacity or life of the structure, relating the parameters to the defined damage/aging. Unfortunately, to date, no one has accomplished the above steps. There is a lot of work to do in future.桥梁健康监测应用与研究现状摘要桥梁损伤诊断与健康监测是近年来国际上的研究热点,在实践方面,土木工程和航空航天工程、机械工程有明显的差别,比如桥梁结构以及其他大多数土木结构,尺寸大、质量重,具有较低的自然频率和振动水平,桥梁结构的动力响应极容易受到不可预见的环境状态、非结构构件等的影响,这些变化往往被误解为结构的损伤,这使得桥梁这类复杂结构的损伤评估具有极大的挑战性.本文首先给出了结构健康监测系统的定义和基本构成,然后集中回顾和分析了如下几个方面的问题:①损伤评估的室内实验和现场测试;②损伤检测方法的发展,包括:(a)动力指纹分析和模式识别方法, (b)模型修正和系统识别方法, (c)神经网络方法;③传感器及其优化布置等,并比较和分析了各自方法的优点和不足.文中还总结了健康监测和损伤识别在桥梁工程中的应用,指出桥梁健康监测的关键问题在于损伤的自动检测和诊断,这也是困难的问题;最后展望了桥梁健康监测系统的研究和发展方向.关键词:健康监测系统;损伤检测;状态评估;模型修正;系统识别;传感器优化布置;神经网络方法;桥梁结构1概述由于不可预见的各种条件和情况下，设计和建造一个结构将永远不可能或无实践操作性，它有一个失败的概率百分之零。
土木工程英语文献原文及中文翻译
Civil engineering introduction papers[英语原文]Abstract: the civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, building whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of science and development. Mechanics findings, material of update, ever more scientific technology into the building. But before a room with a tile to cover the top of the house, now for comfort, different ideas, different scientific, promoted the development of civil engineering, making it more perfect.[key words] : civil engineering; Architecture; Mechanics, Materials.Civil engineering is build various projects collectively. It was meant to be and "military project" corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to to Engineering, because they all have MinYongXing. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port Engineering, While in our country, water conservancy projects and port projects also become very close and civil engineering relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering is a kind of with people's food, clothing, shelter and transportation has close relation of the project. Among them with "live" relationship is directly. Because, to solve the "live" problem must build various types of buildings. To solve the "line, food and clothes" problem both direct side, but also a indirect side. "Line", must build railways, roads, Bridges, "Feed", must be well drilling water, water conservancy, farm irrigation, drainage water supply for the city, that is direct relation. Indirectly relationship is no matter what you do, manufacturing cars, ships, or spinning and weaving, clothing, or even production steel, launch satellites, conducting scientific research activities are inseparable from build various buildings, structures and build all kinds of project facilities.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, waterand wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines. [1]Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of people's life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineering construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerhouses.Construction project is housing planning, survey, design, construction of the floorboard. Purpose is for human life and production provide places.Houses will be like a man, it's like a man's life planning environment is responsible by the planners, Its layout and artistic processing, corresponding to the body shape looks and temperament, is responsible by the architect, Its structure is like a person's bones and life expectancy, the structural engineer is responsible, Its water, heating ventilation and electrical facilities such as the human organ and the nerve, is by the equipment engineer is responsible for. Also like nature intact shaped like people, in the city I district planning based on build houses, and is the construction unit, reconnaissance unit, design unit of various design engineers and construction units comprehensive coordination and cooperation process.After all, but is structural stress body reaction force and the internal stress and how external force balance. Building to tackle, also must solve the problem is mechanical problems. We have to solve the problem of discipline called architectural mechanics. Architectural mechanics have can be divided into: statics, material mechanics and structural mechanics three mechanical system. Architectural mechanics is discussion and research building structure and component in load and other factors affecting the working condition of, also is the building of intensity, stiffness and stability. In load, bear load and load of structure and component can cause the surrounding objects in their function, and the object itself by the load effect and deformation, and there is the possibility of damage, but the structure itself has certain resistance to deformation and destruction of competence, and the bearing capacity of the structure size is and component of materials, cross section, and the structural properties of geometry size, working conditions and structure circumstance relevant. While these relationships can be improved by mechanics formula solved through calculation.Building materials in building and has a pivotal role. Building material is with human society productivity and science and technologyimproves gradually developed. In ancient times, the human lives, the line USES is the rocks andTrees. The 4th century BC, 12 ~ has created a tile and brick, humans are only useful synthetic materials made of housing. The 17th century had cast iron and ShouTie later, until the eighteenth century had Portland cement, just make later reinforced concrete engineering get vigorous development. Now all sorts of high-strength structural materials, new decoration materials and waterproof material development, criterion and 20th century since mid organic polymer materials in civil engineering are closely related to the widely application. In all materials, the most main and most popular is steel, concrete, lumber, masonry. In recent years, by using two kinds of material advantage, will make them together, the combination of structure was developed. Now, architecture, engineering quality fit and unfit quality usually adopted materials quality, performance and using reasonable or not have direct connection, in meet the same technical indicators and quality requirements, under the precondition of choice of different material is different, use method of engineering cost has direct impact.In construction process, building construction is and architectural mechanics, building materials also important links. Construction is to the mind of the designer, intention and idea into realistic process, from the ancient hole JuChao place to now skyscrapers, from rural to urban country road elevated road all need through "construction" means. A construction project, including many jobs such as dredging engineering, deep foundation pit bracing engineering, foundation engineering, reinforced concrete structure engineering, structural lifting project, waterproofing, decorate projects, each type of project has its own rules, all need according to different construction object and construction environment conditions using relevant construction technology, in work-site.whenever while, need and the relevant hydropower and other equipment composition of a whole, each project between reasonable organizing and coordination, better play investment benefit. Civil engineering construction in the benefit, while also issued by the state in strict accordance with the relevant construction technology standard, thus further enhance China's construction level to ensure construction quality, reduce the cost for the project.Any building built on the surface of the earth all strata, building weight eventually to stratum, have to bear. Formation Support building the rocks were referred to as foundation, and the buildings on the ground and under the upper structure of self-respect and liable to load transfer to the foundation of components or component called foundation. Foundation, and the foundation and the superstructure is a building of three inseparable part. According to the function is different, but in load, under the action of them are related to each other, is theinteraction of the whole. Foundation can be divided into natural foundation and artificial foundation, basic according to the buried depth is divided into deep foundation and shallow foundation. , foundation and foundation is the guarantee of the quality of the buildings and normal use close button, where buildings foundation in building under loads of both must maintain overall stability and if the settlement of foundation produce in building scope permitted inside, and foundation itself should have sufficient strength, stiffness and durability, also consider repair methods and the necessary foundation soil retaining retaining water and relevant measures. [3]As people living standard rise ceaselessly, the people to their place of building space has become not only from the number, and put forward higher requirement from quality are put car higher demands that the environment is beautiful, have certain comfort. This needs to decorate a building to be necessary. If architecture major engineering constitutes the skeleton of the building, then after adornment building has become the flesh-and-blood organism, final with rich, perfect appearance in people's in front, the best architecture should fully embody all sorts of adornment material related properties, with existing construction technology, the most effective gimmick, to achieve conception must express effect. Building outfit fix to consider the architectural space use requirement, protect the subject institutions from damage, give a person with beautifulenjoying, satisfy the requirements of fire evacuation, decorative materials and scheme of rationality, construction technology and economic feasibility, etc. Housing construction development and at the same time, like housing construction as affecting people life of roads, Bridges, tunnels has made great progress.In general civil engineering is one of the oldest subjects, it has made great achievements, the future of the civil engineering will occupy in people's life more important position. The environment worsening population increase, people to fight for survival, to strive for a more comfortable living environment, and will pay more attention to civil engineering. In the near future, some major projects extimated to build, insert roller skyscrapers, across the oceanBridges, more convenient traffic would not dream. The development of science and technology, and the earth is deteriorating environment will be prompted civil engineering to aerospace and Marine development, provide mankind broader space of living. In recent years, engineering materials mainly is reinforced concrete, lumber and brick materials, in the future, the traditional materials will be improved, more suitable for some new building materials market, especially the chemistry materials will promote the construction of towards a higher point. Meanwhile, design method of precision, design work of automation, information and intelligent technology of introducing, will be people have a morecomfortable living environment. The word, and the development of the theory and new materials, the emergence of the application of computer, high-tech introduction to wait to will make civil engineering have a new leap.This is a door needs calm and a great deal of patience and attentive professional. Because hundreds of thousands, even hundreds of thousands of lines to building each place structure clearly reflected. Without a gentle state of mind, do what thing just floating on the surface, to any a building structure, to be engaged in business and could not have had a clear, accurate and profound understanding of, the nature is no good. In this business, probably not burn the midnight oil of courage, not to reach the goal of spirit not to give up, will only be companies eliminated.This is a responsible and caring industry. Should have a single responsible heart - I one's life in my hand, thousands of life in my hand. Since the civil, should choose dependably shoulder the responsibility.Finally, this is a constant pursuit of perfect industry. Pyramid, spectacular now: The Great Wall, the majestic... But if no generations of the pursuit of today, we may also use the sort of the oldest way to build this same architecture. Design a building structure is numerous, but this is all experienced centuries of clarification, through continuous accumulation, keep improving, innovation obtained. And such pursuit, not confined in the past. Just think, if the design of a building can be like calculation one plus one equals two as simple and easy to grasp, that was not for what? Therefore, a civil engineer is in constant of in formation. One of the most simple structure, the least cost, the biggest function. Choose civil, choosing a steadfast diligence, innovation, pursuit of perfect path.Reference:[1] LuoFuWu editor. Civil engineering (professional). Introduction to wuhan. Wuhan university of technology press. 2007[2] WangFuChuan, palace rice expensive editor. Construction engineering materials. Beijing. Science and technology literature press. 2002[3] jiang see whales, zhiming editor. Civil engineering introduction of higher education press. Beijing.. 1992土木工程概论 [译文]摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。
土木工程专业外语课文翻译
土木工程专业外语课文翻译专业英语课文翻译Lesson 4Phrases and Expressions1.moisture content 含水量，含湿度; water content 2.cement paste 水泥浆 mortar 3.capillary tension 毛细管张力，微张力 4.gradation of aggregate 骨料级配 coarse fine (crushed stone , gravel ) 5.The British Code PC 100 英国混凝土规范PC 100; nowaday BS 8110 6. coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete 混凝土热膨胀系数 7. The B .S Code 英国标准规范8. sustained load 永久荷载，长期荷载9. permanent plastic strain 永久的塑性应变stress 10. crystal lattice 晶格, 晶格11. cement gel 水泥凝胶体12. water -cement ratio 水灰比13. expansion joint 伸缩缝 14. stability of the structure 结构的稳定性structural stability 15. fatigue strength of concrete 混凝土的疲劳强度 Volume Changes of ConcreteConcrete undergoes volume changes during hardening . 混凝土在硬结过程中会经历体积变化。
If it loses moisture by evaporation , it shrinks , but if the concrete hardens in water , it expands . 如果蒸发失去水分，混凝土会收缩；但如果在水中硬结，它便膨胀。
土木工程专业英语(带翻译)
State-of-the-art report of bridge health monitoring AbstractThe damage diagnosis and healthmonitoring of bridge structures are active areas of research in recent years. Comparing with the aerospace engineering and mechanical engineering, civil engineering has the specialities of its own in practice. For example, because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at low amplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the nonstructural components, unforeseen environmental conditions, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage.All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. This paper firstly presents the definition of structural healthmonitoring system and its components. Then, the focus of the discussion is placed on the following sections:①the laboratory and field testing research on the damage assessment;②analytical developments of damage detectionmethods, including (a) signature analysis and pattern recognition approaches, (b) model updating and system identification approaches, (c) neural networks approaches; and③sensors and their optimum placements. The predominance and shortcomings of each method are compared and analyzed. Recent examples of implementation of structural health monitoring and damage identification are summarized in this paper. The key problem of bridge healthmonitoring is damage automatic detection and diagnosis, and it is the most difficult problem. Lastly, research and development needs are addressed.1 IntroductionDue to a wide variety of unforeseen conditions and circumstance, it will never be possible or practical to design and build a structure that has a zero percent probability of failure. Structural aging, environmental conditions, and reuse are examples of circumstances that could affect the reliability and the life of a structure. There are needs of periodic inspections to detect deterioration resulting from normal operation and environmental attack or inspections following extreme events, such as strong-motion earthquakes or hurricanes. To quantify these system performance measures requires some means to monitor and evaluate the integrity of civil structureswhile in service. Since the Aloha Boeing 737 accident that occurred on April28, 1988, such interest has fostered research in the areas of structural health monitoring and non-destructive damage detection in recent years.According to Housner, et al. (1997), structural healthmonitoring is defined as“the use ofin-situ,non-destructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for detecting changes that may indicate damage or degradation”[1]. This definition also identifies the weakness. While researchers have attempted the integration of NDEwith healthmonitoring, the focus has been on data collection, not evaluation. What is needed is an efficient method to collect data from a structure in-service and process the data to evaluate key performance measures, such as serviceability, reliability, and durability. So, the definition byHousner, et al.(1997)should be modified and the structural health monitoring may be defined as“the use ofin-situ,nondestructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for the purpose of identifying if damage has occurred, determining the location of damage, estimatingthe severityof damage and evaluatingthe consequences of damage on the structures”(Fig.1). In general, a structural health monitoring system has the potential to provide both damage detection and condition assessment of a structure.Assessing the structural conditionwithout removingthe individual structural components is known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) or nondestructive inspection. NDE techniques include those involving acoustics, dye penetrating,eddy current, emission spectroscopy, fiber-optic sensors, fiber-scope, hardness testing, isotope, leak testing, optics, magnetic particles, magnetic perturbation, X-ray, noise measurements, pattern recognition, pulse-echo, ra-diography, and visual inspection, etc. Mostof these techniques have been used successfullyto detect location of certain elements, cracks orweld defects, corrosion/erosion, and so on. The FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA, USA)was sponsoring a large program of research and development in new technologies for the nondestructive evaluation of highway bridges. One of the two main objectives of the program is to develop newtools and techniques to solve specific problems. The other is to develop technologies for the quantitative assessment of the condition of bridges in support of bridge management and to investigate howbest to incorporate quantitative condition information into bridge management systems. They hoped to develop technologies to quickly, efficiently, and quantitatively measure global bridge parameters, such as flexibility and load-carrying capacity. Obviously, a combination of several NDEtechniques may be used to help assess the condition of the system. They are very important to obtain the data-base for the bridge evaluation.But it is beyond the scope of this review report to get into details of local NDE.Health monitoring techniques may be classified as global and local. Global attempts to simultaneously assess the condition of the whole structure whereas local methods focus NDE tools on specific structural components. Clearly, two approaches are complementaryto eachother. All such available informationmaybe combined and analyzed by experts to assess the damage or safety state of the structure.Structural health monitoring research can be categorized into the following four levels: (I) detecting the existence of damage, (II) findingthe location of damage, (III) estimatingthe extentof damage, and (IV) predictingthe remaining fatigue life. The performance of tasks of Level (III) requires refined structural models and analyses, local physical examination, and/or traditional NDE techniques. To performtasks ofLevel (IV) requires material constitutive information on a local level, materials aging studies, damage mechanics, and high-performance computing. With improved instrumentation and understanding of dynamics of complex structures, health monitoring and damage assessment of civil engineering structures has become more practical in systematic inspection and evaluation of these structures during the past two decades.Most structural health monitoringmethods under current investigation focus on using dynamic responses to detect and locate damage because they are global methods that can provide rapid inspection of large structural systems.These dynamics-based methods can be divided into fourgroups:①spatial-domain methods,②modal-domain methods,③time-domain methods, and④frequency- domain methods. Spatial-domain methods use changes of mass, damping, and stiffness matrices to detect and locate damage. Modal-domain methods use changes of natural frequencies, modal damping ratios, andmode shapesto detect damage. In the frequency domain method, modal quantities such as natural frequencies, damping ratio, and model shapes are identified.The reverse dynamic systemof spectral analysis and the generalized frequency response function estimated fromthe nonlinear auto-regressive moving average (NARMA) model were applied in nonlinear system identification. In time domainmethod, systemparameterswere determined fromthe observational data sampled in time. It is necessaryto identifythe time variation of systemdynamic characteristics fromtime domain approach if the properties of structural systemchangewith time under the external loading condition. Moreover, one can use model-independent methods or model-referenced methods to perform damage detection using dynamic responses presented in any of the four domains. Literature shows that model independent methods can detect the existence of damage without much computational efforts, butthey are not accurate in locating damage. On the otherhand, model-referencedmethods are generally more accurate in locating damage and require fewer sensors than model-independent techniques, but they require appropriate structural models and significant computational efforts. Although time-domain methods use original time-domain datameasured using conventional vibrationmeasurement equipment, theyrequire certain structural information and massive computation and are case sensitive. Furthermore, frequency- and modal-domain methods use transformed data,which contain errors and noise due totransformation.Moreover, themodeling and updatingofmass and stiffnessmatrices in spatial-domain methods are problematic and difficult to be accurate. There are strong developmenttrends that two or three methods are combined together to detect and assess structural damages.For example, several researchers combined data of static and modal tests to assess damages. The combination could remove the weakness of each method and check each other. It suits the complexity of damage detection.Structural health monitoring is also an active area of research in aerospace engineering, but there are significant differences among the aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering in practice. For example,because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at lowamplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the non-structural components, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage. Moreover,the level of modeling uncertainties in reinforced concrete bridges can be much greater than the single beam or a space truss. All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. Recent examples of research and implementation of structural health monitoring and damage assessment are summarized in the following sections.2 Laboratory and field testing researchIn general, there are two kinds of bridge testing methods, static testing and dynamic testing. The dynamic testing includes ambient vibration testing and forcedvibration testing. In ambient vibration testing, the input excitation is not under the control. The loading could be either micro-tremors, wind, waves, vehicle or pedestrian traffic or any other service loading. The increasing popularity of this method is probably due to the convenience of measuring the vibrationresponse while the bridge is under in-service and also due to the increasing availability of robust data acquisition and storage systems. Since the input is unknown, certain assumptions have to be made. Forced vibration testing involves application of input excitation of known force level at known frequencies. The excitation manners include electro-hydraulic vibrators, force hammers, vehicle impact, etc. The static testing in the laboratory may be conducted by actuators, and by standard vehicles in the field-testing.we can distinguish that①the models in the laboratory are mainly beams, columns, truss and/or frame structures, and the location and severity of damage in the models are determined in advance;②the testing has demonstrated lots of performances of damage structures;③the field-testing and damage assessmentof real bridges are more complicated than the models in the laboratory;④the correlation between the damage indicator and damage type,location, and extentwill still be improved.3Analytical developmentThe bridge damage diagnosis and health monitoring are both concerned with two fundamental criteria of the bridges, namely, the physical condition and the structural function. In terms of mechanics or dynamics, these fundamental criteria can be treated as mathematical models, such as response models, modal models and physical models.Instead of taking measurements directly to assess bridge condition, the bridge damage diagnosis and monitoring systemevaluate these conditions indirectly by using mathematical models. The damage diagnosis and health monitoring are active areas of research in recentyears. For example, numerous papers on these topics appear in the proceedings of Inter-national Modal Analysis Conferences (IMAC) each year, in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural HealthMonitoring (once of two year, at Standford University), in the proceedings of European Conference on Smart materials and Structures and European Conference on Structural Damage AssessmentUsing Advanced Signal Processing Procedures, in the proceedings ofWorld Conferences of Earthquake Engineering, and in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural Control, etc.. There are several review papers to be referenced, for examples,Housner, et al. (1997)provided an extensive summary ofthe state of the art in control and health monitoring of civil engineering structures[1].Salawu (1997)discussed and reviewed the use of natural frequency as a diagnostic parameter in structural assessment procedures using vibration monitoring.Doebling, Farrar, et al. (1998)presented a through review of the damage detection methods by examining changes in dynamic properties.Zou, TongandSteven (2000)summarized the methods of vibration-based damage and health monitoring for composite structures, especially in delamination modeling techniques and delamination detection.4Sensors and optimum placementOne of the problems facing structural health monitoring is that very little is known about the actual stress and strains in a structure under external excitations. For example, the standard earthquake recordings are made ofmotions of the floors of the structure and no recordings are made of the actual stresses and strains in structural members. There is a need for special sensors to determine the actual performance of structural members. Structural health monitoring requires integrated sensor functionality to measure changes in external environmental conditions, signal processing functionality to acquire, process, and combine multi-sensor and multi-measured information. Individual sensors and instrumented sensor systems are then required to provide such multiplexed information.FuandMoosa (2000)proposed probabilistic advancing cross-diagnosis method to diagnosis-decision making for structural health monitoring. It was experimented in the laboratory respectively using a coherent laser radar system and a CCD high-resolution camera. Results showed that this method was promising for field application. Another new idea is thatneural networktechniques are used to place sensors. For example,WordenandBurrows (2001)used the neural network and methods of combinatorial optimization to locate and classify faults.The static and dynamic data are collected from all kinds of sensorswhich are installed on the measured structures.And these datawill be processed and usable informationwill be extracted. So the sensitivity, accuracy, and locations,etc. of sensors are very important for the damage detections. The more information are obtained, the damage identification will be conducted more easily, but the price should be considered. That’s why the sensors are determined in an optimal ornearoptimal distribution. In aword, the theory and validation ofoptimumsensor locationswill still being developed.5 Examples of health monitoring implementationIn order for the technology to advance sufficiently to become an operational system for the maintenance and safety of civil structures, it is of paramount importance that new analytical developments are ultimately verified with appropriate data obtained frommonitoring systems, which have been implemented on civil structures, such as bridges.Mufti (2001)summarized the applications of SHM of Canadian bridge engineering, including fibre-reinforced polymers sensors, remote monitoring, intelligent processing, practical applications in bridge engineering, and technology utilization. Further study and applications are still being conducted now.FujinoandAbe(2001)introduced the research and development of SHMsystems at the Bridge and Structural Lab of the University of Tokyo. They also presented the ambient vibration based approaches forLaser DopplerVibrometer (LDV) and the applications in the long-span suspension bridges.The extraction of the measured data is very hard work because it is hard to separate changes in vibration signature duo to damage form changes, normal usage, changes in boundary conditions, or the release of the connection joints.Newbridges offer opportunities for developing complete structural health monitoring systems for bridge inspection and co ndition evaluation from“cradle to grave”of the bridges. Existing bridges provide challenges for applying state-of-the-art in structural health monitoring technologies to determine the current conditions of the structural element,connections and systems, to formulate model for estimating the rate of degradation, and to predict the existing and the future capacities of the structural components and systems. Advanced health monitoring systems may lead to better understanding of structural behavior and significant improvements of design, as well as the reduction of the structural inspection requirements. Great benefits due to the introduction of SHM are being accepted by owners, managers, bridge engineers, etc..6 Research and development needsMost damage detection theories and practices are formulated based on the following assumption: that failure or deterioration would primarily affect the stiffness and therefore affect the modal characteristics of the dynamic response of the structure. This is seldom true in practice, because①Traditional modal parameters (natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shapes, etc.) are not sensitive enough to identifyand locate damage. The estimation methods usually assume that structures are linear and proportional damping systems.②Most currently used damage indices depend on the severity of the damage, which is impractical in the field. Most civil engineering structures, such as highway bridges, have redundancy in design and large in size with low natural frequencies. Any damage index should consider these factors.③Scaledmodelingtechniques are used in currentbridge damage detection. Asingle beam/girder models cannot simulate the true behavior of a real bridge. Similitude laws for dynamic simulation and testing should be considered.④Manymethods usually use the undamaged structural modal parameters as the baseline comparedwith the damaged information. This will result in the need of a large data storage capacity for complex structures. But in practice,there are majority of existing structures for which baseline modal responses are not available. Only one developed method(StubbsandKim (1996)), which tried to quantify damagewithout using a baseline, may be a solution to this difficulty. There is a lot of researchwork to do in this direction.⑤Seldommethods have the ability to distinguish the type of damages on bridge structures. To establish the direct relationship between the various damage patterns and the changes of vibrational signatures is not a simple work.Health monitoring requires clearly defined performance criteria, a set of corresponding condition indicators and global and local damage and deterioration indices, which should help diagnose reasons for changes in condition indicators. It is implausible to expect that damage can be reliably detected or tracked by using a single damage index. We note that many additional localized damage indiceswhich relate to highly localized properties ofmaterials or the circumstances may indicate a susceptibility of deterioration such as the presence of corrosive environments around reinforcing steel in concrete, should be also integrated into the health monitoring systems.There is now a considerable research and development effort in academia, industry, and management department regarding global healthmonitoring for civil engineering structures. Several commercial structural monitoring systems currently exist, but further development is needed in commercialization of the technology. We must realize that damage detection and health monitoring for bridge structures by means of vibration signature analysis is a very difficult task. Itcontains several necessary steps, including defining indicators on variations of structural physical condition, dynamic testing to extract such indication parameters,defining the type of damages and remaining capacity or life of the structure, relating the parameters to the defined damage/aging. Unfortunately, to date, no one has accomplished the above steps. There is a lot of work to do in future.桥梁健康监测应用与研究现状摘要桥梁损伤诊断与健康监测是近年来国际上的研究热点,在实践方面,土木工程和航空航天工程、机械工程有明显的差别,比如桥梁结构以及其他大多数土木结构,尺寸大、质量重,具有较低的自然频率和振动水平,桥梁结构的动力响应极容易受到不可预见的环境状态、非结构构件等的影响,这些变化往往被误解为结构的损伤,这使得桥梁这类复杂结构的损伤评估具有极大的挑战性.本文首先给出了结构健康监测系统的定义和基本构成,然后集中回顾和分析了如下几个方面的问题:①损伤评估的室内实验和现场测试;②损伤检测方法的发展,包括:(a)动力指纹分析和模式识别方法, (b)模型修正和系统识别方法, (c)神经网络方法;③传感器及其优化布置等,并比较和分析了各自方法的优点和不足.文中还总结了健康监测和损伤识别在桥梁工程中的应用,指出桥梁健康监测的关键问题在于损伤的自动检测和诊断,这也是困难的问题;最后展望了桥梁健康监测系统的研究和发展方向.关键词:健康监测系统;损伤检测;状态评估;模型修正;系统识别;传感器优化布置;神经网络方法;桥梁结构1概述由于不可预见的各种条件和情况下，设计和建造一个结构将永远不可能或无实践操作性，它有一个失败的概率百分之零。
土木工程专业英语第二版段兵延主编经典完整版翻译样本
《土木工程专业英语》参考译文第一课土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科, 是指规划, 设计, 施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构, 从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
土木工程师建造道路, 桥梁, 管道, 大坝, 海港, 发电厂, 给排水系统, 医院, 学校, 公共交通和其它现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
她们也建造私有设施, 比如飞机场, 铁路, 管线, 摩天大楼, 以及其它设计用作工业, 商业和住宅途径的大型结构。
另外, 土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇, 而且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。
土木一词来源于拉丁文词”公民”。
在1782年, 英国人John Smeaton为了把她的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。
自从那时起, 土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师, 尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。
领域。
因为包含范围太广, 土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。
不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。
一个项目开始的时候, 土木工程师要对场地进行测绘, 定位有用的布置, 如地下水水位, 下水道, 和电力线。
岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。
环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响, 包括对空气和地下水的可能污染, 对当地动植物生活的影响, 以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。
交通工程专家确定必须的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其它交通网络的负担。
同时, 结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划, 设计和说明。
从项目开始到结束, 对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。
根据其它专家所提供的信息, 施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费, 所有工作的进度表, 订购工作所需要的材料和设备, 雇佣承包商和分包商, 还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。
土木工程专业英语(苏小卒版)翻译
The Egyptians built causeways and roads for transporting stone from the quarries to the Nile. The large blocks of stone that were erected by the Egyptians were moved by using levers, inclined planes, rollers, and sledges.
埃及人主要对如何建造感兴趣；他们对为什么这么使用没有什么太多的兴 趣。相反，在公元前六世纪到公元前三世纪希腊人取得了巨大的进步于工程理 论的推广。他们发展了线、角度、面，和实体的抽象的知识，而不是与特定的 对象产生联系。 希腊建筑施工的几何基础包括数字如正方形、矩形和三角形。
The Greek architekton was usually the designer, as well as the builder, of architectural and engineering masterpieces. He was an architect and engineer. Craftsmen, masons, and sculptors worked under his supervision. In the classical period of Greece all important buildings were built of limestone or marble; the Parthenon, for example, was built of marble.
土木工程专业英语(苏小卒版)翻译.
第一单元Fundamentally, engineering is an end-product-oriented discipline that is innovative, cost-conscious and mindful of human factors. It is concerned with the creation of new entities, devices or methods of solution: a new process, a new material, an improved power source, a more efficient arrangement of tasks to accomplish a desired goal or a new structure. Engineering is also more often than not concerned with obtaining economical solutions. And, finally, human safety is always a key consideration.从根本上，工程是一个以最终产品为导向的行业，它具有创新、成本意识，同时也注意到人为因素。
它与创建新的实体、设备或解决方案有关：新工艺、新材料、一个改进的动力来源、任务的一项更有效地安排，用以完成所需的目标或创建一个新的结构。
工程是也不仅仅关心获得经济的解决方案。
最终，人类安全才是一个最重要的考虑因素。
Engineering is concerned with the use of abstract scientific ways of thinking and of defining real world problems. The use of idealizations and development of procedures for establishing bounds within which behavior can be ascertained are part of the process.工程关心的是，使用抽象的科学方法思考和定义现实世界的问题。
土木工程专业英语课文翻译陶燕王文萱第九单元
土木工程专业英语课文翻译陶燕王文萱第九单元Civil engineering,the oldest of the engineering specialties,is the planning，design，construction，and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles，from irrigation and drainage systems torocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
Civil engineers build roads，bridges，tunnels，dams,harbors，power plants，water and sewage systems,hospitals,schools，mass transit,and other public facilities essential to modern society and largepopulation concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports，railroads，pipelines,skyscrapers，and other large structures designed forindustrial，commercial，or residential use. In addition,civil engineers plan，design，and build complete citiesand towns，and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-containedcommunities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
土木工程专业英语课文译文
参考译文第一单元第一部分钢筋混凝土混凝土混凝土由水，砂，石子和水泥构成。
这些不同的，分散的材料混合在一起就构成了一种坚硬的大块状物体（形状各异），有着良好的性能。
混凝土被用作建筑材料已有150年的历史。
它的普遍应用主要由于以下几点：（1）恶劣环境下的耐久性（包括耐水）（2）极易被浇铸成不同的形状和尺寸（3）相对经济实惠，极易获得（4）有极强的抗压能力但众所周知，与其较强的抗压强度相比，混凝土抗拉和抗弯强度较低。
因此，每当荷载，限制收缩或是温度发生变化，产生的拉应力超过混凝土的拉伸强度时，就会有裂缝出现。
在结构应用方面，通常的做法是利用钢筋来抵抗拉力或者是给混凝土施加压力来抵消这些拉力。
预应力混凝土对混凝土构件加载之前，对其进行压缩的方法称为预应力。
把钢筋和混凝土使用很强的力结合在一起就被称为预应力混凝土。
预应力混凝土的优点如下：1.在预应力操作过程中，混凝土和钢筋经过严格测试，较低的安全系数也是正当的。
2.混凝土中可容许的工作压力通常是抗压强度的三分之一，从而使保证金来弥补劣质混凝土在临界区发生的风险。
3.预应力减少风险，是由于混凝土在预应力操作期间产生的应力可能是其抗压强度的50%到75%。
今天，预应力混凝土被应用于建筑物，地下结构，电视塔，浮动储藏器和海上结构，电站，核反应堆容器和包括拱形桥和斜拉桥在内的各种桥梁系统当中。
这说明了预应力概念的多方面适应性以及对它的广泛应用。
所有这些结构的发展和建造的成功都是由于材料技术的进步，尤其是预应力钢和在估计预应力长期和短期损失方面积累的知识。
钢筋钢筋是一种极好的建筑材料。
与其他材料相比，钢筋有着较高的抗拉强度。
尽管在体积上是木材的十倍以上。
钢筋有着较高的弹性模量，因此在荷载下容易发生小的变形。
到目前为止所描述的钢筋的特性只适用于温度保持在70F上下的情况，大约从30F到110F。
这个温度区间覆盖了大多数结构的运行状况，但搞清楚当温度远远超出正常水平时所发生的情况仍然非常重要。
土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译土木工程师建造道路、桥梁、隧道、水坝、港口、发电厂、水和污水系统、医院、学校、大众交通和其他对现代社会和大量人口集中地区至关重要的公共设施。
他们还建造私人拥有的设施，如机场、铁路、管道、摩天大楼和其他为工业、商业或住宅使用而设计的大型结构。
此外，土木工程师规划、设计和建造完整的城市和城镇，最近还在规划和设计太空平台，以容纳自给自足的社区。
___ passes the planning。
design。
n。
and management of the built ___ scientific principles。
from ___ are essential to modern society。
such as roads。
bridges。
___。
dams。
and hospitals.___ public facilities。
civil engineers also design and build privately-owned structures。
including airports。
railroads。
pipelines。
skyscrapers。
and other ___。
and ___.Overall。
___ civil engineers。
our modern infrastructure and public facilities would not exist.___。
n。
and maintenance of public and private infrastructure。
This includes roads。
bridges。
pipelines。
dams。
ports。
power plants。
water supply and sewage systems。
hospitals。
schools。
___。
and other structures that are essential to modern ___ as airports。
《土木工程专业英语》陈瑛邵永波主编全文经典翻译
C h a p t e r1.S t r u c t u r a l M e c h a n i c s结构力学1.1ClassificationandBehaviorofStructuralSystemsandElements系统结构和元素的分类和作用1.2DeterminateandIndeterminateStructures静定和超静定结构1.3 StructuralDynamics结构动力学Chapter2.StructuralMaterial土木工程材料2.1MaterialsforConcreteandMixProportion砼材料及配比2.2PropertiesofConcrete砼的性能2.3SteelMaterials钢材料2.4StructuralSteelShapes型钢Chapter3.StructuralDesignconcepts结构设计3.1LoadconditionsandLoadPaths负载条件和加载路径3.2LimitStateDesign极限状态设计Chapter4.ConcreteStructure钢筋混凝土结构4.1FlexuralBehaviorofReinforcedConcreteBeam钢筋混凝土梁的弯曲性能4.2ShearandDiagonalTensioninReinforcedConcreteBeam钢筋混凝土梁的剪切和斜拉4.3 Bond,Anchorage,andDevelopmentLength连接，锚固，基本锚固长度Chapter1.StructuralMechanics结构力学1.1.ClassificationandBehaviorofStructuralSystemsandElements系统结构和元素的分类和作用Commonrigidelementsincludebeams,columnsorstruts,arches,flatplates,singlycurv edplates,andshellshavingavarietyofdifferentcurvatures.Flexibleelementsincludecable s(straightanddraped)andmembranes(planar,singlycurved,anddoublycurved).Inaddition,t hereareanumberofothertypesofstructuresthatarederivedfromtheseelements(e.g,frames,t rsses,geodesicdomes,nets,etc.)(figure1.1)常见的刚性元件包括梁，柱，支撑，圆拱，平板，单向板弯曲面，具有不同的曲率的翘体。
土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译7~11单元
Unit 7 第七单元Reinforced Concrete Structures钢筋混凝土结构熟悉institute、association、society的用法；regulation、specification、code的用法；result in、give rise to、lead to的用法；reinforcing bar、reinforcing steel、steel bar、reinforcement的含义；involve、include、cover的用法；due to、stem from、because of的用法；construction、function、compressive、allow、form的不同含义。
Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant（主要的）structural material in engineered construction（建造的建筑物）. The universal（通用的）nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from（归因于）the wide availability of reinforcing bars（钢筋）and the constituents（组成部分）of concrete, gravel,sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction（施工）, and the economy（经济性）of reinforced concrete compared to other form of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts（各种各样）, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures（近海石油开采和生产结构）, dams, and even in ships. 混凝土与钢筋混凝土作为建筑材料在每个国家被使用着。
土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译3~5单元
Unit 3 (从第三段开始)现代水泥发明于1824年，称为波特兰水泥。
它是石灰石和粘土的混合物，加热后磨成粉末。
在或靠近施工现场，将水泥与砂、骨料（小石头、压碎的岩石或砾石）、水混合而制成混凝土。
不同比例的配料会制造出不同强度和重量的混凝土。
混凝土的用途很多，可以浇筑、泵送甚至喷射成各种形状。
混凝土具有很大的抗压强度，而钢材具有很大的抗拉强度。
这样，两种材料可以互补。
They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where（在…情况下）both compression and tension are factors（主要因素）. Steel rods（钢筋）are embedded in（埋入）concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tension will develop （出现）. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond - the force that unites（粘合）them - that the steel cannot slip（滑移）with the concrete. Still（还有）another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid（酸）corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.它们也以另外一种方式互补：它们几乎有相同的收缩率和膨胀率。
土木工程专业英语翻译(含中英)
Structural behavior of low- and normal-strength interface mortar of masonryThomas Zimmermann1 , Alfred Strauss1 and Konrad Bergmeister1(1) Institute for Structural Engineering, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Peter-Jordan-Strasse 82, 1190 Vienna, AustriaThomasZimmermann(Correspondingauthor)Email:Zimmermann.Thomas@boku.ac.atAlfredStraussEmail:Alfred.Strauss@boku.ac.atKonradBergmeisterEmail:Konrad.Bergmeister@boku.ac.atReceived:12 April 2011 Accepted:29 August 2011 Published online:8 November 2011 Abstract Building with masonry is based on the experience of many centuries. Although this design is used worldwide, knowledge about the material behaviour of masonry is still subject to uncertainties. The determination of safety of these structures against earthquakes is a complex challenge. For instance it depends on the resistance of the structure, the seismic action and on many uncertain structural details. One of the key parameters regarding the resistance is the shear strength of the masonry. A series of tests on mortar prisms according to EN 1015-11 was performed in which the mortar properties were varied in order to measure bending and compressive strength. In a second test program, the shear strength of the masonry was tested according to EN 1052-3. Shear triplets were made to establish the shear strength variation due to deliberate variation of the mortar properties. In addition, for both tests on mortar prisms and tests on shear triplets, descriptive statistical parameters were calculated and an attempt was made to describe the datasets with probabilistic distributions for further dimensioning and stochastic assessments. Keywords Shear strength – Coefficient of friction – Old masonry1IntroductionMasonry is a typical construction material which can withstand compression, but has low shear and bending resistance. This makes unreinforced masonry buildings highly interesting: (a) to gather mechanical properties and their wide scatter, which is characteristic for old masonry, and, (b) to obtain appropriate tools for assessment, analysis and retrofit methods.General rules and design aspects are stated in specific Eurocodes (EC). For masonry structures, rules and design aspects are regulated in EC 6 [1]. The ultimate limit state distinguishes between three major conditions: (a) masonry under vertical loading, (b) masonry under shear, and, (c) masonry under bending. The most critical loading conditions are cases (b) and (c), especially in the case of unreinforced masonry. Thereby the inappropriate horizontal loading situation is caused by wind loads or by seismic actions.Regarding the material behaviour under horizontal loading, two types of material parameters could be distinguished. The first type directly affects the stress side e.g. energy dissipation and behaviour factor. The second type directly affects the resistant side e.g. shear resistance, tensile strength and shear modulus. According to EC 6, the design value of shear strength depends on initial shear strength and the coefficient of friction as well as on geometrical parameters. With a testing program according to EN 1052-3 [2] it is possible to characterize these two material parameters for masonry. Further it is possible to define the shear resistance if sliding shear failure takes place. Therefore an extensive study can be found in Tomazevic [3], but it is focused on new brick material and mortar respectively.The procedure described in EN 1052-3 is the state of the art testing method to evaluate masonry shear strength without distinguishing between old and new masonry. Thereby two specimen layouts can be used. The smallest practical specimen consists of two brick units and one mortar layer while the second layout consists of three brick units and two mortar layers. In the case of testing old masonry the second specimen layout is more appropriate because the normative requirements can be easier achieved and further a symmetric loading situation occurs.The testing program presented in this paper is focused on old masonry and was carried out with different mortar properties. The results of this testing program, as well as a stochastic approach to describe the material strength in combination with an extensive literature review, are presented in this paper.2Material properties2.1BricksThe shear specimens were made with only one type of old, solid masonry bricks, see Fig. 1. This type of brick is typical for houses from the nineteenth century in Vienna. The mean dimensions of bricks were L/B/H = 29.12/14.13/7.05 cm. The dimensions were measured according to EN 772-16 [4]. Based on the obtained minimum dimensions in length and width, the bricks were cut to provide a consistent interface between the bricks and the mortar layer. The final dimensions of bricks were L = 25 cm and B = 12 cm. The height of bricks remained unchanged. The mean value of the dry density of bricks was ρ = 1,467 kg/m3.Fig. 1 Old, solid bricks used for shear testsThe compressive strength f b was obtained according to EN 772-1 [5] whereby the mean value of compressive strength resulted in f b = 19.28 MPa.2.2MortarTo determine the initial and shear strength between brick and mortar, a mortar mixture was chosen which was of low strength and a simple composition. Two mortar compositions out of four mixtures were chosen such that (a) the mortar had almost the same characteristics as the mortar for shear tests on masonry walls to provide comparability and (b) it was a very low strength mortar. These shear tests on masonry walls have already been carried out and are documented in [6]. In a testing program, consisting of four different mixtures, mortar prisms with dimensions of 40 × 40 × 160 mm were tested to obtain the compressive strength, f m and flexural strength, f m,fl. Table 1 shows the composition of all four mortar mixtures.Table 1 Investigated mortar mixtures, units in gramMix. I Mix. II Mix. III Mix. IVCEM 32.5 1,000 1,500 2,000 0Lime 400 400 400 400Rock flour 1,200 1,200 1,200 0Fine sand 0–1 4,650 4,650 4,650 4,650Course sand 0–4 12,445 12,445 12,445 12,445Water 3,500 3,500 3,500 3,250Compressive strength and flexural strength were obtained according to EN 1015-11 [7] after a curing time of 28 days. Table 2 shows the results of the testing program.Table 2 Material parameters of investigated mortar mixtures, units in MPaMix. I Mix. II Mix. III Mix. IVFlexural strength 0.58 1.02 1.39 –Compressive strength 1.50 3.58 4.06 0.22Based on these results mortar mixture II was chosen for a first triplet shear test groupbecause its characteristics are closest to the mortar characteristics of the mortar which was used in the shear tests on masonry walls. Mortar mixture IV was chosen for a second triplet shear test group.2.3Masonry specimensSpecimens for the triplet shear tests were built which consisted of three brick units with two mortar joints. The cut bricks provide a smooth surface for the bearings as well as for the load application area. The upper and lower surfaces of the specimens were confined with a cement mortar. After the specimens were built, each one was loaded with a compression load of about 3.0 × 10−3 MPa until testing. Simultaneously, while building the specimens for the triplet shear tests, additional mortar specimens of both mixtures were built for further mortar tests.3Testing methodsThe general problem in testing the shear behaviour along mortar joints and brick units is in applying a uniform distribution of both shear stress and normal stress. To avoid additional moments, the shear load should be applied as close as possible to the mortar joints, see [8]. There should also be no tensile stresses along the joint because these stresses could affect the failure load. However, some stress concentrations occur around the load introduction area and also some moment is introduced at the joint, which means that it is nearly impossible to introduce a pure shear stress distribution. The shear strength of masonry is dependent on the shear bond properties of the mortar joints, the vertical compression level and the friction angle. To obtain these properties different types of specimens can be used. Figure 2 shows a variety of different testing methods.Fig. 2 Various test arrangements for shear tests, a triplet test according to EN 1052-3, b Hoffmann and Stoeckl [9], c Riddington et al. [10], d Van der Pluijm [11], e Hamid et al. [12], f Abdou et al. [13] and g Popal and Lissel [14]These test methods consist of either two, three or four bricks. A review can be found in Jukes et al. [15] and additional experimental investigations are presented by Abdou et al. [13]. Further, several test arrangements have been investigated via FEM. Results are proposed by Stoeckl et al. [16]. Hence, it could be shown that peaks of both shear and normal stresses occur in all arrangements. There are also some approaches to combine the advantages of different test methods, e.g. [14].However, all the mentioned methods have it in common that they require very complex equipment and they are not a standard test method, expect triplet shear tests according to EN 1052-3.4Investigation of the shear behaviorPreviously mentioned test methods are designed so that the bricks only partially overlap. It does not matter with new bricks with more or less even surfaces. In the case of old bricks, a complete overlap is more advantageous because possible influences from uneven surfaces and imprints are taken into account. Thus the triplet test method according to EN 1052-3 was used for the investigations presented in this paper.According to EN 1052-3, two different test procedures are possible. In procedure (a) specimens have to be tested under at least three different normal stress levels with at least three specimens for each level. Procedure (b) is performed without any pre-compression with at least six specimens. In order to avoid normal tensile stresses along the mortar bed joints, procedure (a) was chosen. This normal stress is undesirable since the results for the shear strength can be affected by the tensile strength of the mortar bed joints.Two groups of specimens were tested. Table 3shows the properties of shear specimens. The bricks for both groups are the same, but the mortar mixtures differ. Mortar mixture II was used for group A while mortar mixture IV was used for group B.Table 3 Characteristics of masonry specimens, units in MPaCompressive strength ofBricks f b Mortar f m Masonry f kGroup A 19.28 3.58 5.65Group B 19.28 0.22 2.81Based on the compressive strengths of both bricks f b, and mortar f m, the compressive strength of masonry f k was calculated according to EC 6, National Annex B 1996-1-1 [17].(1)Shear strength was measured using the set up shown in Fig. 3. The brick in the middle is sheared and the upper and lower bricks are supported. The horizontal shear load was applied with a hydraulic jack. The varying pre-compression load was applied perpendicular to the shear surface.Fig. 3 Triplet shear test set upIn the case of group A, five vertical stress levels (3, 7, 15, 25 and 40% of f k) were applied and five tests were performed at each level for statistical evaluation. This resulted in a total number of 25 specimens for group A. In the case of group B, three vertical stress levels (13, 28 and 48% of f k) were applied. Hence, three tests were performed at each level. This resulted in a total number of nine specimens for group B.Each test took about 5 min until shear failure occurred. When the specimen cracks and pure shearing starts, the pre-compression load fluctuates. This was adjusted manually in order to keep it constant. During testing, the shear load and the applied pre-compression load were measured simultaneously.The evaluation of shear tests was based on the maximum horizontal force H max obtained during testing. Since the middle brick was loaded, the horizontal force had to be divided by two times the corresponding shear area (250 × 120 mm = 30,000 mm2). Hence, i the shear strength for each specimen f v,i could be calculated as:(2)The applied normal stress level σd was calculated with the applied pre-compressionforce with respect to the corresponding shear area of the specimen i.(3)The shear strength of masonry depends on the applicable friction forces in the horizontal joints, the tensile strength of the bricks, the compressive strength of masonry and the bond strength between bricks and mortar. The shear strength is essentially determined by the normal stress level. According to EC 6 it can be calculated as:(4)where f vko is the initial shear strength without any vertical stresses; σd the normal stress level perpendicular to the shear force and μk the coefficient of friction (both characteristic values).The evaluation of the shear test results was done (a) based on mean values, (b) based on a statistical approach using 5% fractiles of a Lognormal distribution and (c) according to EN 1052-3. Finally both evaluations were compared to each other, see Table 4.Table 4 Mean values of initial shear strenght and coefficient of friction and comparison of characteristic valuesInitial shear strength (MPa) Coefficient of friction (–)Mean EC 6 5% fractile EN 1052-3 Mean EC 6 5% fractil EN 1052-3f vo f vko f vko,5%f vkoμμkμk,5%μkGroup A 0.210 0.200 0.174 0.168a0.709 0.400 0.624 0.566 Group B 0.027 0.100 0.014 0.010b0.643 0.400 0.623 0.514a Calculated from mean value by multiplying with 0.8;b smallest single value of testdata4.1Failure modesGenerally, four failure modes during shear tests can appear. Mode (a) is a fracture plane localised at one brick mortar interface. Mode (b) is a fracture plane at each brick mortar interface combined with a vertical crack in the mortar layer. Mode (c) is a pure shear failure in the mortar layer and mode (d) is a fracture plane through both mortar and bricks, see Fig. 4. For the shear tests presented in this paper, only the failure modes (a) and (b) were observed during testing.Fig. 4 Failure modes of masonry specimens during shear testing4.2Results group AFigure 5shows the shear strength with respect to the corresponding normal stress level for the tested specimens of group A. For each stress level the mean value, the 5% fractile based on a Lognormal distribution and characteristic value according toEN 1052-3 were calculated. Linear best fits through (a) and (b) values were carried out using the least square method. Thereby, for case (a) a Mohr–Coulomb relationship was obtained as:(5)and for case (b) as:(6)Fig. 5 Shear strength with respect to vertical stress, group ACase (c), the determination of characteristic value according to EN 1052-3, can be directly calculated from mean values by multiplying with 0.8 or it corresponds to the smallest single value of the testdata. The smaller value is decisive:(7)Further, the normative relationship (norm) is plotted in Fig. 5. Due to the mortar properties, the corresponding mortar class, according to EC 6, is M2.5–M9. Hence the initial shear strength f vko norm= 0.20 MPa and the coefficient of friction μk norm = 0.4. Table 5 summarizes the test results and descriptive statistical parameters.Table 5 Test results of shear strength f v, i (MPa) with respect to normal stress levelSymbol Normal force level (kN)5.0 11.0 24.0 40.5 65.0Group AMean 0.3040.47960.8104 1.15001.7436Standard deviation s0.04890.04920.0634 0.0890 0.1413Coefficient of variation cov0.16090.10250.0783 0.0774 0.08105% fractile x50.11250.39910.7057 1.0036 1.5116Group BMean –0.2610.5440 0.8933 –Standard deviation s–0.01250.0092 0.0302 –Coefficient of variation cov–0.04760.0169 0.0338 –5% fractile x5–0.2410.5291 0.8445 –4.3Results group BFigure 6shows the shear strength with respect to the corresponding normal stress level for the tested specimens of group B. Again, linear best fits through (a) the mean values and (b) the fractile values were carried out using the least square method.Fig. 6 Shear strength with respect to vertical stress, group BThereby for case (a), a Mohr–Coulomb relationship was obtained as:(8)and for case (c) as:(9)Again, case (c), the determination of characteristic value according to EN 1052-3, can be directly calculated from mean values by multiplying with 0.8 or it corresponds to the smallest single value of the testdata. The smaller value is decisive:(10)Also the normative relationship (norm) is plotted in Fig. 6. Due to the mortar properties, the corresponding mortar class according to EC 6 is M1 – M2. Hence theinitial shear strength f vko norm= 0.10 MPa and the coefficient of friction μk norm = 0.4. Table 5 summarizes the test results and descriptive statistical parameters.5Probabilistic modelsThis section provides an overview of the investigated probabilistic models which were considered here to describe test results and literature data of the coefficient of friction of masonry. Depending on the distribution function, different procedures were used for estimating the unknown parameters e.g. Method of Moments and Method of Maximum Likelihood. Detailed studies regarding parameter estimation can be found in [18–20] and other sources. The functions of the investigated distributions relate to the two and three parameter function respectively.The investigated probabilistic models are the usual distribution functions like Normal and Lognormal, and also common distribution functions to describe material strength, such as Gamma and Weibull. Different methods have been used for choosing the best fit model to a given data set. These methods are the Kolmogrorv Smirnov (KS), the χ2 and the Anderson Darling (AD) test. The last method was chosen for this study as it is more sensitive to the tail behaviour. The sensitivity to the tail behaviour is particularly useful in structural engineering applications, where the tail is important in computing the structural reliability.The KS procedure involves the comparison between the assumed hypothetical and the empirical cumulative distribution function. For computing models, it is natural to choose a particular model for a given sample whereby the discrepancy is low. Otherwise, if the discrepancy is large with respect to what is normally expected from a given sample, the hypothetical model is rejected.The χ2-test is used to determine if a sample comes from a population with a specificdistribution. It compares the observed frequencies in k intervals of thevariate with the corresponding frequencies from an assumed hypothetical distribution.Finally, the AD-procedure is a general test to compare the fit of an empirical cumulative distribution function to a hypothetical cumulative distribution function. This test gives more weight to the tails than the KS-test.The various probabilistic models were applied to a data set consisting of values from an extensive literature review as well as of values from laboratory tests, as described in Sect. 4. A total number of n = 2,028 values were used. Table 6 shows the mean and characteristic values of the coefficient of friction from literature.Table 6 Mean and characteristic values of coefficient of friction, form literatureName Ref. Coef. of frictionμkAbdou et al. [13] 0.886 0.709Amadio and Rajgelj [21] 0.700 0.560Benjamin and Williams [22] 1.100 0.880Chin [23] 0.750 0.600Ghazali and Riddington [24] 0.778 0.622Hegemioer et al. [25] 0.941 0.753Jukes [26] 0.797 0.638Khalaf [27] 0.793 0.635Page [28] 0.700 0.560Sinha and Hendry [29] 0.700 0.560Van der Pluijm [11, 30, 31] 0.850 0.680Vermeltfoort [32, 33] 0.747 0.598Min 0.700 0.560Max 1.100 0.880Figure 7shows proportion–proportion plots (PP-plots) for some investigated distribution functions. The empirical cumulative proportion is plotted against the hypothetical cumulative proportion. The straight line is added as a reference line. The further the points vary from this line, the greater the indication of departures from the designated distribution. Table 7shows the results of the goodness of fit tests for different distribution functions.Fig. 7 PP-plots of different distribution functionsTable 7 KS-distances, AD-values and χ2-values for different distribution functionsPDF KS AD χ2Normal 0.05884 1.6669 16.827Lognormal 0.07429 2.3188 26.802Gamma 0.06551 1.8732 22.899Weibull 0.07256 4.4672 10.128Gumbel max 0.11476 6.147 39.993All probabilistic models can represent the lower and upper tail behaviour of the observed data, except Weibull where the points of lower tail are above the reference line. This indicates shorter than Weibull tails, i.e. less variance than expected. Further, a comparison between the median area and the remaining distributions shows that the slightest deviations arise for Normal and Lognormal distributions. This is in correlation with the applied goodness of fit tests.6ConclusionsAs a part of the SEISMID research project, several tests on masonry were carried out. In this case, the focus was on testing the shear behaviour of masonry triplets under different conditions according to EN 1052-3. Additional tests on bricks and mortar were carried out to determine the basic material properties.To estimate possible influences on the shear behaviour of masonry, two different groups of shear triplets were built and tested under different normal stress levels. The two groups (A and B) differed in terms of compressive strength of mortar (f m,A = 3.58 MPa and f m,B= 0.22 MPa). The evaluation of the test results show that the shear behaviour can be described by the Mohr–Coulomb friction law. Hence, the initial shear strength f vko and the coefficient of friction μk were determined. When compared to the values according to EC 6, some agreement can be seen, but also some values which are not in agreement.In the case of specimen group A, the mean value of the initial shear strength from testing (0.210 MPa) is very consistent with the suggested normative value (0.200 MPa). In case of group B, there is no consistency between the values from testing (0.027 MPa) and EC 6 (0.100 MPa). This inconsistency is mainly due to the mortar mixture in that the mortar of group B contains no cement and just a small amount of lime (compare Table 1). Hence, no significant initial shear strength between mortar joints and bricks can be developed.The evaluation of the characteristic value of initial shear strength according to EN 1052-3 results in f vko= 0.168 MPa for mortar group A and f vko= 0.010 MPa for mortar group B. If the evaluation is based on 5% fractiles of a Lognormal distribution the values results in f vko = 0.174 MPa for mortar group A and f vko = 0.014 MPa for mortar group B. As can be seen there are no significant differences of the calculated values. This indicates that both evaluation procedures are suitable to derive characteristic values from experimental test results.The comparison of the coefficient of friction shows a gap between the test results andthe value according to EC 6. The normative value for the coefficient of friction is suggested to be 0.400. The experimental data show that the percentage of normal stress on the shear strength amounts μ = 0.709 in case of group A and μ = 0.643 in case of group B, based on mean values. The evaluation of the characteristic value of coefficient of friction according to EN 1052-3 results in μk = 0.566 for mortar group A and μk= 0.514 for mortar group B. If the evaluation is based on 5% fractiles of a Lognormal distribution the values results in μk= 0.624 for mortar group A and μk = 0.623 for mortar group B. As can be seen there are differences of the calculated values. This indicates that the evaluation procedure according to EN 1052-3 procedure is more conservative because mean values are multiplied by the factor 0.8 to derive characteristic values but any additional information of test results are neglected. These additional information are accounted by the statistical approach. In addition, the literature review shows that the normative value for the coefficient of friction is too low.The choice of a probabilistic model plays an important role for a probabilistic based design approach and reliability assessment. In this work different statistical distribution functions were considered in order to critically analyze the coefficient of friction of masonry. Hence, two- and three-parameter distributions were used. The data set for the statistical distribution fitting was collected from both literature and laboratory tests.Based on the set of strength data and using several statistical criteria, like KS-test, χ2-test and AD-procedure, the Normal and Lognormal distributions appear to be more appropriate than the others. A further result is that all distributions, except Weibull, show an accurate tail behaviour in the lower as well as the upper bound. It is also reflected in the PP-plots. This is important since the sensitivity to the tail behaviour is particularly useful in structural engineering approaches and reliability.The overall conclusion from these investigations it is that the friction property of bricks should be characterized using a Lognormal distribution. Since the coefficient of friction is a low value (close to 0), the Lognormal distribution should be preferred over the Normal because its domain is limited to zero or a certain bound (γ > 0) wh ile the domain of a Normal distribution is between andThe assessment of existing structures is becoming more and more important for social and economical reasons, while most codes deal explicitly only with design situations of new structures. The assessment of an existing structure may, however, differ much from the design of a new one. In general, the safety assessment of an existing structure differs from that of a new one in a number of aspects, see Diamantidis [34] and Vrouwenvelder [35]. The main differences are: (1) Increasing safety levels usually involves more costs for an existing structure than for structures that are still in the design phase. The safety provisions embodied in safety standards have also to be set off against the cost of providing them, and on this basis improvements are more difficult to justify for existing structures. For this reason and under certain circumstances, a lower safety level is acceptable. (2) The remaining lifetime of an existing building is often less than the standard reference period of 50 or 100 yearsthat applies to new structures. The reduction of the reference period may lead to reductions in the values of representative loads as for instance indicated in the Eurocode for Actions.Therefore the safety philosophy for existing structures must be discussed with respect to the reliability levels in terms of the β-values for (a) new structures, and (b) for existing structures and with respect to monitoring and inverse analysis concepts [36, 37].Required β-values must be derived for masonry structures and anchored in code specifications such as ISO 13822 ―Assessment of existing structures‖ [38] or EC 8 part 3 ―Assessment and retrofitting of buildings‖ [39].Acknowledgments Research results discussed in this paper were carried out within the European research project SEISMID, supported and financed in cooperation with the Centre for Innovation and Technology (ZIT). We also wish to thank Mr. Walter Brusatti (Brusatti GmbH) for providing bricks and further Mr. Johann Lang from the College of Civil Engineering (HTBL Krems) Austria, for his efficient help during testing in the laboratory.References1. EN-1996-1-1 (2006) Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures—part 1-1: common rules for reinforced and unreinforced masonry structures2. EN-1052-3 (2007) Methods of test for masonry—part 3: determination of initial shear strength3. Tomazevic M (2008) Shear resistance of masonry walls and eurocode 6: shear versus tensile strength of masonry. Mater Struct 42:889–9074. EN-772-16 (2005) Methods of test for masonry units—part 1: determination of dimensions5. EN-772-1 (2000) Methods of test for masonry units—part 1: determination of compressive strength6. Zimmermann T, Strauss A, Bergmeister K (2010) Numerical investigations of historic masonry walls under normal and shear load. Constr Build Mater 24:1385–13917. EN-1015-11 (2007) Methods of test for mortar for masonry—part 11: determination of flexural and compressive strength of hardened mortar8. Edgell G (2005) Testing of ceramics in construction. Whittles Publishing Ltd.,。
土木工程专业英语译文1
1Careers in Civil Engineering土木工程专业Engineering is a profession, which means that an engineer must have a specialized university education. (工程是一个专业，这就是说一个工程师必须受过专业的大学教育) Many government jurisdictions also have licensing procedures which require engineering graduates to pass an examination, similar to the bar examination for a lawyer, before they can actively start on their careers. (许多政府行政区还有签发资格认可的程序，要求工科毕业生在充满自信地开始他们的职业生涯以前要通过一次考试，就象律师必须通过律师资格考试一样)In the university, mathematics, physics, and chemistry are heavily emphasized throughout the engineering curriculum, but particularly in the first two or three years. (在大学里，特别是头二、三年，数学、物理、化学时被重点强调的工科课程) Mathematics is very important in all branches of engineering, so it is greatly stressed. (在所有工程分支中数学都非常重要，所以一向特别强调它) Today, mathematics includes courses in statistics, which deals with gathering, classifying, and using numerical data, or pieces of information. (现在数学课程包括统计学，它是一门研究数据、一些信息的收集、分类和使用的课程) An important aspect of statistical mathematics is probability, which deals with what may happen when there are different factors, or variables, that can change the results of a problem. (统计数学的一个重要部分是概率论，他是研究不同因子或变量对问题所产生的各种结果发生的可能性大小的学科) Before the construction of a bridge is undertaken for example,a statistical study is made of the amount of traffic the bridge will be expected to handle. (例如，在建设一座桥梁前，要对它可能承担的交通量进行一次统计研究) In the design of the bridge, variables such as water pressure on the foundation, impact, the effects of different wind forces, and many other factors must be considered. (在设计这座桥梁时，必须考虑到各个变量，如作用于基础上的水压、冲力、不同风力的影响以及许多其它因素)Because a great deal of calculation is involved in solving these problems, computer programming is now included in almost all engineering curricula. (因为解决这些问题需要进行大量的计算，所以目前计算机程序编制已列入几乎所有工科的课程中) Computers, of course, can solve many problems involving calculations with greater speed and accuracy than a human being can. (诚然计算机能比人更快、更精确地解决许多需要计算的问题) But computers are useless they are given clear and accurate instructions and information-in other words, a good program. (但是除非给他们清楚而准确的指令和信息——换而言之，就是编制良好的程序，否则计算机就毫无用处) In spite of the heavy emphasis on technical subjects in the engineering curriculum, a current trend is to require students to take courses in the social science and the language arts. (尽管在工科的课程设置中重点应放在技术科目上，但是当前的一个趋势还是要求学生学习一些社会科学和语言艺术方面的课程) The relationship between engineering and society is getting closer; it is sufficient, therefore, to say again that the work performed by an engineer affects society in many different and important ways that he or she should be aware of. (工程和社会之间的关系越来越密切，因此有充分理由再次提出，一个工程师的工作在所通晓的许多不同而且重要的方面影响着社会) An engineer also needs a sufficient command of language to be able to prepare reports that are clear and, in many cases, persuasive. (一个工程师还需要能自如地运用语言，能写出条理清楚并在许多情况下具有说服力的报告) An engineer engaged in research will need to able to write up his or her findings for scientific publications. (从事科学研究的工程师要能将他（她）的科研成果写成文章提供给科学刊物)The last two years of an engineering program include subjects within the student’s field of specialization. (最后两年的工科教学计划包括学生所学专业领域内的课程) For the student who is preparing to become a civil engineer, these specialized courses may deal with such subjects as geodetic surveying, soil mechanics, or hydraulics. (对将要成为土木工程师的大学生来说，这些专业课程可能涉及到大地测量、土力学或水力学)Active recruiting for engineers often begins before the student’s last year in the university. (现行的工程师招聘往往在大学生最后一年前就开始进行) Many different corporation and government agencies have competed for the services of engineers in recent years. (近年来，许多不同公司和政府机构竞相争取录用工程师) In the science-oriented society of today, people who have technical training are, of course, in demand. (在当今这个重视科学的社会，当然需要受过技术培训的人才) Young engineers may choose to go into environmental or sanitary engineering, for example, where environmental concerns have created many openings; or they may prefer choose construction firms that specialize in highway work,or they may to work with one of the government agencies that deal with water resource. (年轻的工程师可能选择从事环境或卫生工程，例如环境工程专业为他们提供了许多就业机会；他们也可能选择专门从事高速公路工程施工的工程公司，他们可能更愿意到与水资源有关的政府机构工作) Indeed, the choice is large and varied. (事实上，可供选择的机会是广泛的、多样的)When the young engineer has finally started actual practice, the theoretical knowledge acquired in the university must be applied. (当年轻的工程师最终开始实际的业务工作时，肯定要用到大学里学到的理论知识) He or she will probably be assigned at the beginning to work with a team of engineers. (他（她）在开始时可能被派去和一个工程师小组一起工作) Thus, on-the-job training can be acquired that will demonstrate his or her ability to translate theory into practice to the supervisors. (这样，就能获得实际工作的锻炼，使主管人了解他（她）将理论应用于实践的能力)The civil engineer may work in research, design, construction supervision, maintenance, or even in sales or management. (土木工程师可从事研究、设计、施工管理、维修甚至销售或经营工作) Each of these areas involves different duties, different emphases, and different uses of engineer’s knowledge and experience. (这些领域的每一种工作都有不同的职责、不同的重点和工程师的知识和经验的不同应用)Research is one of the most important aspects of scientific and engineering practice. (科学研究是科学和实践最重要的一个方面) A researcher usually works as a member of a team with other scientists and engineers. (一个科研工作者通常是和其它科学家和工程师一道工作，是小组的成员) He or she is often employed in a laboratory that is financed by government or industry. (他（她）往往在一个由政府或工业企业资助的实验室里工作) Areas of research connected with civil engineering include soil mechanics and soil stabilization techniques, and also the development and testing of new structural materials.( 与土木工程有关的研究领域包括土力学、土加固技术，以及新型结构材料的研制和试验)Civil engineering projects are almost always unique; that is, each has own problems and design features. (土木工程设计几乎都具有独特性，那就是各有其特有的问题和设计特点) Therefore, careful study is given to each project even before design work begins. (因此，甚至设计工作还没有开始之前就要对每项工程进行仔细的研究) The study includes a survey both of topography and subsoil features of the proposed site. (这些研究包括对拟建项目场址地形和地基土特征进行勘测) It also includes a consideration of possible alternatives, such as a concrete gravity dam or an earth-fill embankment dam. (研究还包括要考虑各种可供选择的方案,例如是选用混凝土重力坝还是填土堤坝) The economic factors involved in each of the possible alternatives must also be weighed. (对每种可能方案的经济因素也必须权衡) Today, a study usually includes a consideration of the environmental impact of the project. (现在，一项研究工作通常还包括要考虑这个项目对环境的影响) Many engineers, usually working as a team that includes surveyors, specialists in soil mechanics, and experts in design and construction, are involved in making these feasibility studies. (在进行这些可行性研究时要由许多工程师来完成。
(完整版)土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
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第一课土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。
此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。
土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。
在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。
自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。
领域。
因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。
不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。
一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。
岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。
环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。
交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。
同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。
从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。
根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。
贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。
计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。
计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。
结构工程学。
在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。
结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。
他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。
水利工程学。
土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。
他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。
此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。
岩土工程学。
专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。
他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。
他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。
环境工程学。
在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。
他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。
他们建造供水和废水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以最小化甚至消除由工业加工、焚化及其他产烟生产活动引起的空气污染。
他们也采用建造特殊倾倒地点或使用有毒有害物中和剂的措施来控制有毒有害废弃物。
此外，工程师还对垃圾掩埋进行设计和管理以预防其对周围环境造成污染。
交通工程学。
从事这一专业领域的土木工程师建造可以确保人和货物安全高效运行的设施。
他们专门研究各种类型运输设施的设计和维护，如公路和街道，公共交通系统，铁路和飞机场，港口和海港。
交通工程师应用技术知识及考虑经济，政治和社会因素来设计每一个项目。
他们的工作和城市规划者十分相似，因为交通运输系统的质量直接关系到社区的质量。
渠道工程学。
在土木工程学的这一支链中，土木工程师建造渠道和运送从煤泥浆(混合的煤和水)和半流体废污，到水、石油和多种类型的高度可燃和不可燃的气体中分离出来的液体，气体和固体的相关设备。
工程师决定渠道的设计，项目所处地区必须考虑到的经济性和环境因素，以及所使用材料的类型——钢、混凝土、塑料、或多种材料的复合——的安装技术，测试渠道强度的方法，和控制所运送流体材料保持适当的压力和流速。
当流体中携带危险材料时，安全性因素也需要被考虑。
建筑工程学。
土木工程师在这个领域中从开始到结束监督项目的建筑。
他们，有时被称为项目工程师，应用技术和管理技能，包括建筑工艺，规划，组织，财务，和操作项目建设的知识。
事实上，他们协调工程中每个人的活动：测量员，布置和建造临时道路和斜坡，开挖基础，支模板和浇注混凝土的工人，以及钢筋工人。
这些工程师也向结构的业主提供进度计划报告。
社区和城市规划。
从事土木工程这一方面的工程师可能规划和发展一个城市中的社区，或整个城市。
此规划中所包括的远远不仅仅为工程因素，土地的开发使用和自然资源环境的，社会的和经济的因素也是主要的成分。
这些土木工程师对公共建设工程的规划和私人建筑的发展进行协调。
他们评估所需的设施，包括街道，公路，公共运输系统，机场，港口，给排水和污水处理系统，公共建筑，公园，和娱乐及其他设施以保证社会，经济和环境地协调发展。
摄影测量，测量学和地图绘制。
在这一专业领域的土木工程师精确测量地球表面以获得可靠的信息来定位和设计工程项目。
这一方面包括高工艺学方法，如卫星成相，航拍，和计算机成相。
来自人造卫星的无线电信号，通过激光和音波柱扫描被转换为地图，为隧道钻孔，建造高速公路和大坝，绘制洪水控制和灌溉方案，定位可能影响建筑项目的地下岩石构成，以及许多其他建筑用途提供更精准的测量。
其他的专门项目。
还有两个并不完全在土木工程范围里面但对训练相当重要的附加的专门项目是工程管理和工程教学。
工程管理。
许多土木工程师都选择最终通向管理的职业。
其他则能让他们的事业从管理位置开始。
土木工程管理者结合技术上的知识和一种组织能力来协调劳动力，材料，机械和钱。
这些工程师可能工作在政府——市政、国家、州或联邦；在美国陆军军团作为军队或平民的管理工程师；或在半自治地区，城市主管当局或相似的组织。
他们也可能管理规模为从几个到百个雇员的私营工程公司。
工程教学。
通常选择教学事业的土木工程师教授研究生和本科生技术上的专门项目。
许多从事教学的土木工程师参与会导致建筑材料和施工方法技术革新的基础研究。
多数也担任工程项目或技术领域的顾问，和主要项目的代理。
第二课建筑物与建筑学建筑物的目的是给人类的活动提供一个遮风挡雨的地方。
从穴居时代到现在，人类的第一需要最基本的就是有一个可以遮风避雨之所。
在一个比较一般的感觉中，建筑物的艺术包含人类试图控制环境和直接自然力以满足需要所取得的所有成就。
除建筑物外，这种艺术还包括大坝，运河，隧道，沟渠和桥。
遮风避雨的建筑物的设计和其他功用的土木工程结构的设计的科学基础原理是相同的。
而只是因为现代社会特定的需要，这两个领域才沿着不同的路径发展。
相似的，关注作为遮风避雨的建筑物的主要营造者也不再是一个单独的个体；相反的是由多个专家组成的小组：规划师，建筑师，工程师和建造者。
一个现代建筑物的实现依赖这个小组集体的智慧。
建筑物的结构是建筑物的功能、环境及各种社会经济因素共同作用的产物。
公寓，办公大楼和学校的不同在于它们实现的功能不同。
公寓的每一个可居住空间如起居室和卧室必须有来自窗户的自然光，而浴室和厨房可以采用人造光源因而可以安排在建筑物内部。
这种必要的设置对公寓的进深必然有限制。
另一方面，对办公大楼而言，人造光源更能达到均匀照明的要求，因此，对自然光的需求不再有建筑物进深的限制。
环境可能影响到建筑物的形状和外观。
城市里的学校通过使用空白的围墙完全的封闭于城市之外，而乡村的学校可能发展成为景观的一个主要部分，即使两者实现同样的功能。
最后，建筑物的结构被各种社会经济因素影响，包括地价，租赁，工程预算，分区限制。
城市的高地价造成高层建筑物，而乡村的低地价造成低的建筑物。
富人的住房建筑计划不同于廉价的住房建筑计划。
有威望的办公大楼的预算将大大地超过其他的办公大楼。
建筑物的大小和外形可能受到分区的限制。
在所有这些例子中，有着相似功能的建筑物常常采用不同的结构。
建筑学是建筑物的艺术。
事实上所有的建筑学都是关于为了人类的使用而围住的空间。
在任何特殊的建筑物中所覆盖的精确活动——广泛到从工厂的一条装配线到一个家庭的起居室——应该规定几个内部区域的大小和形状。
这些空间也必须被安排在彼此合乎一定逻辑的关系中。
此外，在建筑物中的人类活动——建筑学中的说法是“流通”——需要大厅，楼梯和电梯，它们的尺寸受到预期荷载的支配。
建筑物的结构平面图，总是建筑师的第一考虑，是深入实现建筑物意图的空间组织中的这些不同目的的决定。
好的平面组织可以指引访客到达他们的在建筑物中的目的地并且使他们留下印象。
他们也许是下意识地被大厦很显然的各个单元的关联所指引。
相反地，不好的平面组织将带来不便，浪费和视觉混乱。
此外, 一个结构需要很好地被建造。
它应该有结构需要的和被选材料允许的耐久性。
建筑学的未经加工的材料，如石，砖，木，钢或玻璃，部分决定了建筑物的结构并对建筑物进行表达。
石能抵抗压缩，尽管一起压挤的力几乎是不能确定的。
在一个实验室里压碎石是可能，但是对于实际应用，它的抗压强度则是无限的。
另一方面，石在抵抗各向拉力方面是很弱的。
任何空间跨度的梁在支承之间容易向下弯曲，梁的下半区承受拉力。
由于石承受拉力的能力很弱,这种材料的梁相对地比较短, 并且支撑间距比较小。
此外，石柱必须坚固，其高宽比极少超过10。
在石类建筑中，门，窗及柱之间的空间几乎都被迫高大于宽，这源于石的垂直矩形美学。
石在西方世界建筑学中占有如此之高的统治地位，以致，即使在木结构建筑时期其适当的造型一直被妥善保护着，像在美国的乔治王时代。
然后，石借助它本身的构造类型，成为支撑楼板和屋顶的墙，成为承重结构中的密排柱，成为主要承受压力的拱形结构。
木是一种纤维材料，相比其抵抗压力的能力而言，它更易于抵抗拉力。
木制梁可能相对比石制梁长，并且木制柱较细且可以广泛地作一定间隔的排列。
由于木的自然性质常形成宽大于高的水平矩形，这在日本建筑学中常被见到。
钢的抗拉强度也等于或大于其抗压强度。
已经观察过钢结构建筑物建筑过程的任何人一定曾注意到由细的广泛地作一定间距排列的柱及每个楼板的长梁所组成的水平格状矩形。