语言学第四章要点
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学
1．W hat is Syntax?
Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.
句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统
Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.
The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.
句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统（称为语言能力）。
任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。
3. The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成
A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject（主语）and its predicate（谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.
句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。
The referring expression（被指称的对象）, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject is usually a noun or a noun phrase. The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood.
主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。
4．Types of sentence 句子的类型
a)The simple sentence 简单句
A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。
b)The coordinate sentence 并列句
A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”but””or”.
并列句包含两个子句，由and, but, or 等并列连词连接。
c)The complex sentence 复合句
A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. That is, the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.
复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句。
5. The linear word order of a sentence 句子的线性词序
When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile, they are heard or read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.
我们说出或写下一个句子，其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时，对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有次序的排列表明，句子的结构是线性的。
6. The hierarchical structure of a sentence 句子的层次结构
The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly structured. Sentence structure is hierarchical in nature.
组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。
7. Tree diagrams of sentence structure 句子结构树形图
The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure.
句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67－70页。
In addition, the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels.
另外，句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。见课文71页。
8. Lexical categories 词类
Words are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech. A language has major and minor lexical categories. Major lexical categories are open categories that new words are constantly added. Minor lexical categories are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categories is fixed and no new members are allowed for. English has four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories.
所有的词都有某种属性，即词性。词可以分为主要词类和次要词类。主要词类不断有新词加入，它是开放词类，而次要词类是封闭的，因为这类词的词项是固定的，不允许有新词加入。英语有四个主要词类和六个次要词类。
主要词类：
Noun (N) 名词：student
Verb (V) 动词：like
Adjective (Adj) 形容词：tall
Adverb (Adv) 副词：loudly
次要词类：
Determiner (Det) 限定词：the, a, this, his
Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词：can, do, will
Preposition (Prep) 介词：in, at, over
Pronoun (Pron) 代词：he, she, us, mine
Conjunction (Conj) 连词：and, or, but, while
Interjection (Int) 感叹词：oh, ah, eh
9. Phrasal categories 词组类型
Four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), prepositional phrase (PP), and adjective phrase (AP).
NP and VP are essential components of a sentence, comprising the subject and predicate. Important note: NP just contain a noun, VP just contain a verb, PP just contain a preposition and AP just contain an adjective.
通常讨论的词组类型有四种，分别是：名词词组，动词词组，介词词组和形容词词组。
名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组，因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。
重要：一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。
10. Grammatical relations 语法关系
The structural and logical function relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In English and many other languages, the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb. Strictly speaking, this statement is true only in terms of the structural subject（结构主语）and the structural object（结构宾语）. The logical subject （逻辑主语）and the logical object（逻辑宾语）may have different positions.
语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系，其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。从结构上看，英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前，宾语往往出现在动词止回。这种置动词之前的主语叫结构主语，置动词之后的宾语叫结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语，而意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语是实施者，而逻辑宾语是受事者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置可以同形式主语和形式宾语在句子中的位置相同，也可以不同。如英语被动句中的形式主语是逻辑宾语，而形式宾语是逻辑主语。
11. Phrasal structure rules 短语结构规则
The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule.
短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。
Example 1:
S →NP VP. The arrow is read as “consist of”, or “is rewritten as” 。
The rule is: a sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
在本例中，箭头读作“包含”或“重写为”。这样的规则就读作：一个句子包含或可以重写为一个名词词组和一个动词词组。
Example 2:
NP →(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)
A noun phrase consists of, or is rewritten as, an optional determiner, an optional adjective, an obligatory noun, an optional prepositional phrase, and/or an optional sentence.
这就是名词词组的短语结构规则，读作：一个名词词组包含或可以重写为一个限定词、一个形容词、一个名词、一个介词词组和（或）一个句子，其中名词是必须有的，其它是可选成分。
Example 3:
VP →V(NP)(PP)(S)
AP →A(PP)(S)
PP →P NP
12. The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性
Significantly, these rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.
Although these rules are part of the rules and regulations of the grammar, they suffice to explain how language is “creative”, and how speakers with “finite” minds have the ability to produce and understand an infinite set of sentences. That is, the recursive property captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.
由于这些短语规则的循环性，运用它们可以造出无数句子，这些句子又可以是无限长的。这些规则虽然只是语法规则的一部分，却足以解释为什么语言具有创造性，为什么说话人的记忆力是有限的，却能表达并理解无限的句子。这就是说，循环性体现了语言中的句子能够有更多的成分，并且使说话者能够在同一个句子中重复一些句法成分。
13. X-bar theory X标杆理论
NP/VP/AP/PP all must contain one obligatory word, we call XP. This means that XP must contain X, where XP stands respectively for NP/VP/AP/PP and X stands for N/V/A/P.
The rule modified as: XP →(Specifier)X(Complement).
X 标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则理论。根据该理论，短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成，其中指示语和补语可有可无，但核心词却不可缺少。
14. Syntactic movement and movement rules 句法位移和移位规则
a)NP movement 名词词组位移
NP-movement occurs when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice. Example: The man beat the child. / The child was beaten by the man.
Not all NP-movement are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice.
Example: It seems they are quite fit for the job. / They seem quite fit for the job.
NP “they” has moved from the subject position of the embedded clause to the matrix clause.
名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫做名词词组位移。例如，在主动语态句中当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位，使句子转换成被动语态。
并不是所有的名词词组位移都和主动语态转被动语态相关。示例中的they由从句的主语位置位移到了主句的主语位置。
b)WH movement WH位移
WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. WH-movement is syntactically required when the sentence changes from a statement into a question.
WH位移能把句子从肯定句变为疑问句，在英语中不可缺少的。
c)Other types of movement 其它类型的位移
（1）General questions (一般疑问句) in English may also involve syntactic movement with AUX-movement. AUX-movement is the movement of an auxiliary verb, such
as be/have/do/will/can/should, to the sentence-initial position.
Example: She is an English professor. / Is she an English professor?
一般疑问句也会通过助动词移位引起句法移位，助动词移位即助动词移到句首
的移位，助动词有be/have/do/will/can/should。
（2）For stylistic purposes, a post-verb adjective in an adverbial clause beginning with “though” may propose to the sentence initial position.
Example:
Though she was sick, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children. /
Sick though she was, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children.
由于文体的原因，以though开头的状语从句中位于动词后的形容词可以移到句
首。
15.D-structure and S-structure 深层结构和表层结构
What syntactic movement suggests for the study of the grammar is that a sentence structure may have two levels of syntactic representation, one that exists before movement takes place, and the other that occurs after movement takes place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representations are commonly termed as D-structure (the deep structure) and S-structure (the surface structure). It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-structure.
句法位移对语法研究的启示是，一个句子结构可以有两个层次的句法表现，一个存在于位移发生之前，一个存在于位移发生之后。在正规的语言学研究中，这两种句法表现称为深层结构和表层结构。短语结构规则通过插入词汇在深层结构上生成句子，而应用句法位移规则又把句子从深层结构转化到表层结构。
Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.
由于并非所有句子都能发生句法位移，因而一个句子的深层结构和表层结构在不同的表现层次上是完全相同的。
16.Move α– a general movement rule 移动α规则
Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, that is, the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move Alpha. Alpha is a Greek symbol used here to represent any constituent, and what Move Alpha says is “move any constituent to any place”.
It is too powerful, so the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain the movement power of the rule and which will stimulate that only “certain constituents” can move to only “certain positions.”
移动α规则是一条支配句法成分位移的普遍原则。如果X标杆理论规则将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合起来一样，该规则综合了所有的位移规则，可以解释所有语言中的一切位移现象。
如果一个成分可以移到任意位置，那么就会又不合乎语法的句子出现。规则应该有一些条件来限制移位能力，使得只有“某些成分”可以移动到“某些位置”。
17．Theory of universal grammar 普遍语法理论
Since early 1980s Noam Chomsky developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) know as the principle-an-parameters theory. UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles and also contains a set of parameters.
从八十年代初期开始，乔姆斯基发展了一种普遍语法理论，称为原则与参数理论。普遍语法是一个语言知识体系，是人类特有的天赋，它存在于正常人的头脑中。普遍语法包含一组广义条件，或广义原则，还包含一种参数。
18.G eneral principles of universal grammar 普遍语法的广义原则
a) Case Condition. As is required by the Case Condition principle, a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by verb or preposition to the object position, or by auxiliary to the subject position. The theory of Case Condition accounts for the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.
格条件原则。格条件原则要求名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定的，而主语的格是由助动词决定的。格条件理论说明了为什么名词词组只在主语和宾语的位置上出现。
b) Adjacency Condition. As is required by Adjacency Condition principle, a Case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other. This condition explains why no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object.
毗邻条件。毗邻条件决定格分派，该条件要求格分派者和格接受者要相互毗邻。这一条件解释了为什么任何别的词组类型都不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。
19.T he parameters of universal grammar 普遍语法的参数
Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages. Set in one of the permissible ways, a parameter acquires a particular value, for example, a plus or minus value, which allows the grammar of a language to behave in a way very different from that of another language.
参数是普遍语法中的句法选项，它使广义原则能以一种或另一种方式进行操作并造成了不同自然语言之间在语言上的显著不同。一个参数若以某种可允许的方式设置，它就可以得到某种意义，如加或减的意义，这就使一种语言的语法和另一种语言的语法有很大不同。
a) UG is believed to contain a parameter wit the values (+ strict adjacency) and (- strict adjacency) set on the Adjacency Condition. With English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the (+ strict adjacency) value, while for French-type languages, the parameter is set to the other.
普遍语法被认为包含一个参数，这个参数的意义是设置在毗邻条件之上的（加严格毗邻）和（减严格毗邻）。英语属前者而法语属后者。
b) Another parameter, the one that involves word order, concerns the directionality of Case assignment, known as the Directionality Parameter. This parameter offers a neat and consistent account for the typological difference in the word order within the VP category between English and Japanese. In English, VP →V NP while in Japanese, VP →NP V.
另一个参数与词序有关，它涉及格分派的方位，被称为方位参数。这一参数为英语和日语的
动词词组的词序的类型差异提供了一个满意的、恰当的解释
第一章语言学导论解析
第一章语言学导论 Chapter1 Invitations to Linguistics Linguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines. Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译 The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself. Definition of Linguistics How do you define linguistics? What is linguistics? ——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics? 1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics. 语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learning Saussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast. 尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的 依赖中解放出来。然而，随着时间的推移，语言学和其他学科的联系越来越密切。Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics, as implied by the name, is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. 心理语言学，顾名思义，是对语言的心理方面的研究，它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的 心理状态和心理活动。比如语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成等等。(chapter 9/chapter11) Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics attempts to look at language structures by paying attention to language use in a social context and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 这就是社会与语言的关系，一方面通过社会语境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问 题，另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成的问题。 Research Focus1 Cross-cultural Communication There exists a close relationship between language and culture. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. 语言是文化的载体，具有不可替代的重要性；文化通过语言得以凸现，其表现力得到充分展示。 心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961), 真正的交流建立在理解基础上的倾听。 - 1 -
语言学第一章整理
Chapter one 1.What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System means it is rule-governed; arbitrary means there is no logical relationship between language elements and their meaning; vocal means speech is primary; symbols related to arbitrariness, it means language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they express. Human, it means language is uniquely human; communication is the primary function of language. 2.What are the design features of language, give their definitions and examples. Arbitrary: arbitrary is the core feature of language, which means that there is no logical relation between meanings and sounds. Arbitrary is a matter of degree, language is not entirely arbitrary, first, the onomatopoeia are words that sound like the sound they describe, to some extent, they have natural basis. Second, some compounds are not entirely arbitrary either, “snow” and“storm” are arbitrary words, but the compound word “snowstorm”is less so. Thirdly, some surnames, such as Longfellow, Johnson. Examples: a rose by other name would smell as sweet Duality: is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization .we call sounds secondary units as opposed to primary units as words, since the secondary are meaningless and the primary unit have distinct and identifiable meaning. Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings. By creativity, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness. By duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Language is creativity in another sense, that is, its
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义 一、常考题型 1.填空 2.单项选择 3.判断正误 4.解释词语并举例说明 对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明 5.回答问题 做题要求：用英文进行答题。 二、各章节学习要点 Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论） 1.What is linguistics? 1.1 Definition （语言学的定义） P.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general. 1.2 The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴） P.2—4 The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas. Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支： 1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学） The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.
Chapter 4 语言学第四章总结
Chapter 4 1.Syntax Syntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Syntax is a brand of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Syntactic Relation: a.Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of one aspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontal relation or chain relation b.Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of word substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. It refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set. It called associative relations, vertical relations, choice relations. c.Relation of co-occurrence 2．Grammatical construction (construct) The boy ate the apple.
语言学教程第一章ppt
语言学教程胡壮麟主编
Contents ?Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds(Phonetics) Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase (Morphology) Chapter 4 From Word to Text(Syntax) Chapter 5 Meaning(Semantics) Chapter 6 Language and Cognition ?Chapter 8 Language in Use(Pragmatics)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics ?1.1 Why study linguistics? ?1.2 What is language? ?1.3 Features of language ?1.4. Origin of language ?1.5. Functions of language ?1.6. What is linguistics ?1.7 Main branches of linguistics ?1.8. Macrolinguistics ?1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics
Lead-in ?Qestion1: Other animals can beat us in many different ways, but what makes us superior to all of them? ?Qestion2: Why are children easy to undrstand their mother's tongue??Qestion3: Why do people in different social classes speak in different ways??Qestion4: Why is it "I love you" in English, but "私はあなたを愛して" in Japanese?
语言学概论-试题及答案
《语言学概论》练习1参考答案 （导言、第一章、第二章） 一、填空 1、语言学的三大发源地是中国、印度和希腊－罗马。 2、现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》。 3、印度最早的经典所使用的语言是梵语。 4、文字、音韵、训诂是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。 5、语言的功能包括社会功能和思维功能。 6、语言的社会功能包括信息传递功能和人际互动功能。 7、儿童语言习得一般经过独词句阶段和双词句阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。 8、说出的话语句子是无限的，但无限多的句子都是由有限的词和规则组装起来的。 9、符号包括形式和意义两个方面，二者不可分离。 10、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是语言符号的基本性质。 11、心理现实是存在于客观现实和语言符号之间的人脑中的信息存在状态。 12、语言系统二层性的一大特点是形式层的最小单位一定大大少于符号层的最小单位。 13、组合关系和聚合关系是语言系统中的两种根本关系。 14、动物无法掌握人类的语言，从生理基础看是不具有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。 二、问答题。 1、为什么说语言学是自然科学和人文科学的桥梁？ 从语言学发展的历史来看，语言学首先深受哲学、逻辑学等历史悠久的人文学科思想方法的影响，后来语言学摆脱对传统人文学科的附庸地位成为独立的学科后，受到许多自然科学研究的影响。比如，19世纪，历史比较语言学的语言观念和研究方法深受生物学的影响；20世纪初的语言结构思想与科学的整体论思想密切相关；生成语言学受数学、逻辑学影响；等等。与此同时，其他学科也开始从语言学理论中汲取有益的思想观念。20世纪的社会学、人类学、文学批评等都深受结构主义语言学的影响。 从19世纪后期开始，现代语言学的研究理念在很大程度上接受了物理学等自然科学的方法论原则，一些学者甚至提出语言学是一门自然科学。但另一方面，语言学又从未割断与传统人文学科的联系。语言学的这一特点在很大程度上源于语言现象的独特性。语言既具有社会属性，又是人类天赋的能力，既是贮存人类已有文明的宝库，又是人类新的精神创造的依托。语言是联系人类主观世界和外在客观世界的中介，是认识人类自身和外在世界的必要途径。所以说，语言学在科学体系中的地位是独特的，它是自然科学和人文科学的桥梁。语言学需要并正在成为一门领先的科学。 2、如何看待语言学研究的意义和价值？ （1）满足文化传承和文化交流的需求； （2）语言研究协同其他学科研究一起，在社会生活中发挥作用； （3）语言学研究为国家语文政策的制定提供支持。 3、语言功能的生理基础是什么，有哪些体现？ 大脑是人体最复杂的器官，是人的各种行为的指挥中枢，也是人类语言思维能力的生理基础。人的大脑有左右两个半球，左半球控制着语言功能及相关的计数、分类、推理等功能。
语言学概论第四章
第四章语法 三、分析题 1、用层次分析法分析下列句法结构。 （1）夕阳把远山照得通红 主语谓语 状语中心语 介宾述补 （2）热爱人民的周总理 1）热爱人民的周总理 动宾 定中 2）热爱人民的周总理 定中 动宾 2、变换下列句子，使其具有句法同义关系。 （1）我打破了杯子。 1）我打破了杯子。——我把杯子打破了。——杯子被我打破了。——杯子我打破了。——杯子我把它打破了。——我打破的是杯子。——杯子是我打破的。…… 2）我打破了杯子。——我没有打破杯子。 3）我打破了杯子。——我打破了杯子了么？ （2）我们找到了小王。 1）我们找到了小王。——小王我们找到了。——小王被我们找到了。——我们把小王找到了。——小王是我们找到的。——我们找到的是小王。—2）我们找到了小王。——我们没有找到小王。
3）我们找到了小王。——我们找到了小王了？ 3、用变换方法区分下列句法多义的句子。 （1）关心的是他母亲。 ——被关心的人是他母亲 ——关心人的是他母亲 （2）虚构故事吓坏人 ——虚构故事把人吓坏了 ——虚构的故事用来吓唬坏人 （3）咬死猎人的狗 ——狗咬死了猎人 ——猎人的狗被咬死了 （4）鸡不吃了 ——鸡不吃食物了 ——我们不吃鸡了 5、用变换的方法辨析下列结构之间的差别。 （1）在池子里洗衣服--在池子里养金鱼 *把衣服洗在池子里——把金鱼养在池子里 *洗衣服洗到池子里——养金鱼养到池子里 这说明“池子里”仅仅是“洗衣服”这个行为的处所，但不必然是“衣服”的处所；与此相反，“池子里”既是“养金鱼”的处所，也是“鱼”的处所。 （2）在黑板上写字——在教室里写字——在火车上写字 字写在黑板上——字写在教室里——字写在火车上 （人呆）在黑板上写字——（人呆）在教室里写字——（人呆）在火车上写字 以上变换说明：（1）“黑板上”是“字”的处所，不必然是动作行为发生的处所；（2）“教室里”是“写字”的行为发生的处所，但不必然是“字”的处所；（3）“火车上”既是“写字”行为的处所，也可以是“字”的处所。 五．问答题
《语言学纲要》(叶蜚声_徐通锵)详细复习资料_课堂讲义笔记
语言学纲要讲义笔记 导言 一、语言的定义 语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具、是由音义结合的词汇和语法构成的一种符号系统。 二、语言学的对象和任务 语言学是研究语言的科学。 要把语言学跟语文学区分开来 中国传统语文学——“小学” 小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。 在古印度，公元前4世纪，著名学者潘尼尼在整理、注释婆罗门教经典《吠陀》时，写了一本《梵语语法》，提出3996条规则，被人们称为最完备的语法书。在古希腊，伯拉图和亚里斯多德是从哲学的角度来研究语言的，他们讨论了词为什么具有意义等内容。 三、语言学在科学体系中的地位 语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 1、与社会科学、自然科学的联系 语言研究的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学、计算机科学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。 语言学与其他学科相交叉产生社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学、生物语言学、模糊语言学、实验语音学等。如：运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为五个阶段： 编码——发送——传递——接收——解码 对这一具体过程的解释需要结合物理学、生理学、心理学等其他学科的知识。三、语言学的基本类别 总体上，根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学两大类。（一）理论语言学可分为： 1、一般/普通语言学
2、个别/具体语言学 具体语言学 （1）历时语言学 （2）共时语言学 （二）应用语言学 1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。 2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。 3、神经语言学 最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。 此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。 第一章语言的功能 第一节语言的社会功能 一、语言的信息传递功能 信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。 人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。 身势等伴随动作等是非语言的信息传递形式。 身势等非语言的形式多半是辅助语言来传递信息； 文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的再编码形式； 旗语之类是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式； 语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。二、语言的人际互动功能 语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。
语言学概论(本科)复习要点
语言学概论(本科)复习要点导言部分 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 1．语言学是以语言作为研究对象的科学，它以人类的语言为研究对象。语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，具体地说，语言学研究语言的性质、作用、结构，语言的发展变化，使人们懂得有关语言的理性知识，从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。 2．中国、印度、希腊－罗马是语言学的三大发源地。 3．我国的小学：小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。训诂学解释字义，文字学分析字形，音韵学研究字音。 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 1．语言的研究和其它科学的关系十分密切，不仅与社会科学有联系，而且与自然科学也有十分密切的联系。语言学是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 2．语言交际的过程：语言交际过程可分“编码－发送－传递－接收－解码”五个阶段。 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同，语言学可以分为以下几类：共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学、。各类语言学下面还可以进一步细分，如专语语言学下面可分汉语语言学（例如现代汉语、古代汉语、近代汉语、汉语史等）、英语语言学、俄语语言学等等，普通语言学下面可分语音学、词汇学、语义学、语法学、修辞学等等。 四、语言学流派 比较重要的语言学流派主要有：历史比较语言学、结构语言学、布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派、转换-生成学派、系统-功能学派、社会语言学。各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可，注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派（也称美国描写语言学）都属于结构主义学派，是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述，请浏览《语言学网络课件》中的“望远镜”板块。 第一章语言的社会功能 本章需要明确的要点是：第一，语言的两大社会功能；第二，语言是一种社会现象。 第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具 1．语言的交际功能：语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带。 2．语言是一种社会现象：弄清楚语言是一种社会现象的内涵，语言不是自然现象，而是社会现象，是一定社会的产物，同社会的关系非常密切。 3．语言是一种特殊的社会现象：没有阶级性，具有全民性特点。语言是人类最重要的交际工具 第二节语言是思维的工具 1．语言和思维的关系 思维活动的过程不可能离开语言而单独进行，思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维，二者是互相依存，共同发展的。 2．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同 本节其它一些问题可一般了解：一、儿童学习语言的过程，二、思维不能离开语言的实验根据，三、关于聋哑人的思维，聋哑人失去语言能力对他的思维能力的发展产生了严重的消极影响，四、人类思维在机器中的再现。 第二章语言是符号系统
语言学讲义：语言随着社会的发展而发展
语言随着社会的发展而发展 上周我们着重讨论了语言的变化特点，现在我们一起来综合一下：语言是在不断发展变化的，那末发展的基本条件是什么？语言中各种因素会产生相互影响，对语言的发展会有什么样的影响呢？语言自身发展有什么样的特点呢？ 重要原理：语言随着社会的产生而产生，随着社会的和发展而发展，随着社会的灭亡而灭亡。社会以外没有语言。 一、语言发展的原因和特点 （一）社会的发展是语言发展的基本条件 1．语言是人类最重要的交际工具，存在于运用之中，与社会的发展息息相关。 2．社会的发展促进人们思维的发展，从而也就推动语言不断发展。词汇里留存下来的各个时代特色的词语，反映了社会的发展。这就是说，社会的发展，使新事物、新概念不断出现，使人们的思维越来越细致复杂，从而使词汇不断丰富，语法不断改进。 3．不同社会的联系与交往，以及社会的变动，人民的迁徙，推进语言的发展。 （二）语言中各种因素的相互影响和语言的发展 语言随着社会的发展而发展，但是如何发展，要由语言系统内部的各种因素 ．．．．．．．．．．．决定。 语言是符号系统，系统内的各种因素处于对立统一的关系之中，即语音、词义、语法等各要素处于一种平衡的状态。如果其中某一种因素因为某种原因而发生变化，破坏了原有的平衡，那么系统内部的有关部分应付重新调整达到新地平衡。 例如，藏语原本是没有声调的，由于语音变化（如：浊音清化，前缀辅音的脱落和辅音韵尾的简化），出现大量的同音现象，使本来互有区别的词不再有区别，原有的语言平衡被打破，于是声调产生，成为区别语言符号的重要手段。 古汉语是单音词占优势的语言。当时的语音系统复杂，音位和音位的组合有多种方式，因而单音节的词互有区别。长期的发展中语音系统发生变化，如：浊音清化，辅音韵尾消失等，同音词大量增加，使语言符号的区别性渐渐模糊，原有的平衡被打破，但达到新的平衡的途径，即解决语言符号区别性的办法不同于藏语。汉语是用双音节词的格局来加强区别同音词。所以现代汉语是双音节词占优势的语言。双音节词的产生，又使一个词内部的两个成分之间的关系出现新问题： 语音上、语义上产生轻重主次的区别，出现轻音、儿化； 某些实词变成词缀（子、头、性、家、化、者、老等等）； 派生词构词规则等等连环变化，以满足新的交际的需要，从而使汉语发生了很大的变化。这是因为语言的发展是一环扣一环的。可见，语言各要素之间都有互相联系和互相制约的关系，局部的变化引起一系列的连锁反应。关键在于语言是社会交际工具，语言内部各要素的相互影响是在满足社会交际的基础上起作用的，它决定了每一种语言发展的方向。
语言学第一章
Chapter 1 Invitation to linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 1.4 Origin of language 1. The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. 2. The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. 3. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. 1.5 Functions of language Jacobson——language has six functions: 1. Referential指称功能: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative意动功能: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic寒暄功能: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual元语功能: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. Halliday ——that language has three metafunctions: 1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer; 2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;
语言学第四章要点
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学 1．W hat is Syntax? Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。 2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统 Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统（称为语言能力）。 任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。 3. The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成 A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject（主语）and its predicate（谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。 The referring expression（被指称的对象）, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject is usually a noun or a noun phrase. The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood. 主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。 4．Types of sentence 句子的类型 a)The simple sentence 简单句 A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。
语言学概论 第四章 语法 提纲
第四章 语法 【内容简介及重点】主要要掌握语法结构的基本规律，包括：语法的结构单位——句子、词组、词、语素；语素和词组合成更大的语法单位的类型；语法结构的层次性与递归性特点；语法的聚合规则；句子的变换、语言结构的类型和普遍特征。难点是学会运用已学的语法理论分析和阐释常见的语法现象。 第一节语法和语法单位 一语言结构是有规则的 1.1 语言结构是有规则的 1.1.1 语言语法规则的存在客观性 用什么样的形式体现符号之间的结构关系，是有规则的。 1.1.2 从母语者和二语习得者的材料看 1.2 语法和语法研究 1.2.1 语法 语法是词的构成和变化的规则（词法）以及组词成句的规则（句法）的总和。 The rules of syntax combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences. （1）语言中现成的词不能任意更换其中的构成成分，同时也不能任意挪动它们的位置。 （2）一句话可以只有一个词，也可以有几个词。 （3）词法和句法是不同的语法规则，但二者有密切的关系。 1.2.2 语法是客观存在的，语法研究则是对这种客观存在进行客观的归纳、总结和描写。语法研究不能带有研究者的主观性。 1.2.3 几个概念 （1）语法中的任何成分都是内容和形式的统一体。语法成分的内容是语法意义，语法意义的表达者是语法形式。 （2）在词的范围内的语法形式称为形态，如英语表示“复数”的“-s”就是一种形态。词序表示词与词的关系，超出了词的范围，因此词序不是形态。 （3）把具有共同特点的语法形式概括起来就成为一种语法手段。如附加语素和词序就是两种语法手段。 （4）语法最重要的特点是它的抽象性。 二语法的组合规则和聚合规则 2.1 语法的两个基本规则 2.1.1 组合规则 语法单位互相连接起来构成更大的语言片断的规则叫做语法的组合规则。 2.1.2 聚合规则