语言学教程Chapter 9. Language and Literature
英语语言学教程最新课件9
1.2 Devices of Foregrounding
• Outside literature, so the assumption goes, language tends to be automatized; its structures and meanings are used routinely. Within literature, however, this is opposed by devices which thwart the automatism with which language is read, processed, or understood. Generally, two such devices may be distinguished, those of deviation and of parallelism.
1.1 What is ‘foregrounding’?
• Frank Hakemulder & Willie van Peer: • In a purely linguistic sense, the term
'foregrounding' is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.
• to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.
语言学教程 第三版 第九章 文体学
9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning 9.3.4 Conventional Forms of Metre and Sound
9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre 9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry? 9.4 The Language in Fiction 9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view 9.4.2 Speech and thought presentation 9.4.3 Prose style 9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction? 9.5 The Language in Drama 9.5.1 How should we analyse drama?
9.5.2 Analysing dramatic language
9.5.3 How to analyse dramatic texts? 9.6 The cognitive approach to literature 9.6.1 Theoretical background 9.6.2 An example of cognitive analysis
language of literary texts can enhance our appreciation of the different systems of language, because the
literary texts often reveal the nature of the language in which they are written.
中华英语 As a branch of linguistics, stylistics also develops with and is influenced by the other schools and trends of linguistic study. The 1960s was a decade of formalism, the 1970s a decade of functionalism, the 1980s a decade of discourse stylistics, and the 1990s a decade in which socio-historical and socio-cultural stylistic studies are a main preoccupation. (Carter and Simpson, 1989) In addition to this, there is a trend of "pluralheads development‖ (Shen, 2000), i.e. different schools of stylistics compete for development and new schools emerge every now and then. The cognitive approach to literature is a case in point.
语言学教案Chapter 9 Language and Literature
Chapter 9 Language and Literature9.1 Introduction9.1.1 Stylistics and Rhetoric9.1.2 Style9.2 Style investigation9.2.1 Deviance, Prominence and Foregrounding9.3 Levels of Style9.3.1 Phonological Level9.3.2 Lexical Level9.3.3 Syntactical Level9.1 Introduction9.1.1 Stylistics and RhetoricAs a branch of linguistics, stylistics is both old and young. It is quite “old”, because historically, we may find its origin in rhetoric, which dates back to the 5th century B.C.. Nowadays, some people still identify stylistics with rhetoric. But their difference is quite evident: Rhetoric is mainly concerned with the way to present ideas. It deals with how to say what you have to say. In its grand tradition marked by those distinguished names, such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle etc., it has been the deliberate exploitation of eloquence for the most persuasive effect in public speaking or in writing. Modern critics sometimes refer to the rhetorical dimension of a literary work, meaning those aspects of the work that persuade or otherwise guide the responses of the readers.Stylistics, in modern sense, is closely related to modern linguistics, in which linguists find a systematic and scientific approach towards language. So stylistics can be simply defined as the linguistic studies of style. It develops with the development of modern linguistics.9.1.2 StyleGenerally speaking, the word style refers to the way in which language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose, and so on. In practice, writers on style differ a great deal in their understanding of the subject, and one reason comes from their disagreement over the question “To what or whom do we attribute style?”According to Roman Jakobson, there are sis constitutive factors in any speech event:ContextMessageAddresser AddresseeContactCodeThese factors are, according to our understanding, writer, text, reader, context and meaning. 9.2 Style investigation9.2.1 Deviance, Prominence and ForegroundingThree concepts and their interrelationship are crucial in our investigation of style.Deviance: A statistical notionIt is the difference between the normal frequency of a feature, and its frequency in the text or corpus.Deviance is achieved by a writer, which can be calculated and may escape reader’s attention.Prominence: A psychological notion“The general name for the phenomenon of linguistic highlighting, whereby some linguistic feature stands out in some way” (Halliday).We assume that p rominence of various degrees and kinds provides the basis for a reader’s subjective recognition of a style.Foregrounding:“value in the game” (Halliday)Artistically or functionally motivated deviationWhatever is prominent is considered foregrounding to achieve certain effect. Foregrounding may be:qualitativeThe deviation from the language code itself, i.e. failing to observe some rules or conventionsof the language, for example:There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. (Mark Twin)He gave it to me —for an unbirthday present. (Lewis Carroll)quantitativeThe deviation from some expected frequency, for example:(1)The way nothing is accompanied, he thought. His mouth was too dry to speak but he could not reach for the water. Now I must get him alongside this time, he thought. I am not good for many more turns. Yes, you are, he told himself. You are good forever. On the next turn he nearly had him. But again, the fish righted himself and swam slowly away.(2)He took all his pain and what left of his strength and his long-gone pride and he put it against the fish’s agony and the fish came over onto his side and swam gently on his side, his bill almost toughing the planking of the skiff, and started to pass the boat, long, deep, wide, silver and barred with purple and interminable in the water.Any text set an expected frequency. Paragraph (1), filled with short sentences, is a typical Heminwayan paragraph. All together it contains 8 short sentences. Paragraph (2) quoted from the same novel, The Old Man and Sea, has only one long sentence. So it is quantitatively deviated from the expected frequency of Heminwayan text.We may place the three notions of saliency in an ordered relation as follows:Foregrounding Psychological Statistical(functional relevance) (Prominence) (Deviance)We interpret the arrow in “X Y” to mean “all instances of X are instances of Y”. bUt in the opposite direction, the relation does not hold.9.3 Levels of StyleIn the linguistic method, we operate language as a communicative coding system that comprises different levels presented as follows:Written Language Lexical level Lexical levelSpeaker Reader encodes Syntactical level Syntactical level decodes Phonological level Phonological levelSince we look at this method may work in both literary and non-literary context. It is on these levels that we search for potential stylistic markers.9.3.1 Phonological LevelAs we are mainly concerned with written texts, much of the discussion about sounds, stress, pitch and intonation patterns has been left out. Nonetheless, some knowledge of phonology is quite necessary, since written language has the so-termed “phonic potentials”. Texts, for example,a poem, a dramatic dialogue, are often written with the spoken word in mind.1.Sound PatterningSound patterning refers to the matching of identical or similar sounds between two or more words. English words may consist of one or more syllables. Let us examine the possible types of sound patterning between monosyllabic words. The patterning can be represented as C V CThe love for rhythmic patterning of sounds, usually between content words, seems to be instinctive and examples abound in daily speech. For example:words and phrases: riff-raff, zig-zag, pell-mell, tit for tat, see-sawnick names: Nicky Mouse, Simple Simon, Tricky VickySound patterning is not only a source of aesthetic satisfaction, but also a phonological means of emphasis. For example:On the morning of February 12, a Sunday, the granny woman was there at the cabin. And she and Tom Lincoln and the moaning Nancy Hanks welcomed into the world of battle and blood, of whispering dreams and wistful dust, a new child, a boy. (Carl Standburg, Nancy Hanks)2.OnomatopoeiaSome words such as sizzle, bang, moo, hiss, are said to be onomatopoeic. These words are thought to be capable of producing sound images, and are imitative of their senses, for example, cackle, chuckle, giggle. But the relationship between the sound and the sense of a word is purely arbitrary. Some linguists have rightly pointed out that “onomatopoeia is actually the mutual reinforcement of sense by sound and sound by sense”. Let’s see the opening sentence of D.H. Lawrence’s Odour of Chrysanthemums:The small locomotive engine, Number 4, came clanking, stumbling down from Selston with seven full wagons.The sense of listening to and “feeling” the motion of the locomotive is created by a combination of rhythm (the trochaic regularity of “clanking, stumbling, down from Selston”), the dragging effect of consonants (/k/, /t/, /b/).3.ElisionElision refers to the omission of a sound or sounds in speech. For example:Next week /neks wi:k/ (/t/ elided)Wouldn’t he come /wudn i k m/ (/t/ and /h/ elided)Elided forms are perfectly acceptable and common in ordinary conversational speech esp. in rapid speech. Yet, when rendered in written form, they often become markers of a very informal, or casual style, with a hint of sloppiness and laziness in speech. For example,(Houlden makes a phone call. He is very drunk.)“Who is this?” this very cold, lady’s voice said.“This is me, Houlden Caulfield. Lemme speaka Sally, please.”“Sally’s asleep… Do you know what time it is?”“Yeah. Wanna talka Sally. Very important. Put her on.”(J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye) 9.3.2 Lexical LevelIn their long-term use, many words have acquired stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features constitute the stylistic colouring of the words.The stylistic differentiation on the lexical level is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same referential meaning and stylistic meaning. Martin Joos in his The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality: “frozen”, “formal”, “consultative”, “casual”, and “intimate”. Accordingly, the synonyms charger, steed, horse, nag, plug can be labeled as such respectively.Look at the following two sentences:They chucked a stone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot.After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money.The lexical feature of the two sentences makes their stylistic meaning conspicuous: Sentence (1) may come from two criminals’ conversation, cas ually mentioning the crime afterwards, so many slang words are used. Sentence (2) may be from some official report, and thus the words used are literary (cast, abscond) or neutral (police, money).1.Special Word TypesSome words do not belong to the common core of the language and have distinctive2. Figures of SpeechAs to those common words, sometimes they are used literally, and sometimes figuratively. The figurative language is usually of high stylistic significance.Figurative Use Definition ExampleSimile A comparison between twodistinctly different things and thecomparison is indicated by the wordas or like.O my love’s like a red, red rose. They all rose as one man.Metaphor The use of a word which originallydenotes one thing to refer to anotherwith a similar quality.He is the soul of the team.Personification It is to treat a thing or an idea as if itwere human or had human qualities. Youth is hot and bold, Age is weak and cold.Metonymy It is substituting the name of onething for that of another with whichit is closely associated. When the war was over, he laid down the sword and took up the pen.Synecdoche A part is substituted for the whole The farms were short of handsor the whole is substituted for apart.during the harvest season.Euphemism The substitution of a mild or vagueexpression for a harsh or unpleasantone. to leave us (one’s heart has stopped beating)Overstatement The diction exaggerates the subject. She is dying to know what job hasbeen assigned for her.Understatement The words play down themagnitude or value of the subject. It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming poolIrony The use of words which are clearlyopposite to what is meant, in orderto achieve a special effect. His designs were strictly honorable, as the saying is; that is; to rob a lady of her fortune by way of marriage.Transferred Epithet An epithet is an adjective ordescriptive phrase that serves tocharacterize somebody orsomething. A transferred epithet isone that is shifted from the noun itlogically modifies to a wordassociated with that noun. She was so worried about her son that she spent several sleepless nights.Oxymoron Contradictory terms combined toproduce a special effect. When the news of the failure came, all his friends said that it was a victorious defeat.9.3.3 Syntactical Level9.3.3.1 Sentence TypesAccording to different criteria, the English sentences can be classified into different types, and they each manifest distinctive stylistic features and are suitable for different ideas expressed.1.Classification according to COMPLEXITYSimple SentenceA simple sentence has only one predicate. Short simple sentences are usually emphatic. They have special clarity, and provide variety when used with longer sentences, for example,People think I am foolish and ignorant, but I’m not. I listen. I hear. I see. I think.I read. I walk alone by myself. (Taylor Caldwell, Testimony of Two Men)Compound SentenceA compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon without a conjunction.Compound sentences present coordinate ideas that are compatible and roughly equal in importance, and thus convey a sense of balance. Or it can be used to relate things in their natural order of happening. They are often employed in story-telling: the narration is fluent and friendly. It is easy and comfortable for the reader or listener to follow. For example:Once there was a shark and there was another shark and they ate fishes and they got so fat that they exploded.Complex SentenceA complex sentence contains at least one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts.Complex sentences express complex ideas clearly and accurately. They are capable of presenting complex psychological activities or complicated interrelations among different things. For instance:She could not think without anger, hardly without contempt, on the easiness of temper, that what want of proper resolution which now made him the slave of his designing friends, and let him to sacrifice his own happiness to the caprice of their inclinations.(Jane Austin, Pride and Prejudice)2. Classification according to INFORMATION ARRANGEMENTLoose Sentence and Periodic SentenceA loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the reader know what it is mainly about when he has read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it. Foe instance:a. She decided to study English though she was interested in music. (Loose Sentence)b. Although she was interested in music, she finally decided to study English. (Periodic Sentence) Loose sentences are easier, simpler, and more natural and direct. The tone is easy, relaxed and informal; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.Inverted SentenceAn inverted sentence is a sentence with a change in normal word order.An inverted sentence is also emphatic, because the unusual word order draws readers’ attention: The poet was poor, and poor he remained all his life.On other occasions, inversion may help to enhance the cohesion in the context:They laughed together, and with that laugh ended all serious discourse.(R.Kipling, The Light that Failed)Elliptical SentenceIn an elliptical sentence, there is omission of one or more words that obviously understood but that must be supplied to make a construction grammatically correct.The focus of information in an elliptical sentence is foregrounding. This type of sentence is simple, direct and eye-catching. It is frequently used in spoken language nad advertising, and literary works as well:A beautiful way to Stop Fueling Around.No, not like that. A barren land, bare waste. Vulcanic lake, the dead sea; no fish, weedless, sunk deep in the earth.(James Joyce, Ulysses)9.3.3.2 Deviance on Syntactical LevelIn our reading, we may come across some grammatically incorrect sentences. Sometimes they are deviance by violating grammatical rules on purpose, say, to show the speaker is not well-educated, or is a child:Misuse of helping worde.g. He done gone. (He has gone.)2) Absence of the link-verbe.g. That (is) where he is.3) Non-standard auxiliarye.g. I ain’t (am not) talking with you.4) Disagreement in person or number.e.g. Has (have) I talked wild?The uses of rhetorical devices are modes of deviance on the syntactical level. For instance:1.RepetitionThe deliberate repetition of a word, phrase, or syntactical structure will enable certain important concept to leave a de ep impression to, or make a special effect in the reader’s mind:I love everything that’s old: old friends, old times, old manners, old books, old wine; and, I believe, Dorothy, you’ll own I have been pretty fond of an old wife.(Oliver Goldsmith, She Stoops to Conquer)2.ParallelismWhen a sentence contains two or more parts of the same form and grammatical function, or when two or more sentences are of the same form, it is one with parallel constructions.Parallel sentences (called balanced sentences) are emphatic and forceful. They are impressive because of the contrast, and pleasing to the ear because of the rhythm.To believe is very dull. To doubt is intensively engrossing. To be on the alert is to live; to be lulled into security is to die. (Oscar Wilde)3. AntithesisAntithesis is a special type of parallelism; it refers to the parallel of two phrases or coordinate clause, which are identical in structure, similar in word number, and relevant in meaning. This kind of sentences, symmetrical in form and impressive in meaning, are commonly found in proverbs, poems and titles:To err is human, to forgive, devine. (Pope)Not that I love Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. (Shakespeare)4. Rhetorical QuestionSometimes writers or speakers use the rhetorical question to emphasize a positive or negative meaning. The sentence is only in the form of question to enhance the tone of expression and make the idea impressive.Had you rather Caesar were living, and die all slave, than that Caesar were dead, to live al freemen? (Shakespeare)。
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 9 Language and culture
1. *Definition: culture; cultural diffusion2. The relationship between language and culture3. # Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis4. *Linguistic evidence of cultural differences5. Cultural overlap and diffusionDefinition: culture; cultural diffusionCultural overlap and diffusion; Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis; Linguisticevidence of cultural differencesThe relationship between language and culture一、定义including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions,techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 由信仰，风俗，目标，机构，技术和语言构成，具有人类社区生活的特征。
through communication, some elements ofcultureA enter cultureB andbecomepartof cultureB. 通过交际， A 文化中的某些成分进入了 B 文化，并成为了 B 文化的一部分。
二、知识点techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 由信仰，风俗，目标，机构，技术和语言构成，具有人类社区生活的特征。
Twotypes of culture:1. material culture 物质文化： is concrete, substantial and observable. 具体的，实质的，可观察到的( e.g.意识文化、信念、价值观，时空概念)2. spiritual culture 精神文化： is abstract, implicit, and hidden. 抽象的，多义的，不可见的。
简明英语语言学chapter9languageandculture
4. Language plays a major role in socializing the people and in perpetuating of a culture, espically in print form, written form or in digital form.
• 5. Culture aslo affets a discourse community’s imagination, or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in behavior and life.
• 'He gave man speech, and speech created thought, Which is the measure of the universe'
Prometheus Unbound,
Shelley
• In Hopi, there is something very special about its grammar. • One of the features that separate it from other languages is that it does not use the same means to express time, and hence is called as a “timeless language”(没有时间的 语言). • Do not recognize time as a linear dimension. • Hopi verbs do not have tenses of time and no concept of speed.
语言学--unit9语言与文学Language and Literature
Dictionary definition
The world is like a stage.
The name of a
part of a
objective
to
synecdoche refer to the
whole thing.
simile Figurative language metapher
(4)
To demonstrate technical skill, and for intellectual pleasure
(5)
For emphasis or contrast
(6)
Onomatopoeia
9.3 The Language in Poety 9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry
Ex.9-15
Trochee and palm to palm is holy palmer's kiss
Ex.9-16
Anapest Willows whiten, aspens quiver
Ex.9-17
Dactyl Without cause be he pleased, without cause be he cross
(1)
Information about the poem
(2)
The way the poem is structured
lingustics chapter 9.4 The Language
in Fiction
9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point of View
(1) I-narrators (2)Third-person narrators (3)Schema-oriented language (4)Given vs New information (5)Deixis
语言学Chapter 9
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9· 1 Foregrounding and grammatical form前 2· 景化和语法形式
Events belong to the string of plot are usually foregrounded while those used to provide related information are backgrounded. Deviation（偏离）and parallelism（平行） are usually used to show foregrounding events. The study of foregrounding is called patterning（模式/干扰背景模式）.
Language & Literature 4
Chapter 9 Language & Literature • 9· Some general features of the literary 2 language
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9· 1 Foregrounding and grammatical form前 2· 景化和语法形式
Language & Literature 2
Chapter 9 Language & Literature • 9· Theoretical background 1
• 研究表明: 自20世纪60年代，建立起来了现代文体学， 从此该学科就飞速发展起来。但20世纪60年代，文体 学是形式主义formalism的十年，70年代是功能主义 functionalism的十年，80年代是语篇文体学discourse stylistics的十年，那么在90年代，是社会历史sociohistorical和社会文化socio-cultural文体学。 • 2000年后，文体学的发展趋势有两个主要特征。首先， 向着社会历史和社会文化文体学的研究深入。其次， 正兴起一种多元发展plural-heads development的趋势， 不同文体学学派竞相发展，新的学派不时涌现出来。
语言学教程Chapter 9. Language and Literature
The term “foregrounding”
Definition Deviation of language involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning, graphology,etc. Repetition is also a kind of deviation. Alliteration, parallism, and many figures of speech are the examples of foregrounding in literary language.
9.2 some general features of the literary language
Features of literary language are displayed in the following three aspects: 1. phonology 2. grammar 3. semantics Literay language differs from non-literary language in that the former is foregrounded in the above three aspects.
9.2.3 the analysis of literay language
Procedures we should follow when we analyze the grammatical structure and meaning of a literary text. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋9 Language and Culture课件
PPT学习交流
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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
• Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.
• More than in Whorf’s days, howeportant context is in complementing the meanings
encoded in the language.
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Linguistic evidence of cultural differences
• In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第九章Language_and_Literature
Thus the term covers a wide area of meaning. This may have its advantages, but may also be problematic: which of the above meanings is intended must often be deduced from the context in which the term is used.
2.1 What is ‘foregrounding’? foregrounding’
In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to foregrounding’ refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.
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The red-haired woman, redsmiling, waving to the disappearing shore. She left the maharajah; she left maharajah; innumerable other lights o’ o’ passing love in towns and cities and theatres and railway stations all over the world. But Melchior she did not leave.
Chapter 9 Language
Chapter 9 Language
3岁时基本掌握本民族语言的基本方面。在英语国家中，在语法使 用上会出现过度使用规则动词的时态变化的错误。 4岁基本掌握语法规则及简单实用规则(pragmatics)。 9岁掌握微妙的实用规则。 语言的精确化主要是后天习得的，不同的语种有不同的精确化规范。 2、言语获得的理论 1）强调后天学习因素的学说：语言的获得基本上是后天学习的结 果，通过后天模仿、学习强化和纠正获得词汇和规则。 2）强调先天性因素的学说：乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)认为人一 生下来就有内在的言语获得装置(language acquisition device)，它 包含着一组语法规则，这对所有语言都是共同的。在后天言语学习 过程中，人们不是学习语法规则，而是判断自己周围在说什么语言， 然后调整内在的规则。 3）脑功能的观点：Elman, Bates等认为语言来自于一般的认知能 力，部分认知能力是遗传的。人脑的结构确保获得、使用语言。
Chapter 9 Language （3）词：语言中可以独立运用的最小单位。词是图形、 语音、语义、构词法与句法五种信息的复合体，音、形 是词的物质载体，义是词所参照的事物或状态，词是句 子的组成部分。汉语中语素与词的关系不同于英语。 （4）短语和句子：可以独立表达比较完整语义的语言结 构单位。短语和句子的词序排列有严格的组合规则。 短语在言语活动中的职能：人们经常以短语作为感知和 理解的单位。 任何一个语句都包含两个层次结构——表层结构、深 层结构。表层结构是句子说出或书写的外部语法形式。 深层结构是句子的意义结构。 一种语言，音素只有几十个，语素约为5万个，字词 约为20万左右，而句子是无数的。因此人所学会的不是 一个个的句子，而是掌握组织句子的一般规则。
Chapter 9 Language 3）句子类型、语境等影响句子的理解 不同句子类型理解的难度不同：肯定句比否定句理解得 快，被动否定句理解得最慢；符合事实的肯定句快于不 符合事实的肯定句。 语境：语境提供了各种背景知识，能帮助人们迅速、准 确地理解语言。许多对话言语在脱离背景时很难理解。 在背景中可以克服歧义句的产生。 4、课文理解(discourse comprehension)：理解较长的 话语。以下因素影响课文理解： 1）推理：根据课文信息进行推理 2）语境：课文的背景信息 3）图式：已有知识经验的组织形式 课文理解是一个运用已有知识进行、基于对句子的理解 进行思维加工的过程。
语言学教程Chapter 9. Language and Literature..
Trope
It is another word for the figurative use of language, which refers to language used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.
Some forms of trope
The function of the figurative use of language
It might be to make the abstract seem concrete; to make the mysterious or frightening seem safe, ordinary and domestic, or to make the everyday usage seem wonderful and unusual.
9.3 the language in poetry
9.3.1 sound patterning
Rhyme is salient feature of poetry. End rhyme occurs at the end of a line in a poem, the pattern is cVC. The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of another line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away. End rhyme is very common in some poetic styles, and particularly in children’s poetry. It is also a feature in plays and songs.
语言学Chapter 9
diameter: four syllables / two feet trimeter: tetrameter pentameter hexameter heptameter octameter
Stress Iamb: unstressed + stressed Trochee: stressed + unstressed Anapest: unstressed (2) + stressed Dactyl: stressed + unstressed (2) Spondee: stressed (2) Pyrrhic: unstressed (2)
Couplets Quatrains Blank verse
Exercise O! lest the world should task you to recite What merit lived in me, that you should love After my death,—dear love, forget me quite, For you in me can nothing worthy prove; Unless you would devise some virtuous lie, To do more for me than mine own desert, And hang more praise upon deceased I Than niggard truth would willingly impart: O! lest your true love may seem false in this, That you for love speak well of me untrue, My name be buried where my body is, And live no more to shame nor me nor you. For I am sham'd by that which I bring forth, And so should you, to love things nothing worth.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)-章节题库-第9章 语言与文学【圣才出品】
第9章语言与文学Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. The part of linguistics that studies the language of literature is called _____. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.【答案】Stylistics【解析】文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究文学文体中语言的特征，并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。
2. The term _____ was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his principle of Psychology (1890) to describe the free association of ides and impression in mind. It was later applied to the writing of William Faulkner, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.【答案】stream of consciousness【解析】意识流写作起初是由威廉姆·詹姆斯用来描述思维中印象和观念的自由联系，这种方法的句子结构高度省略。
之后许多作家如威廉·福克纳，詹姆斯·乔伊斯，弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫也都在写作中有所用到。
3. At different times, different patterns of metre and sound have developed and become accepted as ways of structuring poems. Among them, _____ consists of lines in iambic pentameter which does not rhyme.【答案】blank verse【解析】不同时代，诗会有不同的韵律模式和语音模式。
语言学教程第9章
第9章：Literary stylistics文学文体学p211: It deals with the relationship between language and literature; it focuses on the study of the linguistic features related to literary style.Foregrounding前景化p211: it is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning,etc.In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be understood by the listener / reader.Simile明喻p214: It is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it explicitly signals in a text, with the words as or like. Metaphor隐喻p214: It always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated, (and it is a way of transferring qualities from one thing to another, but it is more powerful. )Metonymy借喻p214: It is a change of name, for example, “crown” represents “king”.Synecdoche提喻p215: It is a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.Rhyme押韵p217: It serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stanza; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself. Alliteration头韵、双声p217: the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words:Assonance元音叠韵p217: the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words:Consonance假韵、辅音叠韵p217: the repetition of the final consonant, functioning as the end rhyme:Reverse rhyme反韵、掉尾韵p218: describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants:Pararhyme类尾韵p218: when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they Pararhyme.Repetition重复p218: the repetition of the same word, it is also a kind of deviation as it violates the normal rule of usage by over frequency.Metre格p218: when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.Iamb抑扬格: an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllablefollowed by a stressed one:Trochee扬抑格: a trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable:Anapest抑抑扬格: an anapestic foot contains three syllables: two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one:Dactyl扬抑抑格: A dactylic foot contains three syllables: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones.Spondee扬扬格: a spondaic foot contains two stressed syllables, but lines of poetry rarely consist of only spondaic feet:Couplet对句: two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme, and It consists of two lines that usually rhyme and have the same meter. Quatrain四行诗: stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry. Blank verse无韵诗: consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme:Narrator:叙述者 The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event.Schemata图式p224: Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized into interrelated patterns. They are constructed from our experience of the experiential world and guide us as we make sense of new experience. In language schemas are the underlying structures which accounts for the organization of texts or discourse. Different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, relating to their different viewpoints.New information新信息p224: information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable, it is new.Given information已知信息p224: information that is presented by the speaker as recoverable, it has already been motioned before.Direct speech直接引语p225: it contends a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks: “Am I too late?” she asked.Indirect speech间接引语p225: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.Free direct speech自由直接引语p226: a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both: “Am I too late?”Free indirect speech自由间接引语p226: more of the narrator’s contribution, it is closer to the original words form of the question. Was she too late? She asked.。
语言学教程Chapter9 9.1 Introduction
9.1 Introduction
STYLE has been recognized since the days of ancient rhetoric, whereas STYLISTICS is perhaps the creation of bibliographers.
The formation of the word stylistics, i.e. style + istics, indicates that it is an interdisciplinary study.(style for literary criticism, and istics for linguistics)
As a newly developed discipline, Carter and Simpson (1989) observed that “if the 1960s was a decade of formalism in stylistics, the 1970s a decade of functionalism and the 1980s a decade of discourse stylistics, then the 1990s could well become the decade in which sociohistorical and socio-cultural stylistic studies are a main preoccupation.” in addition to this, Shen (2000) pointed out that there is a trend of “plural-heads development”, i.e. different schools of stylistics compete for development and new schools emerge every now and then. The cognitive approach to literature is a capmental Stages
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9.2.1 foregrounding and the grammatical form
In literary texts, the grammatical system of the language is often exploited, experimented with, or in Mukarosky’s words, made to “deviate from other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a result creates interesting new patterns in form and in meaning”.
Some forms of trope
Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche
Why people use language in a figurative way?
The figurative use of language has the effect of making the concepts under discussion more domestic and acceptable. Readers can……
1. phonology 2. grammar 3. semantics Literay language differs from non-literary
language in that the former is foregrounded in the above three aspects.
9.2.3 the analysis of literay
language
Procedures we should follow when we analyze the grammatical structure and meaning of a literary text.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
language? What the difference of the two groups of ideas? Literary language Non-literary language
Literal language Figurative language
Trope
It is another word for the figurative use of language, which refers to language used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.
9.2.2 literal language and figurative language
The definitபைடு நூலகம்ons of the two Is non-literary language the same as literal
language? Is literary language the same as figurative
development and new schools emerge now and then.
9.2 some general features of the literary language
Features of literary language are displayed in the following three aspects:
The function of the figurative use of language
It might be to make the abstract seem concrete; to make the mysterious or frightening seem safe, ordinary and domestic, or to make the everyday usage seem wonderful and unusual.
Chapter nine
Language and literature
9.1 introduction
The history of style The definition of stylistics The features of stylistics in different periods: 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Remarks of 申丹：plural-heads developments Different schools of stylistics compete for
The term “foregrounding”
Definition Deviation of language involves all
levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning, graphology,etc. Repetition is also a kind of deviation. Alliteration, parallism, and many figures of speech are the examples of foregrounding in literary language.
9.3 the language in poetry
9.3.1 sound patterning
Rhyme is salient feature of poetry. End rhyme occurs at the end of a line in a
poem, the pattern is cVC. The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of another line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away. End rhyme is very common in some poetic styles, and particularly in children’s poetry. It is also a feature in plays and songs.