巴罗宏观经济学：现代观点第7章共44页
宏观经济学巴罗曼昆上财
名义GDP分为两部分：
一部分衡量产量（实际GDP） 另一部分衡量价格（ GDP平减指数）
名义GDP=实际GDP GDP平减指数
2. GDP指标的意义与局限性
GDP核算的意义
判断宏观经济运行状
判断宏观经济运行的3个重要经济指标，经济增长率、通货膨 胀率，失业率都与GDP有密切关系。经济增长率就是GDP增长率， 通货膨胀率就是GDP紧缩指数，失业率中的奥肯定律表明国内 生产总值与失业率的关系。
GDP是一定时期内所生产的而不是所售卖掉的 最终产品和劳务的市场价值
二手货 存货 住房服务与其他估算
2.计算GDP的一些规则
GDP 是一国范围内生产的最终产品和劳务的市 场价值
GDP是计算期内生产的最终产品和劳务的市场价 值
通常这个时期是一年和一个季度（三个月）
GDP 一般仅指市场活动导致的价值
GNP则是按国民原则计算，是一个国民概念，包括本 国居民在国内和国外的财产和劳务所获得的收入， 但不包括支付给外国居民的财产和劳务所获得的收 入。它是一个收入的概念。
GNP vs.GDP
两者间关系：
GNP=GDP+国外净要素收入（Net Factor product) ，简称NFP
其中，国外净要素收入=本国居民从外国获得的 收入–外国居民从本国获得的收入
发达国家GNP大于GDP，说明本国公民在外国的 收入大于外国公民在本国的收入。
国民生产净值（NNP）或国内生产净值（NDP）
NDP或NNP是一国在一定时期内以货币表现 的最终产品和劳务价值中扣除固定资产折 旧（D）后的余额。
NNP＝GNP-D NDP＝GDP-D
国民收入（NI：National Income）
个人收入=国民收入－公司利润－社会保险税 －净利息＋红利＋政府向个人的转 移支付＋个人利息收入
宏观经济学之简单国民收入决定模型
0~t1——幼年期，c<y, s<0, 负父母的债
t2—青壮年期，c<y, s<0, s的用途有：还债，养老 储蓄，放债
预期的终身收入取决于预期的工作年限和年 劳动收入以及家庭财产。
假设条件：
人的寿命、工作年限和收入确定 储蓄的利息因素不加考虑 不考虑价格变动
不考虑遗产因素（无遗产）
• （1）y=yp+yt, c=cp+ct • （2）cp=βyp, β为消费倾向 • （3）暂时消费与暂时收入无关，
暂时收入用于储蓄。 • 2、应用：
（1）繁荣阶段，现实收入<恒常收入， 现实消费=恒常消费，所以现实APC< 恒常APC，现实APS<恒常APS （2）萧条阶段，正好相反。 所以，临时性的政府税收政策失效。
APC=c / y=(α+βy ) / y=α/ y+β=α/ y + MPC (1)APC<MPC (2) α/y→0, APC→MPC
c APC= α /y + β MPC= β在图中表现为斜c= α率+ β y
α是基本消费部分
（自发性消费α ）<0。
450
o
y
3.3.2 线性消费函数（3）
MPC和APC的比较
第三讲 简单国民收入决定模型
第三讲 简单国民收入决定模型
也就是45度线模型 这是高度简化的凯恩斯宏观经 济模型，以最简单的方式说明
宏观经济总量的决定
第三讲 简单国民收入决定模型
3.1 简单国民收入决定理论的基本假设 3.2 均衡国民收入的决定 3.3 消费函数与储蓄函数
3.4 两部门经济中国民收入的决定 3.5 三部门经济与财政政策效应 3.6 四部门经济与外贸乘数
《宏观经济学现代观点》考研巴罗版考研复习笔记
《宏观经济学现代观点》考研巴罗版考研复习笔记第一部分导论
第1章思考宏观经济学
1.1 复习笔记
考点一：宏观经济学的含义及研究内容（见表1-1）★★
表1-1 宏观经济学的含义及研究内容
考点二：宏观经济学的微观经济基础（见表1-2）★★★★
表1-2 宏观经济学的微观经济基础
考点三：经济模型与现代宏观经济学的研究方法（见表1-3）★★★
表1-3 经济模型与现代宏观经济学的研究方法
考点四：浮动价格与粘性价格★★
市场出清的隐含条件是价格能够迅速调整使得市场上供求平衡，但在现实当中，价格粘性甚至价格刚性都是存在的。
正如凯恩斯所提出的，劳动力市场通常处于非均衡的状态，因此，短期中劳动力的需求量与供给量之间总是存在着差异，工资率是粘性的，它仅作缓慢调整以便在长期中使劳动力市场出清。
近年来，一些宏观经济学家强调有些商品市场出现不均衡状态，这种分析方法称为新凯恩斯模型。
很多时候，宏观经济学家认为长期中价格或工资是充分变动的，而在短期分析当中则存在粘性。
当然，将长期增长的分析方法运用在短期分析当中将有助于理解宏观经济的短期波动。
宏观经济学家们一致认为：经济始终是在向市场出清状态接近的。
因此，不管对短期内粘性价格显著性的最终判定如何，利用市场出清模型做宏观经济分析确实是一条最佳的途径。
中级宏观经济学 巴罗
BarroChapter 3TRUE/FALSE1. The standard of living of people in a country is their per capita income.2. Diminishing returns to labor implies that eventually the marginal product of labor will becomenegative.3. The marginal product of capital is how much output changes when capital increases by one unit.4. Saving is income that is not consumed.5. Real saving equals gross investment.MULTIPLE CHOICE1. World growth data shows that from 1960 to 2000:a. the US and other OECD countries grew atmoderate rates. c. some countries particularly East Asiancountries grew rapidly.b. sub-Saharan African countries grew atlow rates or declined.d. all of the above.2. World growth data reveals that from 1960 to 2000:a. the US and other OECD countries grew atmoderate rates. c. some countries particularly East Asiancountries grew a low rates or declined.b. sub-Saharan African countries grewrapidly.d. all of the above.3. World growth data reveals that from 1960 to 2000:a. the US and other OECD countriesstagnated. c. some countries particularly East Asiancountries grew at low or negative rates.b. sub-Saharan African countries grew at lowor negative rates.d. all of the above.4. World growth data reveals that from 1960 to 2000:a. all countries grew at similar rates. c. some countries particularly East Asiancountries grew rapidly.b. sub-Saharan African countries grewmoderately. d. the US and other OECD countriesstagnated.5. The US and other OECD countries had high levels of GDP per person in 2000 despite growing at amoderate rate from 1960 to 2000 because:a. of exploitation of foreign countries. c. they stole the wealth of less developedcountries.b. their economies had grown at a moderaterate for a century or more.d. all of the above.6. If A in the production function Y = A • F(K,L) rises, then:a. output rises for any level of K and L. c. the marginal product of capital rises.b. the marginal product of labor rises. d. all of the above.7. A in the production function Y = A • F(K,L) is:a. the marginal product of labor. c. the marginal product of capital.b. the capital to labor ratio (K/L). d. the level of technology.8. The marginal product of labor is:c. labor divided by capital (L/K)a. how much output rises for when laborincreases one unit.b. capital divided by labor (K/L). d. the level of technology.9. The marginal product of capital is:a. . c. the slope of the production whentechnology and labor are held constant.d. all of the above.b. the change in output for a unit change incapital.10. Diminishing marginal product of capital (MPK) means:a. output rises as capital rises. c. output rises as the MPK rises.b. the MPK eventually falls as capital rises. d. the marginal product of capital eventuallybecomes negative as capital rises.11. In the production function Y = A • F(K,L), L is:a. leisure. c. the marginal product of labor.b. labor. d. the marginal product of leisure.12. In the productio n function Y = A • F(K,L), Y is:a. good Y. c. the marginal product of good Y.b. production. d. constant returns to scale.13. Among the assumptions made about the production function Y = A • (K,L) is:a. diminishing marginal product of labor. c. diminishing marginal product of capital.b. constant returns to scale. d. all of the above.14. For the production function Y = A • F(K,L) constant returns to scale means:a. if capital and labor double output doubles. c. the marginal products of capital and laborare constant.b. capital and labor increase at a constantd. technology is constant.rate.15. If the production function Y = A • (K,L) is divided by L, thena. (Y/L) = A•f(K/L). c. y = A•f(k).b. output per capita equals technology timesd. all of the above.a function of the capital labor ratio.16. Among the categories the growth rate is broken down into by growth accounting is:a. the growth rate of technology. c. the capital labor ratio.b. the marginal product of capital. d. all of the above.17. Growth accounting shows that GDP growth depends on:a. growth of the capital stock. c. government purchases.b. holding environmental pollution in check. d. having a reasonable distribution ofincome.18. Growth accounting shows that economic growth depends on:a. government tax receipts. c. lowering environmental pollution.b. the growth of the labor force. d. all of the above.19. Growth accounting shows that economic growth depends on:a. controlling environmental pollution. c. increases in technology.b. international cooperation. d. all of the above.20. Growth accounting shows that economic growth depends on:a. increases in technology. c. growth in the capital stock.b. the growth of the labor force. d. all of the above.21. The growth accounting formula is:a. c.b. d. Y= A • F(K,L)22. The labor force participation rate is:a. the labor force divided into population. c. the labor force times population.b. the labor force divide by population. d. the labor population minus the labor force.23. If a country has a population of 100 million and a labor force of 60 million, then its labor forceparticipation rate is:a. 0.6. c. 40 million.b. 1.67 d. 60 million.24. If a country has a population of 300 million and a labor force of 200 million, then its labor forceparticipation rate is:a. 0.67 c. 100 million.b. 1.5 d. 200 million.25. The change in the capital stock in an economy depends on:a. the economy’s saving. c. the economy’s investment.b. the change in bond prices. d. all of the above.26. In a closed economy with no government sector, the change in the capital stock is:a. net investment less depreciation. c. gross investment.b. gross investment less depreciation. d. nominal saving.27. In a closed economy with no government sector, the change in the capital stock is equal to:a. net investment less depreciation. c. gross investment.b. nominal saving. d. real saving.28. Depreciation of the capital stock occurs due to:a. machines deteriorating. c. bonds falling in value.b. real estate rising in value. d. all of the above.29. Depreciation of the capital stock occurs due to:a. inflation. c. bonds falling in value.b. buildings needing repair. d. all of the above.30. Depreciation of the capital stock occurs due to:a. deflation. c. bonds falling in value.b. vehicles requiring new parts. d. all of the above.31. Depreciation of the capital stock occurs due to:a. machines deteriorating. c. buildings needing repair.b. vehicles needing parts. d. all of the above.32. If there are 120 machines in an economy and the depreciation rate is 5% per year, then:a. depreciation is 5 machines a year. c. depreciation is 115 machines per year.b. depreciation is 6 machines a year. d. depreciation is 114 machines per year.33. If there are 120 machines in an economy and the depreciation rate is 10% per year, then next yearthere are:a. 10 of the original machines left. c. 108 of the original machines left.b. 12 of the original machines left. d. 110 of the original machines left.34. The average product of capital is:a. c. .b. Y/K. d. .Figure 3.1OutputA = F(K,L)Capital35. In Figure 3.1 the average product of capital is:a. rising. c. falling.b. constant. d. unknown.36. In Figure 3.1 the marginal product of capital is:a. rising. c. constant.b. declining. d. unknown.37. Figure 3.1 shows:a. a production function with labor andtechnology constant. c. a production function with capital andtechnology constant.b. a production function with capital andlabor constant. d. a production function with capital, laborand technology constant.38. In the steady state of the Solow growth model:a. c.b. d.39. In the Solow growth model the economy reaches the optimal k*:a. immediately. c. randomly.b. over a period of time. d. cyclically.40. The Solow growth model assumes unemployment is:a. zero. c. rising.b. falling. d. constant.41. The Solow growth model ignores:a. the international sector. c. changes in labor force participation.b. the role of government. d. all of the above.42. The Solow growth model shows that the growth rate of real GDP per worker depends on:a. the saving rate, s c. the depreciation rate, .b. the growth rate of the labor force, n. d. all of the above.43. The Solow growth model shows that the growth rate of real GDP per worker depends on:a. the saving rate, s c. the rate of inflation.b. government spending, G. d. all of the above.44. The Solow growth model shows that the growth rate of real GDP per worker depends on:a. the rate of growth of the money supply. c. rate of growth of government debt.b. the growth rate of the labor force, n. d. all of the above.45. The Solow growth model shows that the growth rate of real GDP per worker depends on:a. the rate of growth of the money supply. c. the depreciation rate, .b. level of output in the economy. d. all of the above.46. In the Solow growth model the optimal capital to labor ratio, K/L, is where:a. s+ n = s•(k/y). c. n+ s = s•(y/k).b. s+ n = s•(y/k). d. s+ s = n•(y/k).47. In the Solow growth model the steady state is when the economy has:a. full employment. c. zero inflation.b. the optimal capital labor ratio, k*. d. all of the above.48. During the transition to the steady state in the Solow growth model:a. the output per worker rises. c. the rate of growth of capital rises.b. labor force participation rises. d. all of the above.49. During the transition to the steady state in the Solow growth model:a. the output per worker falls. c. the rate of growth of capital falls.b. labor force participation rises. d. all of the above.50. During the transition to the steady state in the Solow growth model:a. the output per worker rises. c. the rate of growth of capital falls.b. the capital to labor ratio rises. d. all of the above.51. The Solow residual is:a. that part of output growth not attributed tolabor force growth. c. that part of output growth not attributed tocapital stock growth and labor forcegrowth.b. that part of output growth not attributed tocapital stock growth.d. the growth in output.52. The Solow residual is that part of output growth attributed to:a. the growth rate of the labor force. c. the growth rate of the capital stock.b. the growth rate of output. d. the grow rate of technology.53. The Solow residual:a. is not directly observable. c. is attributed to capital stock growth.b. attributed to labor force growth. d. is attributed to labor force growth andcapital stock growth.SHORT ANSWER1. What is a production function?2. What do constant returns to scale imply?3. What is the growth account formula and what does it tell us?4. Show why real saving equals net investment.5. What is the key equation of the Solow growth model and what does it say to us?。
巴罗宏观经济学-小结
第一局部：微瞧经济学根底和市场出清模型的全然原理第二章：工作量、产出和消费——鲁滨逊的经济学→分析前提：〔1〕个体孤立经济：不存在商品市场〔生产和消费的统一〕；不存在信贷市场〔当期生产当期消费〕〔2〕一种投进〔劳动〕，一种产出〔3〕单个时期分析→单个时期的消费和闲暇〔或工作〕的选择模型→财宝效应〔生产函数的平行移动〕和替代效应〔MPL的改变〕→两种效应对工作〔不确定〕、产出〔同方向〕和消费〔同方向〕的妨碍===================================================================== 第三章：商品市场和信贷市场中的家庭行为→分析前提：（1）家庭方案无限期（2）家庭预算约束〔货币存量维持不变〕（3）跨时期分析→两时期消费选择模型→财宝效应〔生产函数的平移〕→跨时期替代效应〔利率变化〕→利率变化的财宝效应〔仅针对个人分析有意义〕→两时期工作量选择模型→财宝效应〔生产函数平移〕→跨时期替代效应〔利率变化〕→跨时期下储蓄的决定→消费依靠于持久性收进〔长期平均收进〕→比照:持久性收进变化的边际消费倾向V.S.临时性收进变化的边际消费倾向→比照:生产函数持久性变化V.S.临时性移动对储蓄的妨碍〔财宝效应〕→区分:单时期消费和闲暇的相互替代V.S.跨时期替代→单时期内的替代:〔1〕动因:劳动生产率的持久性变化〔2〕替代的双方：消费和闲暇〔3〕对储蓄没有妨碍→跨时期替代:（1）动因:利率的变化（2）替代的双方：当期消费和下一期消费；或当期劳动和下一期劳动（3）特不情况:劳动生产率的临时性变化〔增加储蓄〕=================================================================第四章：货币需求→鲍莫尔-托宾模型〔最优现金治理模型〕→两类本钞票:利息损失本钞票/交易本钞票→妨碍交易时刻间隔〔T〕和实际货币需求〔M/P〕的因素→利率〔R〕、实际支出流〔C〕和实际交易本钞票〔r/P〕→现金持有量的规模经济→货币流通速度〔=2/T〕→货币对家庭预算约束的妨碍→实际余额效应〔财宝效应和分配效应〕→交易本钞票引起的负的财宝效应〔妨碍因素:利率、实际交易本钞票、交易量〕=================================================================第五章: 市场出清模型的全然原理→市场出清模型→商品市场出清〔决定利率和产出水平〕:R对提供和需求的妨碍→货币市场出清〔决定价格水平〕→提供冲击〔恶化〕对实际变量的妨碍〔产出、消费、利率、物价、劳动投进〕→生产函数临时性变化→平移变化V.S.等比例变化〔考虑MPL的变化〕→解释实证中，劳动投进的同周期性〔替代效应>财宝效应和利率的共同作用〕→解释利率的和价格水平的动态变化〔储蓄意愿、超额需求/提供〕→生产函数持久性变化→解释利率的不变性〔当期和将来的相对稀缺性未发生变化〕→劳动投进的不确定性〔替代效应和财宝效应的不同妨碍〕→比照：鲁滨逊个体经济下各个变量的周期性〔全然一致〕→其他妨碍物价水平的因素〔妨碍货币市场出清〕→货币总量一次性提高〔动态调整过程〕→货币中性/货币数量论〔长期〕→实际货币需求变化〔交易本钞票、金融创新等；不妨碍商品市场出清〕===================================================================== 第六章：劳动市场→市场出清模型〔引进劳动市场〕→商品市场出清〔决定利率和产出水平〕（1）引进W/P对需求的妨碍（2）能够通过劳动市场R对W/P的妨碍，转化为只考虑R的模型→劳动市场出清〔决定实际工资率和就业量〕（1）W/P同时妨碍劳动需求和提供（2）R妨碍劳动提供〔R—>W/P→C和Y只受R妨碍〕→货币市场出清〔决定价格水平〕〔与上一章模型一致〕→提供冲击〔改善〕对实际变量的妨碍〔实际工资率、就业〕→生产函数持久性改善→解释实际工资率的同周期性→解释就业量的不确定性〔财宝效应和实际工资率变化的妨碍〕→解释消费需求的同周期性〔财宝效应和实际工资率的替代效应〕→比照：不考虑劳动市场下各个变量的周期性〔全然一致〕→通过R连接劳动市场和商品市场〔使得商品市场出清不受W/P妨碍〕→个人一辈子产模型中的MPL等价于劳动市场中的W/P→只有在考虑了W/P或MPL的替代效应后，劳动提供或就业量才可能出现不确定性〔模型才能够用于解释实证中，该变量的同周期性〕→解释劳动量和实际工资的同向变化就必须考虑劳动生产率的变化☆☆☆扰动市场出清的因素的作用机制（1）替代效应→跨时替代效应〔利率R〕→对提供和需求变化起了主导作用→同周期内消费和闲暇的替代〔MPL或W/P〕→对劳动提供的妨碍（2）财宝效应〔生产函数的变化〕→商品市场：对需求的妨碍→劳动市场：对劳动提供的妨碍☆☆☆比照不同类型的提供冲击的妨碍（1）临时性V.S.持久性→利率的变化〔储蓄意愿的变化〕（2）生产函数平移V.S.等比例变化→劳动提供的变化〔是否存在同时期消费和闲暇的替代〕=================================================================== 第二局部：通货膨胀第七章：通货膨胀和利率导论→实际利率V.S.名义利率→二者的关系→实际利率与预期实际利率的关系→决定于未预期到的通货膨胀=================================================================== 第八章：市场出清模型中的货币、通货膨胀和利率→市场出清模型〔考虑货币增长对货币市场的妨碍〕→前提假设:完全预见的通货膨胀，且不存在事先预期的通胀→分析1:货币增长率不变的货币时刻路径的妨碍→价格增长率〔=货币增长率〕、名义利率〔各个时期相同〕、实际货币余额〔不变〕→不存在货币变化的实际效应〔货币超中性成立〕→分析2：货币增长率在T期加速〔静态分析，通货膨胀预期在T期瞬时改变〕→解释名义利率的增长〔表达预期通货膨胀的分析〕→解释价格水平/名义工资率的跳跃上升〔比照:不变的货币存量〕→货币变化的实际效应〔货币超中性不成立〕→对实际货币余额的妨碍→交易本钞票的变化对其他实际变量的妨碍→通货膨胀的动态化→分析1：货币加速增长后，货币需求的逐步调整→通货膨胀率与货币增长率的差异/价格水平跳跃的分散化〔比照:静态分析〕→分析2：提早预期的存在→解释：通胀和名义利领先于货币增长变化而变化→解释：短期内货币和讲个水平的增长率存在的重大差异→解释:通货膨胀率与货币增长率发生偏离的过渡期〔被政策制定所关注〕→通货膨胀的实际效应→未预期到的通胀产生的财宝再分配效应→预期通胀对实际货币余额或交易本钞票的妨碍→政府通过制造货币得到的收进〔通货膨胀税〕→比照:货币中性V.S.货币超中性→概念区不〔货币的一次性变化V.S.货币在时刻路径上的变化〕→货币中性成立的条件：货币总量的一次性变化→货币超中性成立的条件：不变的货币增长率→货币超中性不成立的情况：货币的加速增长〔通胀的实际效应〕=================================================================== 第三局部经济动摇、失业和经济增长〔附在后面〕〔投资和实际经济周期/失业/经济增长〕=================================================================== 第四局部：政府行为第十二章：政府消费和公共效劳→政府预算约束与家庭预算约束〔引进政府支出、税收和转移支付〕→商品市场出清〔引进政府行为〕→假设（1）货币存量不变〔不存在铸币税〕（2）政府通过定额税为额外的政府消费融资〔不考虑替代效应〕→政府消费G对消费需求、投资和提供的妨碍→公共效劳的特性〔削弱消费需求、刺激产品提供、不妨碍私人投资〕→财宝效应→比照分析：政府消费的临时性变化〔战争时期〕V.S.持久变化→差异〔不同的意愿储蓄倾向〕：（1）对实际利率的妨碍（2）对消费和私人投资的挤出效果〔决定于实际利率是否变化〕(3)产量增加的不同动因〔利率变化的替代效应V.S.财宝效应〕→相同：政府消费G的变化不存在乘数效应→缘故:对私人支出的挤出效应=================================================================== 第十三章：税收与转移支付→家庭预算〔引进比例税〕→商品市场出清模型I〔引进所得税产生的替代效应，比照：一次性定额税〕→假设:（1）实际税收收进额不变〔免额税与税率一起变化，不考虑财宝效应〕（2）政府并不是利用税收对其额外支出进行融资→税率变化对消费需求、个人投资需求和工作量的妨碍→解释：税率上升通常会抑制市场活动→分析1：持久性税率提高的妨碍〔1〕短期分析：→总需求变化量大于总提供变化量〔储蓄意愿不变，但投资需求落低〕→对实际利率、总产量、消费和投资的妨碍〔2〕长期分析〔资本积存和经济增长的动态分析〕→投资率落低，资本存量的减少→商品市场出清模型II〔考虑政府利用所得税对持久性支出变化进行融资〕→假设:政府征收所得税对持久性支出G进行融资→分析思路:同时考虑税率的替代效应和G的增加的财宝效应〔结合第十二章〕→解释:劳动投进/产出水平的不确定性→解释：投资的减少〔长期表现为资本存量的下落〕→商品市场出清模型III〔考虑政府利用所得税对转移支付进行融资〕→假设:转移支付不是一次性总额支付的→解释:转移支付随着收进上升而减少将提上下收进人群的有效边际税率→解释:福利方案扩大对潜在福利受惠者而言，意味着有效边际税率提高→结论:转移支付增长通常抑制了实际经济活动〔介于以上两个效果〕→税率和税收收进的关系→拉弗曲曲折折线〔实际税收收进和税率的关系〕===================================================================第十四章：公债→引进公债的政府赤字及国民储蓄→未经通胀调整的名义赤字〔国民帐户〕V.S.通胀调整后的名义赤字→公共储蓄/私人储蓄/国民储蓄→实际储蓄与净投资总量相等→分析1：减税造成的赤字财政〔仅考虑定额税〕→假设:（1）政府未从货币制造中获得收进（2）政府消费支出未改变（3）每期的转移支付总额为0（4）初始付息债务为0→减税引起的财宝效应〔两种瞧点〕（1）李嘉图等价定理→减税或是赤字财政都不存在总量财宝效应〔可放宽假设〔1〕〔3〕〔4〕〕→边际储蓄倾向接近于1→只有政府消费现值发生变化，总量财宝效应才出现〔2〕传统瞧点→两个理由:有限寿命/不完全的贷款市场→负的财宝效应〔人们感受到更贫困了〕→解释:公债负担〔净投资的减少使得长期资本存量下落〕→分析2：社会保障的妨碍→与减税造成赤字财政的标准分析结论类似→两种瞧点：是否存在总量财宝效应→税收的时刻路径〔税率的相对稳定性〕→解释：衰退期或战争，政府通常出现实际赤字，而不是提高税收→解释：调整通胀的时刻路径→在维持将来税收和支出不变的条件下，将来收进必定来自于额外的货币制造〕===================================================================第五局部：国际经济第十五章：国际商品和信贷市场→几个概念的区分→国外净要素投进、国外投资净额、资本账户余额、贸易余额→经常账户余额〔从贸易融资和国民储蓄分配两个角度瞧待CA〕→临时性提供冲击的妨碍→不同的分析对象:小国/大国/整个世界作为经济体〔对CA和利率的妨碍〕→第二轮妨碍：对消费的长期妨碍〔来源于GNP的持久性减少〕→经常账户的周期性变化→冲击来源:生产函数按比例变化〔MPL和MPK都会改变〕，扰动持续一段时刻之后将会消逝→解释：经常账户的弱反周期性→取决于冲击对投资需求和意愿实际储蓄的相对妨碍程度的大大小→比照：封闭经济中的分析〔第九章内容〕→财政政策对经常账户的妨碍〔1〕政府消费增加→临时性增加〔如：战争〕：经常账户恶化→持久性增加：私人消费减少，经常账户不变→解释：本国从国外借款为政府消费的临时性增加提供融资；却依靠落低私人支出来实现政府消费的持久性增加〔2〕税率变化→资本所得税〔妨碍投资需求〕→劳动收进的边际税〔临时性变化，妨碍意愿储蓄〕〔3〕预算赤字〔假设政府消费现值维持不变〕→分析：财政赤字是否导致了经常账户赤字→李嘉图瞧点：本国家庭担当了政府所有的额外税务，经常账户余额维持不变→一般瞧点：财宝效应使得国民储蓄下落，经常账户恶化→负相关性的一种可能缘故：预算赤字是反周期的，经常账户余额具有弱反周期性→负相关并不意味着因果关系→贸易条件对经常账户余额的妨碍→贸易条件=本国价格/国外价格或贸易条件=出口价格/进口价格→贸易条件对CA的妨碍取决于其改善是临时性或是持久性的→分析思路：财宝效应，对消费、工作量、投资的妨碍→临时性的改善使得CA盈余/改善→持久性的改善使得CA赤字/恶化→非贸易品对经常账户余额的妨碍→贸易条件改善导致本国贸易品与非贸易品的相对价格上升→强化贸易条件对贸易品产出的正向妨碍→资源在不同部门间转移→不妨碍贸易条件与经常账户余额之间关系的猜测===================================================================第十六章：汇率→购置力平价和利率平价→尽对形式/相对形式→解释：预期实际利率相等→尽对购置力的偏离意味着货币的高估/低估→解释：货币被高估的国家，预期通货捧场相对较低，预期实际利率相对较高→固定汇率〔货币存量是非独立变量〕→通货膨胀、名义利率、实际利率在国与国之间的关系→货币扩张的妨碍机制→分析：货币当局通过公开市场操作购置政府证券，增加货币提供→两种潜在的负面妨碍：（1）国际货币减少，最终导致本币贬值（2）政府干预自由贸易，使购置力平价不再成立→一次性货币贬值和通胀的关系〔双向联系〕→扩张性货币政策对货币造成贬值压力；即：通货膨胀导致货币贬值→货币贬值引起本国价格水平和货币存量上升；即:贬值意味着通货膨胀→分析根底：购置力平价和货币市场出清模型→浮动汇率〔汇率是非独立变量〕→通货膨胀、名义利率、实际利率在国与国之间的关系→汇率的决定机制〔货币市场出清模型和购置力平价定理〕→实际汇率对经常账户余额的妨碍→实际汇率的表达式和涵义→妨碍实际利率变化的扰动因素：（1）贸易条件变化〔贬值意味着恶化〕（2）非贸易品与贸易品的相对价格（3）政府政策，如货币限制等→实际汇率对CA的妨碍是不确定的，取决于扰动因素以及作用时刻的长短等=================================================================== 第六局部：货币部门和实质部门的相互作用第十七章：金融中介→根底货币/高能货币→组成成分〔法定预备金+通货；比照：货币总量=存款+通货〕→操纵手段：（1）公开市场操作（2）向存款机构发放贷款→妨碍货币总量的机制→解释：货币乘数效应如何产生→妨碍货币乘数大小的因素：预备金与存款比率；通货与存款比率→美联储政策措施的妨碍→公开市场操作〔中性〕→妨碍根底货币实际余额需求的政策→提高法定预备金率〔根底货币的实际余额需求增加〕→对存款利率实施限制→银行恐慌〔通货需求上升，根底货币的实际需求增加〕=================================================================== 第十八章：名义变量和实际变量的相互作用：经验证据→两种菲利普斯曲曲折折线→第一种：通货膨胀与失业率之间的反向关系→第二种：未预期到的通货膨胀与失业率之间的反向关系→分辨：货币妨碍经济V.S.经济运行妨碍货币?→瞧测到的两个事实：（1）货币的周期性成分与产出的周期性成分呈正相关（2）货币变动领先于产出变动→内生货币/货币习惯性调整→习惯于实际货币余额需求〔金本位、确定的利率或价格目标〕→实证例子：银行恐慌/货币的季节性变动=================================================================== 第十九章：货币和经济动摇: 市场出清模型第二十章:经济动摇：凯恩斯理论第三局部经济动摇、失业和经济增长〔附在后面〕〔第九章:投资和实际经济周期/第十章:失业/第十一章:经济增长〕。
罗伯特·巴罗《宏观经济学：现代观点》CH08
Exercise for MacroeconomicsChapter 8TRUE/FALSE1. Intertemporal substitution effects are substitution effects over time.2. When the marginal product of labor increases due to a positive technology change, the real wage falls.3. The model predicts that in response to a permanent positive change in technology real consumptionwill be procyclical.4. An increase in the interest rate makes future consumption cheaper and future leisure more expensive.5. The income effect on labor supply is positive.MULTIPLE CHOICE1. The cyclical part of real GDP isa. trend real GDP less real GDP. c. real GDP/trend real GDP.b. real GDP less trend real GDP. d. trend real GDP/real GDP.2. Real GDP equals:a. trend real GDP plus the cyclical part ofGDP c. trend real GDP less the cyclical part ofGDP.b. trend real GDP times the cyclical part ofGDP. d. trend real GDP divided by the cyclicalpart of GDP.3. An equilibrium business-cycle model:a. uses shocks to GDP to find equilibriumconditions. c. uses equilibrium conditions to determinehow shocks affect real GDP and othermacroeconomic variables. .b. uses GDP to find equilibrium shocks tothe economy.d. uses GDP to find equilibrium conditions.4. An increase in the level of technology, A, causes:a. an increase in the MPL c. a movement along the MPL hiring morelabor.b. a decrease in the MPL d. a movement along the MPL hiring lesslabor.5. The model predicts that an economic expansion caused by an increase in technology, A, will:a. drive down the real wage. c. drive up the real wage.b. cause labor supply to be greater than labor d. lead to a relatively low real wage.demand.6. The model predicts that in a recession caused by an decrease in technology, A, we would observe:a. a relatively low real wage. c. a relatively high real wage.b. an excess demand for labor. d. an increase in the MPL7. If technology, A, increases, then:a. the MPK and the demand for capitalservices increase. c. the MPK increases and the demand forcapital services decreases.b. the MPK and the demand for capitalservices decrease. d. the MPK decreases and the demand forcapital services increases.8. The model predicts that if there is a technology, A, shock, the real rental price of capital will:a. be relatively high during an economicexpansion or a recession. c. be relatively high during an economicexpansion and relatively low during arecession.b. be relatively low during an economicexpansion or a recession. d. be relatively low during an economicexpansion and relatively high during a recession.9. The model predicts that if there is a technology, A, shock, the interest rate, i, will be:a. relatively high during an economicexpansion or a recession. c. relatively high during an economicexpansion and relatively low during a recession.b. relatively low during an economicexpansion or a recession. d. relatively low during an economicexpansion and relatively high during a recession.10. During an economic expansion due to an increase in technology, A, consumption will:a. tend to rise due to the income effect. c. tend to fall due to the intertemporalsubstitution effect of the interest raterising.b. may rise or fall depending on whether theincome effect is greater than thesubstitution effect or not.d. all of the above.11. During an economic expansion due to an increase in technology, A, consumption will:a. tend to fall due to the income effect. c. tend to rise due to the intertemporalsubstitution effect of the interest raterising.b. may rise or fall depending on whether theincome effect is greater than thesubstitution effect or not.d. all of the above.12. During an economic expansion due to an increase in technology, A, consumption will:a. tend to rise due to the income effect. c. tend to rise due to the intertemporalsubstitution effect of the interest raterising.b. be unchanged. d. tend to fluctuate.13. During an economic expansion due to an increase in technology, A, consumption will:a. tend to fall due to the income effect. c. tend to fall due to the intertemporalsubstitution effect of the interest raterising.b. be unchanged. d. tend to fluctuate.14. If technology, A, increases permanently then we would expect:a. consumption to decrease as thesubstitution effect would be greater than the income effect of the change. c. consumption to increase as thesubstitution effect would be greater than the income effect of the change.b. consumption to increase as the incomeeffect would be greater than thesubstitution effect of the change. d. consumption to decrease as the incomeeffect would be greater than thesubstitution effect of the change.15. If there is a permanent increase in technology, A, then we expect consumption to:a. increase by more than real GDP. c. increase but by less than real GDP.b. increase by the same amount as real GDP. d. be unchanged.16. If there were a permanent increase in technology, A, we would expect real saving to:a. increase as the increase in realconsumption is less than real GDP. c. decrease as the increase in realconsumption is more than real GDP.b. increase as the increase in realconsumption is more than real GDP. d. decrease as the increase in realconsumption is less than real GDP.17. A variable that moves in the same direction as real GDP is known as:a. acyclical. c. countercyclical.b. procyclical. d. exogenous.18. A variable that has little tendency to move during a business cycle is known as:a. acyclical. c. countercyclical.b. procyclical. d. exogenous.19. A variable that moves in the opposite direction as real GDP is known as:a. acyclical. c. countercyclical.b. procyclical. d. exogenous.20. An acyclical variable is one that:a. moves the same direction as real GDP. c. moves the opposite direction as real GDP.b. has little tendency to move during abusiness cycle.d. determined outside the model.21. An procyclical variable is one that:a. moves the same direction as real GDP. c. moves the opposite direction as real GDP.b. has little tendency to move during abusiness cycle.d. determined outside the model.22. An countercyclical variable is one that:a. moves the same direction as real GDP. c. moves the opposite direction as real GDP.b. has little tendency to move during abusiness cycle.d. determined outside the model.23. US real consumer expenditure since 1954 has been:a. procyclical. c. a cyclical.b. countercyclical. d. exogenous.24. US real gross domestic private investment since 1954 has been:a. procyclical. c. a cyclical.b. countercyclical. d. exogenous.25. Since 1954, in the US:a. real gross private investment has variedmore than real GDP, while real consumerexpenditure has varied less than real GDP. c. real gross private investment has variedless than real GDP, while real consumer expenditure has varied more than realGDP.b. real gross private investment and realconsumer expenditure have varied more than real GDP. d. real gross private investment and realconsumer expenditure have varied less than real GDP.26. US real average earnings of production workers since 1954 has been:a. procyclical. c. a cyclical.b. countercyclical. d. exogenous.27. US real rental price of capital since 1954 has been:a. procyclical as the model predicts. c. procyclical rather countercyclical as themodel predicts.b. countercyclical as the model predicts. d. countercyclical rather procyclical as themodel predicts.28. An example of a temporary change in technology would be:a. a new discovery. c. a harvest failure.b. a new invention. d. all of the above.29. An example of a temporary change in technology would be:a. a new discovery. c. a new invention.b. a general strike. d. all of the above.30. With a temporary change in technology the model predicts:a. the interest rate will be procyclical. c. a higher interest rate will motivatehouseholds to increase current real saving.b. a lower interest rate will motivatehouseholds to increase current realconsumption.d. all of the above.31. With a temporary change in technology the model predicts:a. the interest rate will be procyclical. c. a higher interest rate will motivatehouseholds to decrease current real saving.b. a lower interest rate will motivatehouseholds to decrease current realconsumption.d. all of the above.32. With a temporary change in technology, we would expect:a. the income effect of consumption to belarger. c. the intertemporal substitution effect onconsumption to be larger.b. the income effect of consumption to besmaller. d. the intertemporal substitution effect onconsumption to be larger.33. With a temporary positive change in technology we would expect real current consumption:a. to increase a lot. c. to remain unchanged.b. to decrease a lot. d. to either increase or decrease a little.34. With a temporary change in technology, A, we expect little change in consumption because:a. the income effect on consumption islarger. c. the intertemporal-substitution effect islarger.b. the income effect on consumption issmaller. d. the intertemporal-substitution effect issmaller.35. The model predicts that an economic expansion caused by a temporary increase in technology, A,would lead to:a. high real GDP and investment. c. low real GDP and investment.b. low real GDP and high real investment. d. high real GDP and low real investment.36. Temporary changes in technology, A, conflict with the data in that:a. investment is clearly acyclical. c. the wage rate is clearly countercyclical.b. consumption is clearly procyclical. d. all of the above.37. A higher real wage:a. makes consumption more expensive. c. makes leisure less expensive.b. makes it a worse deal for households towork an extra hour.d. makes leisure more expensive.38. A higher real wage:a. increases the income of householdsinducing them to work more. c. increases the income of householdsinducing them to work less.b. decreases the income of householdsinducing them to work more. d. decreases the income of householdsinducing them to work less.39. The overall effect of a higher real wage is:a. to increase labor as the income andsubstitution effect reinforce each other. c. to decrease labor as the income andsubstitution effect reinforce each other.b. ambiguous on labor as the income andsubstitution effect work against eachother. d. ambiguous because the income andsubstitution effect reinforce each other.40. We expect that an increase in real wages will:a. increase labor supply, if temporary. c. increase labor supply, whether permanentor temporary.b. increase labor supply, if permanent. d. reduce labor supply, whether permanent ortemporary.41. An increase in the interest rate induces worker to:a. work more in the current period and lessin the future. c. work less in the current period and morein the future.b. work more in the current period and in thefuture. d. work less in the current period and in thefuture.42. A higher interest rate makes:a. future consumption cheaper. c. current consumption more expensive.b. future leisure cheaper. d. all of the above.43. A higher interest rate makes:a. future consumption and leisure moreexpensive.c. future consumption and leisure cheaper.b. future consumption cheaper and futureleisure more expensive. d. future consumption more expensive andfuture leisure cheaper.44. A higher interest rate makes:a. current consumption and leisure moreexpensive.c. current consumption and leisure cheaper.b. current consumption cheaper and current.leisure more expensive. d. current consumption more expensive andcurrent leisure cheaper.45. A higher interest rate makes:a. current consumption and future leisuremore expensive. c. current consumption and future leisurecheaper.b. current consumption cheaper and future.leisure more expensive. d. current consumption more expensive andfuture leisure cheaper.46. Intertemporal substitution effects motivate households to:a. supply more labor when the wage rate istemporarily low. c. supply less labor when the wage rate istemporarily low.b. supply more labor when the wage rate ispermanently low. d. supply more labor when the wage rate ispermanently low.47. In the US since 1964 total hours worked and employment have been:a. acyclical. c. procyclical.b. countercyclical. d. exogenous.48. The measure of labor productivity used in the popular media is:a. Y/L c. procyclical.b. average product of labor. d. all of the above.49. In the model with an upward sloping supply curve of labor and increase demand for labor due to apositive technological, A, change:a. increases employment and the real wage. c. decreases employment and the real wage.b. decreases employment and increases thereal wage. d. decreases employment and increases thereal wage.50. When the labor supply of households is allowed to slope upward:a. the model predictions match the observeddata that employment and real wages arecountercyclical. c. the model predictions do not match theobserved data that employment and real wages are procyclical.b. the model predictions do not match theobserved data that employment and real wages are countercyclical. d. the model predictions match the observeddata that employment and real wages areprocyclical.SHORT ANSWER1. If there is a positive technological change, what happens in the labor market?2. What does the model predict about investment when technology increases and why and what do thedata show about investment in the US?3. What happens to consumption when there is a permanent and temporary increase in technology, A,and why?4. What is the relationship between real GDP and the cyclical part of GDP?5. What happens in the model, if a temporary technology change increase real wages temporarily?。
《宏观经济学教学课件》macro(8).ppt
8.1.1 失业的数据
失业是指有劳动能力的人找不到工作的状态 就业是指处于受雇佣与“自我雇佣”的状态 劳动力=失业者+就业者 失业率是劳动力中没有工作又在寻找工作的
人所占的比率。
失 业 率 失 业 人 数1 0 0 % 劳动力
5
我国失业状况： 城镇登记失业率变化状况
年 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 份 78 80 88 90 98 00 06 07 08 09 10 11
美国劳工部会于每个月第一个星期五公布非农就业报告。这份报告是 美国劳工部通过家庭调查和机构调查两种方式获得的。前者取样数万 个家庭，统计样本小，但反馈率较高，且在问卷中涉及年龄、学历、 性别等信息，后者样本则较为庞大，有数十万个企业，反馈率相对较 低，不过，通过对不同类型行业工资册的调查，可以获得较为详实的 行业就业图景。
这份权威的就业报告提供失业率、月度新增就业人数、劳动参与率等 非常重要的数据，对于大多数人来说，这已经足够了。如果希望了解 得更清楚些，还可以查阅月度报告的每一个分项报表，诸如分行业、 分年龄、分性别等的不同选项。
_______ 2012年11月22日 17:52 来源于 财新网
11
调查失业率
城镇调查失业率是是国际劳工组织通用的一个指标，是反 映城镇常住经济活动人口中，符合失业条件的人数占全部 城镇常住经济活动人口的比率。其计算公式为：
第九讲 国际经济的基本知识
第十讲 国际经济部门的作用
第十一讲 经济增长和经济周期理论
第十二讲 宏观经济学在目前的争论和共识
1
第八讲 失业与通货膨胀
失业和通货膨胀是现代经济中的两大宏观经济国 际现象，也是两大重要问题。 上一章总需求和总供给曲线未必相交于充分就业 点上，即使偶然相交，它们的移动也会造成失业 或通货膨胀。即失业或通货膨胀是市场经济难以 避免的。 本章将学习有关失业和通货膨胀相关化统计，早已为我 们提供了样本。
巴罗宏观经济学：现代观点第10章-42页文档
A higher interest rate, i, provides a greater incentive to hold down average holdings of money, M, in order to raise average holdings of interest-bearing assets, B + PK. That is, with a higher i, households are more willing to incur transaction costs in order to reduce M
At the Federal Reserve. Another name for high-powered money is the monetary base.
Macroeconomics Chapter 10
3
Concepts of Money
Monetary aggregate
A monetary aggregate is the total dollar stock of a group of financial assets defined to be money. The most common definition, called M1
16
The Demand for Money
The Money-Demand Function
Md = P ·L(Y, i) Md/P = L( , i)
Macroeconomics Chapter 10
17
The Demand for Money
(NEW)巴罗《宏观经济学：现代观点》课后习题详解
目 录第一部分 导 论第1章 思考宏观经济学第2章 国民收入核算：国内生产总值和物价水平第二部分 经济增长第3章 经济增长导论第4章 运用索洛增长模型第5章 有条件趋同和长期经济增长第三部分 经济波动第6章 市场、价格、供给和需求第7章 消费、储蓄和投资第8章 均衡经济周期模型第9章 资本的利用和失业第四部分 货币和价格第10章 货币需求和物价水平第11章 通货膨胀、货币增长和利率第五部分 政府部门第12章 政府支出第13章 税 收第14章 公共债务第六部分 货币与经济周期第15章 货币与经济周期Ⅰ：价格错觉模型第16章 货币与经济周期Ⅱ：粘性价格与名义工资率第七部分 国际宏观经济学第17章 商品和信贷的世界市场第18章 汇 率第一部分 导 论第1章 思考宏观经济学一、概念题1景气（boom）答：景气（或繁荣）是指在经济周期中，经济活动处于全面扩张，不断达到新的高峰的阶段。
一个完整的经济周期包括繁荣、衰退、萧条、复苏四个阶段。
有时也将复苏阶段和繁荣阶段合称扩张阶段。
经济学家们构建了若干指标来判断经济是否处于景气期，如采购经理人指数（PMI）等。
2经济周期（商业周期）（business cycle）答：经济周期又称经济波动或国民收入波动，指总体经济活动的扩张和收缩交替反复出现的过程。
现代经济学中关于经济周期的论述一般是指经济增长率的上升和下降的交替过程，而不是经济总量的增加和减少。
一个完整的经济周期包括繁荣、衰退、萧条、复苏（也可以称为扩张、持平、收缩）四个阶段。
在繁荣阶段，经济活动全面扩张，不断达到新的高峰。
在衰退阶段，经济短时间内保持均衡后出现紧缩的趋势。
在萧条阶段，经济出现急剧的收缩和下降，很快从活动量的最高点下降到最低点。
在复苏阶段，经济从最低点恢复并逐渐上升到先前的活动量高度，进入繁荣。
衡量经济周期处于什么阶段，主要依据国民生产总值、工业生产指数、就业和收入、价格指数、利息率等综合经济活动指标的波动。
巴罗宏观课后习题答案
二A 复习题1.隐含的价格平减指数是以生产的所有最终产品和服务的价格为基础确立的价格指数，基年的隐含的价格平减指数定为100，其表达式为名义GDP与实际GDP的比值乘以100。
隐含的价格平减指数不同于消费者价格指数，后者是指一篮子消费品的价格指数。
由于分配给各种商品的比重不同（他们在较长的时期内固定不变），消费者价格指数趋于表明比隐含的价格平减指数更高的通货膨胀率。
2.本章中讨论的三种测量GDP的方法能得到同样的结果，因为他们是从不同的角度看相同的问题。
支出法着眼于在最终商品和服务上的各类支出，但是这些支出包括了外国居民的消费，所以支出总额应等于收入扣除折旧和国外净要素收入所得后的金额。
产值法着眼于生产和销售的商品的价值。
最终，生产的一切商品被出售并产生收入来提供生产要素。
因此，三种方法估计的GDP总量没有区别。
3.名义GDP是以现在的价格计量的在一个国家内一段时期生产的最终产品和服务的价值。
实际GDP是以基年价格计算的GDP，也称为“不变美元的GDP”。
它们是流量的概念。
名义GDP没有排除物价变化的影响，可能会掩盖生产层面上及其巨大的差别，实际GDP排除了物价变化的影响，各年指标更有可比性。
B 讨论题4.略5.虽然较高的GDP与广泛接受的衡量福利的指标高度相关，例如教育水平，预期寿命，婴儿死亡率等等，但是官方估计的GDP并没有准确衡量福利。
GDP低估福利的真正变化的原因之一是没有考虑非市场商品，例如休闲。
也没有考虑商品质量的变化，因为这些不能用隐含的价格平减指数准确计量。
另外一方面，GDP可能高估福利的改变，因为它没有考虑生产对环境的影响。
砍伐一片长成的森林可能将一个宝贵的非市场商品转变为低价值的市场商品，但是此活动可能提高GDP，要考虑这些因素的方法是将像休闲和环境因素这样的非市场但有隐含价值的商品，纳入到广泛的福利量度中。
三2．由于报酬递减规律的作用，正的储蓄率不能保证y、k长期增长。
当资本存量增加时，资本的平均产品将继续下降并且折旧额会提高，最终资本存量将会达到用所有储蓄来代替资本存量的减少和维持劳动的增长而没有剩余来提高劳均资本这一状态。
巴罗《宏观经济学：现代观点》课后习题详解 第8章 均衡经济周期模型【圣才出品】
第8章均衡经济周期模型一、概念题1．非周期性的（acyclical）答：非周期性的是指在经济周期中，某些经济变量的变化呈现出与产出GDP变化无关的经济现象。
在经济周期中，经济变量根据其随经济周期变化的趋势，分为三类：顺周期，逆周期和非周期性。
其中非周期性变量是指其变动方向与商业周期无关的变量，例如出口就是非周期性的宏观经济变量。
2．逆周期性的（countercyclical）答：逆周期性的是指在经济周期中，某些经济变量与产出GDP呈现反方向变动的经济现象。
在经济周期中，经济变量根据其随经济周期变化的趋势，分为三类：顺周期，逆周期和非周期性。
其中逆周期变量是指在衰退时上升，在扩张时下降的变量。
逆周期的宏观经济变量有产成品存货、生产投入的库存、失业率等。
为了减轻经济波动的影响，政府可以采取逆周期性政策。
逆周期政策指在发生经济危机时，采取扩张性政策，刺激总需求；在经济高涨时，实行紧缩性政策，抑制通货膨胀。
它是以非均衡的经济理论为基础，认为市场无法自动达到供求平衡，因此必须运用政策调节需求，从而达到社会总供给和总需求的平衡。
3．实际GDP的周期性部分（cyclical part of real GDP）答：实际GDP的周期性部分是指实际GDP与其发展趋势之间的差异部分。
实际GDP 的周期性部分反映了经济的短期波动。
4．均衡经济周期模型（equilibrium business-cycle model）答：均衡经济周期模型是由理性预期学派主要代表人物小罗伯特·卢卡斯在1977年《对经济周期的理解》与1978年《失业政策》等中提出的一种用于解释短期经济波动的理论模型。
该理论认为经济波动取决于生产者对价格变动反应的周期理论。
5．顺周期性的（procyclical）答：顺周期性的是指在经济周期中，某些经济变量与产出GDP呈现同方向变动的经济现象。
顺周期又可以具体分为：超前、同步和滞后三种情况。
在经济周期中，经济变量根据其随经济周期变化的趋势，分为三类：顺周期、逆周期和非周期性。
(财务知识)巴罗宏观经济学小结
第一部分：微观经济学基础和市场出清模型的基本原理第二章：工作量、产出和消费——鲁滨逊的经济学→分析前提：（1）个体孤立经济：不存在商品市场（生产和消费的统一）；不存在信贷市场（当期生产当期消费）（2）一种投入（劳动），一种产出（3）单个时期分析→单个时期的消费和闲暇（或工作）的选择模型→财富效应（生产函数的平行移动）和替代效应（MPL的改变）→两种效应对工作（不确定）、产出（同方向）和消费（同方向）的影响=====================================================================第三章：商品市场和信贷市场中的家庭行为→分析前提：（1）家庭计划无限期（2）家庭预算约束（货币存量保持不变）（3）跨时期分析→两时期消费选择模型→财富效应（生产函数的平移）→跨时期替代效应（利率变化）→利率变化的财富效应（仅针对个人分析有意义）→两时期工作量选择模型→财富效应（生产函数平移）→跨时期替代效应（利率变化）→跨时期下储蓄的决定→消费依赖于持久性收入（长期平均收入）→对比: 持久性收入变化的边际消费倾向V.S. 暂时性收入变化的边际消费倾向→对比: 生产函数持久性变化V.S. 暂时性移动对储蓄的影响（财富效应）→区分: 单时期消费和闲暇的相互替代V.S. 跨时期替代→单时期内的替代:（1）动因: 劳动生产率的持久性变化（2）替代的双方：消费和闲暇（3）对储蓄没有影响→跨时期替代:（1）动因: 利率的变化（2）替代的双方：当期消费和下一期消费；或当期劳动和下一期劳动（3）特殊情况: 劳动生产率的暂时性变化（增加储蓄）=================================================================第四章：货币需求→鲍莫尔-托宾模型（最优现金管理模型）→两类成本: 利息损失成本/ 交易成本→影响交易时间间隔（T）和实际货币需求（M/P）的因素→利率（R）、实际支出流（C）和实际交易成本（r/P）→现金持有量的规模经济→货币流通速度（=2/T）→货币对家庭预算约束的影响→实际余额效应（财富效应和分配效应）→交易成本引起的负的财富效应（影响因素: 利率、实际交易成本、交易量）=================================================================第五章: 市场出清模型的基本原理→市场出清模型→商品市场出清（决定利率和产出水平）: R对供给和需求的影响→货币市场出清（决定价格水平）→供给冲击（恶化）对实际变量的影响（产出、消费、利率、物价、劳动投入）→生产函数暂时性变化→平移变化V.S. 等比例变化（考虑MPL的变化）→解释实证中，劳动投入的同周期性（替代效应> 财富效应和利率的共同作用）→解释利率的和价格水平的动态变化（储蓄意愿、超额需求/供给）→生产函数持久性变化→解释利率的不变性（当期和未来的相对稀缺性未发生变化）→劳动投入的不确定性（替代效应和财富效应的不同影响）→对比：鲁滨逊个体经济下各个变量的周期性（基本一致）→其他影响物价水平的因素（影响货币市场出清）→货币总量一次性提高（动态调整过程）→货币中性/货币数量论（长期）→实际货币需求变化（交易成本、金融创新等；不影响商品市场出清）=====================================================================第六章：劳动市场→市场出清模型（引入劳动市场）→商品市场出清（决定利率和产出水平）（1）引入W/P对需求的影响（2）可以通过劳动市场R对W/P的影响，转化为只考虑R的模型→劳动市场出清（决定实际工资率和就业量）（1）W/P同时影响劳动需求和供给（2）R影响劳动供给（R—>W/P→C和Y只受R影响）→货币市场出清（决定价格水平）（与上一章模型一致）→供给冲击（改善）对实际变量的影响（实际工资率、就业）→生产函数持久性改善→解释实际工资率的同周期性→解释就业量的不确定性（财富效应和实际工资率变化的影响）→解释消费需求的同周期性（财富效应和实际工资率的替代效应）→对比：不考虑劳动市场下各个变量的周期性（基本一致）→通过R连接劳动市场和商品市场（使得商品市场出清不受W/P影响）→个人生产模型中的MPL等价于劳动市场中的W/P→只有在考虑了W/P或MPL的替代效应后，劳动供给或就业量才可能出现不确定性（模型才可以用于解释实证中，该变量的同周期性）→解释劳动量和实际工资的同向变化就必须考虑劳动生产率的变化☆☆☆扰动市场出清的因素的作用机制（1）替代效应→跨时替代效应（利率R）→对供给和需求变化起了主导作用→同周期内消费和闲暇的替代（MPL或W/P）→对劳动供给的影响（2）财富效应（生产函数的变化）→商品市场：对需求的影响→劳动市场：对劳动供给的影响☆☆☆对比不同类型的供给冲击的影响（1）暂时性V.S. 持久性→利率的变化（储蓄意愿的变化）（2）生产函数平移V.S. 等比例变化→劳动供给的变化（是否存在同时期消费和闲暇的替代）===================================================================第二部分：通货膨胀第七章：通货膨胀和利率导论→实际利率 V.S. 名义利率→二者的关系→实际利率与预期实际利率的关系→决定于未预期到的通货膨胀===================================================================第八章：市场出清模型中的货币、通货膨胀和利率→市场出清模型（考虑货币增长对货币市场的影响）→前提假设: 完全预见的通货膨胀，且不存在事先预期的通胀→分析1: 货币增长率不变的货币时间路径的影响→价格增长率（=货币增长率）、名义利率（各个时期相同）、实际货币余额（不变）→不存在货币变化的实际效应（货币超中性成立）→分析2：货币增长率在T期加速（静态分析，通货膨胀预期在T期瞬时改变）→解释名义利率的增长（体现预期通货膨胀的分析）→解释价格水平/名义工资率的跳跃上升（对比: 不变的货币存量）→货币变化的实际效应（货币超中性不成立）→对实际货币余额的影响→交易成本的变化对其他实际变量的影响→通货膨胀的动态化→分析1：货币加速增长后，货币需求的逐步调整→通货膨胀率与货币增长率的差异 / 价格水平跳跃的分散化（对比:静态分析）→分析2：提前预期的存在→解释：通胀和名义利率先于货币增长变化而变化→解释：短期内货币和讲个水平的增长率存在的重大差异→解释: 通货膨胀率与货币增长率发生偏离的过渡期（被政策制定所关注）→通货膨胀的实际效应→未预期到的通胀产生的财富再分配效应→预期通胀对实际货币余额或交易成本的影响→政府通过创造货币得到的收入（通货膨胀税）→对比: 货币中性 V.S. 货币超中性→概念区别（货币的一次性变化 V.S. 货币在时间路径上的变化）→货币中性成立的条件：货币总量的一次性变化→货币超中性成立的条件：不变的货币增长率→货币超中性不成立的情况：货币的加速增长（通胀的实际效应）===================================================================第三部分经济波动、失业和经济增长（附在后面）（投资和实际经济周期 / 失业 / 经济增长）===================================================================第四部分：政府行为第十二章：政府消费和公共服务→政府预算约束与家庭预算约束（引入政府支出、税收和转移支付）→商品市场出清（引入政府行为）→假设（1）货币存量不变（不存在铸币税）（2）政府通过定额税为额外的政府消费融资（不考虑替代效应）→政府消费G对消费需求、投资和供给的影响→公共服务的特性（削弱消费需求、刺激产品供给、不影响私人投资）→财富效应→对比分析：政府消费的暂时性变化（战争时期）V.S. 持久变化→差别（不同的意愿储蓄倾向）：（1）对实际利率的影响（2）对消费和私人投资的挤出效果（决定于实际利率是否变化）(3) 产量增加的不同动因（利率变化的替代效应 V.S. 财富效应）→相同：政府消费G的变化不存在乘数效应→原因: 对私人支出的挤出效应===================================================================第十三章：税收与转移支付→家庭预算（引入比例税）→商品市场出清模型I（引入所得税产生的替代效应，对比：一次性定额税）→假设:（1）实际税收收入额不变（免额税与税率一起变化，不考虑财富效应）（2）政府并不是利用税收对其额外支出进行融资→税率变化对消费需求、个人投资需求和工作量的影响→解释：税率上升通常会抑制市场活动→分析1：持久性税率提高的影响（1）短期分析：→总需求变化量大于总供给变化量（储蓄意愿不变，但投资需求降低）→对实际利率、总产量、消费和投资的影响（2）长期分析（资本积累和经济增长的动态分析）→投资率降低，资本存量的减少→商品市场出清模型II（考虑政府利用所得税对持久性支出变化进行融资）→假设: 政府征收所得税对持久性支出G进行融资→分析思路: 同时考虑税率的替代效应和G的增加的财富效应（结合第十二章）→解释: 劳动投入 / 产出水平的不确定性→解释：投资的减少（长期表现为资本存量的下降）→商品市场出清模型III（考虑政府利用所得税对转移支付进行融资）→假设: 转移支付不是一次性总额支付的→解释: 转移支付随着收入上升而减少将提高低收入人群的有效边际税率→解释: 福利计划扩大对潜在福利受惠者而言，意味着有效边际税率提高→结论: 转移支付增长通常抑制了实际经济活动（介于以上两个效果）→税率和税收收入的关系→拉弗曲线（实际税收收入和税率的关系）===================================================================第十四章：公债→引入公债的政府赤字及国民储蓄→未经通胀调整的名义赤字（国民帐户）V.S. 通胀调整后的名义赤字→公共储蓄 / 私人储蓄 / 国民储蓄→实际储蓄与净投资总量相等→分析1：减税造成的赤字财政（仅考虑定额税）→假设:（1）政府未从货币创造中获得收入（2）政府消费支出未改变（3）每期的转移支付总额为0（4）初始付息债务为0→减税引起的财富效应（两种观点）（1）李嘉图等价定理→减税或是赤字财政都不存在总量财富效应（可放宽假设（1）（3）（4））→边际储蓄倾向接近于1→只有政府消费现值发生变化，总量财富效应才出现（2）传统观点→两个理由: 有限寿命 / 不完全的贷款市场→负的财富效应（人们感觉到更贫困了）→解释: 公债负担（净投资的减少使得长期资本存量下降）→分析2：社会保障的影响→与减税造成赤字财政的标准分析结论类似→两种观点：是否存在总量财富效应→税收的时间路径（税率的相对稳定性）→解释：衰退期或战争，政府通常出现实际赤字，而不是提高税收→解释：调整通胀的时间路径→在维持未来税收和支出不变的条件下，未来收入必定来自于额外的货币创造）===================================================================第五部分：国际经济第十五章：国际商品和信贷市场→几个概念的区分→国外净要素投入、国外投资净额、资本账户余额、贸易余额→经常账户余额（从贸易融资和国民储蓄分配两个角度看待CA）→暂时性供给冲击的影响→不同的分析对象: 小国 / 大国 / 整个世界作为经济体（对CA和利率的影响）→第二轮影响：对消费的长期影响（来源于GNP的持久性减少）→经常账户的周期性变化→冲击来源: 生产函数按比例变化（MPL和MPK都会改变），扰动持续一段时间之后将会消失→解释：经常账户的弱反周期性→取决于冲击对投资需求和意愿实际储蓄的相对影响程度的大大小→对比：封闭经济中的分析（第九章内容）→财政政策对经常账户的影响（1）政府消费增加→暂时性增加（如：战争）：经常账户恶化→持久性增加：私人消费减少，经常账户不变→解释：本国从国外借款为政府消费的暂时性增加提供融资；却依靠降低私人支出来实现政府消费的持久性增加（2）税率变化→资本所得税（影响投资需求）→劳动收入的边际税（暂时性变化，影响意愿储蓄）（3）预算赤字（假设政府消费现值保持不变）→分析：财政赤字是否导致了经常账户赤字→李嘉图观点：本国家庭承担了政府所有的额外税务，经常账户余额保持不变→一般观点：财富效应使得国民储蓄下降，经常账户恶化→负相关性的一种可能原因：预算赤字是反周期的，经常账户余额具有弱反周期性→负相关并不意味着因果关系→贸易条件对经常账户余额的影响→贸易条件 = 本国价格/国外价格或贸易条件 = 出口价格/进口价格→贸易条件对CA的影响取决于其改善是暂时性或是持久性的→分析思路：财富效应，对消费、工作量、投资的影响→暂时性的改善使得CA盈余/改善→持久性的改善使得CA赤字/恶化→非贸易品对经常账户余额的影响→贸易条件改善导致本国贸易品与非贸易品的相对价格上升→强化贸易条件对贸易品产出的正向影响→资源在不同部门间转移→不影响贸易条件与经常账户余额之间关系的预测=================================================================== 第十六章：汇率→购买力平价和利率平价→绝对形式 / 相对形式→解释：预期实际利率相等→绝对购买力的偏离意味着货币的高估/低估→解释：货币被高估的国家，预期通货捧场相对较低，预期实际利率相对较高→固定汇率（货币存量是非独立变量）→通货膨胀、名义利率、实际利率在国与国之间的关系→货币扩张的影响机制→分析：货币当局通过公开市场操作购买政府证券，增加货币供给→两种潜在的负面影响：（1）国际货币减少，最终导致本币贬值（2）政府干预自由贸易，使购买力平价不再成立→一次性货币贬值和通胀的关系（双向联系）→扩张性货币政策对货币造成贬值压力；即：通货膨胀导致货币贬值→货币贬值引起本国价格水平和货币存量上升；即: 贬值意味着通货膨胀→分析基础：购买力平价和货币市场出清模型→浮动汇率（汇率是非独立变量）→通货膨胀、名义利率、实际利率在国与国之间的关系→汇率的决定机制（货币市场出清模型和购买力平价定理）→实际汇率对经常账户余额的影响→实际汇率的表达式和涵义→影响实际利率变化的扰动因素：（1）贸易条件变化（贬值意味着恶化）（2）非贸易品与贸易品的相对价格（3）政府政策，如货币限制等→实际汇率对CA的影响是不确定的，取决于扰动因素以及作用时间的长短等=================================================================== 第六部分：货币部门和实质部门的相互作用第十七章：金融中介→基础货币 / 高能货币→组成成分（法定准备金 + 通货；对比：货币总量 = 存款 + 通货）→控制手段：（1）公开市场操作（2）向存款机构发放贷款→影响货币总量的机制→解释：货币乘数效应如何产生→影响货币乘数大小的因素：准备金与存款比率；通货与存款比率→美联储政策措施的影响→公开市场操作（中性）→影响基础货币实际余额需求的政策→提高法定准备金率（基础货币的实际余额需求增加）→对存款利率实施限制→银行恐慌（通货需求上升，基础货币的实际需求增加）===================================================================第十八章：名义变量和实际变量的相互作用：经验证据→两种菲利普斯曲线→第一种：通货膨胀与失业率之间的反向关系→第二种：未预期到的通货膨胀与失业率之间的反向关系→分辨：货币影响经济 V.S. 经济运行影响货币?→观测到的两个事实：（1）货币的周期性成分与产出的周期性成分呈正相关（2）货币变动领先于产出变动→内生货币 / 货币适应性调整→适应于实际货币余额需求（金本位、确定的利率或价格目标）→实证例子：银行恐慌 / 货币的季节性变动===================================================================第十九章：货币和经济波动: 市场出清模型第二十章: 经济波动：凯恩斯理论第三部分经济波动、失业和经济增长（附在后面）（第九章: 投资和实际经济周期 / 第十章: 失业 / 第十一章: 经济增长）。
巴罗 宏观经济学
.
16
Inflation and Interest Rates
.
17
Inflation and Interest Rates
Real and Nominal Interest Rates
The Real interest rate to be the rate at which the real value of assets held as bonds changes over time.
Use the hypothesis of rational expectations, which says that expectations correspond to optimal forecasts, given the available information. Then use statistical techniques to gauge these optimal forecasts.
Decrease of real demand for money Increase of money supply
.
2
Cross-Country Data on Inflation and Money Growth
Inflation rates and money growth rates for 82 countries from 1960 to 2000.
There is a broad cross-sectional range for the inflation rates and the growth rates of money.
.
7
Cross-Country Data on Inflation and Money Growth
巴罗宏观经济学：现代观点第8章-54页文档
Macroeconomics Chapter 8
2
Cyclical Behavior of Real GDP— Recessions and Booms
Consumption, saving, and investment
income effect： The increase in real income motivates households to raise current consumption and future consumption.
Macroeconomics Chapter 8
10
An Equilibrium Business-Cycle Model
Macroeconomics Chapter 8
11
An Equilibrium Business-Cycle Model
Macroeconomics Chapter 8
12
Macroeconomics Chapter 8
5
An Equilibrium Business-Cycle Model
Macroeconomics Chapter 8
6
Hale Waihona Puke An Equilibrium Business-Cycle Model
Conceptual Issues
Assuming that these fluctuations reflect shocks to the economy.
An Equilibrium Business-Cycle Model
Barro巴罗宏观经济学-现代观点-中文738页
Macroeconomics - Barro Chapter 2
20
Macroeconomics - Barro Chapter 2
21
实际GDP
• 如何计算实际 GDP
– 将每年每种商品的产出数量乘以该商品在基年 的价格。 – 也被称为不变美元的GDP – 链式加权的实际GDP
Macroeconomics - Barro Chapter 2
2
国民收入核算：国内生产总值和物价水平
Macroeconomics - Barro Chapter 2
19
名义GDP
• 名义GDP 衡量的是一个经济体在某一个特 定时期（比如一年中）生产的所有商品或 服务的美元价值（或欧元价值等）。
– 名义GDP 是一个流动变量：它衡量的是每单位 时间内（比如一年）生产商品的美元金额。 – 有时候被称为现值美元的GDP。
46
每个工人的生产函数
• y=f(k)
– y 每个工人的产出 – k 每个工人的资本
Macroeconomics - Barro Chapter 3
47
图3.7 每个工人的产出和每个工人的资本
每 个 工 人 的 产 出
a点的斜率比b 点的更大
每个工人的资本
Macroeconomics - Barro Chapter 3
9
经济模型
图1.6 一个经济模型的运用
外生变量
经济模型
内生变量
Macroeconomics - Barro Chapter 1
10
经济模型
咖啡市场
图1.7 咖啡的需求曲线
需求曲线
Macroeconomics - Barro Chapter 1
中级宏观经济学 巴罗
BarroChapter 4TRUE/FALSE1. An increase in the depreciation rate affects the steady-state capital per worker the same way as anincrease in the population growth rate.2. If the saving rate increases, then the optimum level of capital per worker falls.3. An increase in technology causes the real GDP per worker to increase during the transition to thesteady-state.4. An increase in technology cause the growth in real output per worker to be higher in the long run orsteady-state.5. The Solow model of growth says that poorer economies should over time converge towards richerones in terms of real output put worker.MULTIPLE CHOICE1. In the revised version of the Solow growth model the optimal level of capital stock per worker dependson:a. the saving rating. c. population growth rate.b. the depreciation rate. d. all of the above.2. In the revised version of the Solow growth model the optimal level of the capital stock per workerdepends on:a. monetary growth. c. the saving rate.b. government spending. d. all of the above.3. In the revised version of the Solow growth model the optimal level of the capital stock per workerdepends on:a. monetary growth. c. appreciation in the stock market.b. the depreciation rate. d. all of the above.4. In the revised version of the Solow growth model the optimal level of the capital stock per workerdepends on:a. the population growth rate. c. inflation.b. government spending. d. all of the above.5. In the Solow growth model as a growing economy transitions to the steady state:a. the average product of capital falls. c. the average product of labor falls.b. output per worker is constant. d. the growth rate of capital is equal to zero.6. In the Solow growth model in the steady state the growth rate of capital per worker, k*, is:a. rising. c. fluctuating.b. falling. d. zero.7. In the Solow growth model, if technology, A, improves, then in the steady state:a. output per worker grows faster. c. capital per worker grows faster.b. output per worker grows at the same rate,zero.d. all of the above.8. In the Solow growth model, if the population growth rate, n, increases, then in the steady state:a. output per worker grows slower. c. capital per worker grows at the same rate,zero.b. capital per worker grows slower. d. all of the above.9. In the Solow growth model, if the depreciation rate, , increases, then in the steady state:a. output per worker grows at the same rate,zero.c. capital per worker grows faster.b. output per worker grows faster. d. all of the above.10. In the Solow growth model, if labor input, L(0), increases, then in the steady state:a. output per worker grows faster. c. capital per worker grows faster.b. capital per worker grows at the same rate,zero.d. all of the above.11. In the Solow growth model in the steady state the growth rate of output per worker, y*, is:a. rising. c. constant at zero.b. falling. d. fluctuating.12. If the saving rate increases in the Solow growth model, then during the transition to the steady state:a. the growth rate of capital per worker willincrease. c. the growth rate of capital per worker isconstant.b. the growth rate of capital per worker willdecrease. d. the growth rate of capital per worker iszero.13. If the saving rate increases in the Solow growth model, then in the steady state the growth rate ofcapital per worker is:a. constant. c. zero.b. unchanged. d. all of the above.14. If the saving rate increases in the Solow growth model, then in the steady state the growth rate ofcapital per worker is:a. higher. c. lower.b. unchanged. d. rising.15. If the saving rate increases in the Solow growth model, then in the steady state:a. capital per worker and the growth ofcapital will be higher. c. capital per worker will be higher but thegrowth rate of capital will be lower.b. capital per worker will be higher but thegrowth rate of capital will remain the d. capital per worker will be lower but thegrowth rate of capital will be higher.same at zero.16. In the Solow growth model during the transition an increase in technology:a. lowers the growth rate of capital perworker. c. raises the growth rate of capital perworker.b. does not change the growth rate of capitalper worker. d. causes the growth rate of capital to fall tozero per worker.17. In the Solow growth model during the transition an increase in technology:a. lowers the growth rate of output perworker. c. raises the growth rate of output perworker.b. does not change the growth rate of outputper worker. d. causes the growth rate of output perworker to fall to zero.18. In the Solow growth model during the transition an increase in technology:a. lowers the growth rate of capital andoutput per worker. c. raises the growth rate of capital and outputper worker.b. raises the growth rate of capital perworker and lowers the growth rate of output per worker. d. lowers the growth rate of capital perworker and raises the growth rate ofoutput per worker.19. In the Solow growth model in the short run, an increase in the labor input L(0):a. increases the growth rate of real output perworker. c. reduces the growth rate of capital perworker.b. increases s•(y/k). d. decreases s+ n.20. In the Solow growth model in the short run, an increase in the labor input L(0),a. decrease the growth rate of real output perworker. c. increase the growth rate of capital perworker.b. increases s•(y/k). d. decrease s+ n.21. In the Solow growth model in the long run or steady state, an increase in the labor input L(0) will,a. increase the capital stock. c. not affect real output per worker.b. lead to a growth of the capital stock perworker of zero.d. all of the above.22. In the Solow growth model in the long run or steady state, an increase in the labor input L(0) will,a. decrease the capital stock. c. not change real output per worker.b. lead to a positive growth of the capitalstock per worker.d. all of the above.Figure 4.1Determinantsof k/ks + ns(y/k)K/L = k23. In Figure 4.1 the distance between s•(y/k) and s+ n is the growth of capital per worker:a. in the transition. c. in the steady state.b. in the long-run. d. none of the above.24. In Figure 4.1 if the saving rate increases, thena. the curve s+ n increases. c. the curve s+ n decreases.b. the curve s+ n becomes steeper. d. the curve s+ n becomes flatter.25. In Figure 4.1, if the saving rate increase, then:a. s•(y/k) increases. c. s•(y/k) decreases.b. s•(y/k) gets steeper. d. s•(y/k) becomes vertical.26. In Figure 4.1, if the saving rate increase, then:a. s•(y/k) and s+ n increase. c. s•(y/k) and s+ n decrease.b. s•(y/k) increases while s+ n decreases. d. s•(y/k) decreases while s+ n increase.27. In Figure 4.1, if the technology improves, then:a. s•(y/k) increases. c. s•(y/k) decreases.b. s+ n increases. d. s+ n decreases.28. In Figure 4.1, if the initial amount of labor increases, then:a. s•(y/k) increases. c. s+ n increases.b. K/L moves away from the optimum. d. the growth rate of population increases.29. In Figure 4.1, if the initial amount of labor increases, then in the steady state:a. the growth rate of capital per workerincreases. c. the growth rate of output per worker is thesame.b. the growth rate of output per worker rises. d. the population growth rate rises.30. In Figure 4.1, if the initial amount of labor increases, then during the transition to they steady state:a. the growth rate of capital per worker andoutput per worker increase. c. the growth rate of capital per workerincreases and output per worker decrease.b. the growth rate of capital per worker andoutput per worker.decrease. d. the growth rate of capital per workerdecreases and output per worker increases.31. In Figure 4.1, if the population growth rate increases, then:a. s•(y/k) increases. c. s+ n increases.b. K/L moves away from the optimum. d. the initial amount of labor increases.32. In Figure 4.1, an increase in productivity:a. raises the steady state growth rate ofcapital per worker. c. lowers the steady state growth rate ofoutput per workerb. does not change steady-state growth ratesof output or capital per worker.d. lowers the steady-state level of capital.33. In Figure 4.1, an increase in the depreciation rate has the same effects as:a. an increase in the savings rate. c. an increase in the population growth rate.b. an increase in the initial amount of labor. d. all of the above.34. In Figure 4.1, an increase in technology:a. increases s•(y/k) c. increases s+ n.b. decrea ses s•(y/k) d. decreases s+ n.35. In Figure 4.1, an increase in technology:a. increases k*. c. decreases k*.b. does not affect k*. d. makes k* zero.36. In Figure 4.1, an increase in the population growth rate:a. increases k*. c. decreases k*.b. does not affect k*. d. makes k* zero.37. In Figure 4.1, an increase in the depreciation rate:a. increases k*. c. decreases k*.b. does not affect k*. d. makes k* zero.38. In Figure 4.1, if the technology improves, then:a. the steady-state capital stock increases. c. the steady-state growth in output perworker increases.b. the steady-state growth in capital perworker increases.d. the population growth rate increases.39. Convergence of economies is the tendency according to the Solow growth model for:a. richer countries to buy up all the capital inpoorer countries. c. poorer economies to grow faster in termsof real GDP per capita than richercountries.b. richer countries to tend decline aspollution damage increases. d. the tendency for richer economies toshrink to the size of poorer economies.40. Since 1960 the data show a tendency of output per worker to converge:a. in all countries in the world. c. in OECD countries.b. countries with different savings rates. d. none of the above.41. The data show a tendency of output per worker to converge:a. among US States from 1880 to 2000. c. in OECD countries from 1960 to 2000.b. countries with similar economies. d. all of the above.42. Convergence will not happen if economies around the world have:a. different saving rates. c. different population growth rates.b. different technologies. d. all of the above.43. Convergence will not happen if economies around the world have:a. different saving rates. c. different levels out labor input.b. different average products of capital in thetransition.d. all of the above.44. Convergence will not happen if economies around the world have:a. different capital labor ratios in during thetransition.c. different levels out labor input.b. different population growth rates. d. all of the above.45. Convergence will not happen if economies around the world have:a. different average products of capitalduring the transition.c. different levels of technology.b. different initial levels of labor input. d. all of the above.46. Convergence will not happen if economies around the world have:a. different average products of capitalduring the transition. c. different optimum levels of capital perworker, k*.b. different initial levels of labor input. d. all of the above.47. Economies are said to have converged if they:a. have the same growth rate in thetransition.c. have the same saving rate.b. have the same capital per worker, k*, inthe steady state.d. all of the above.48. When converging economies:a. have the same growth rate of capital perworker. c. have the same growth rate of output perworker.b. the same steady state capital per worker,k*.d. all of the above.49. Convergence will not happen if economies around the world have:a. different savings rates. c. different optimum levels of capital perworker, k*.b. different population growth rates. d. all of the above.50. Convergence will not happen if economies around the world have:a. different capital per worker growth ratesin the transition.c. different initial starting points.b. different initial levels of labor input, L(0). d. none of the above.SHORT ANSWER1. What are the short and long run effects of an increase in the saving rate in the Solow growth model?2. What are the long and short run effects of an increase in technology, A, in the Solow growth model?3. What are the long run and short run effects to an increase in the labor input in the Solow growthmodel?4. What are the long and short run effects of an increase in the population growth rate the Solow growthmodel?5. Why does the Solow growth model show the economies of poor countries tend to converge over timetoward richer ones in terms of per capita and real GDP per worker?。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
10
Consumption and Saving
Choosing consumption: income effects
C1 + C2/(1+i1) = (1+ i0)·(B0/P+K0) + (w/P)1·L+(w/P)2·L/(1+i1)−(B2/P+K2)/(1+i1)
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
1
Consumption and Saving
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
2
Consumption and Saving
Consumption Over Two Years
Year1 C1 + ( B1/ P + K1) − ( B0/ P + K0) = ( w/P)1 ·L + i0 ·( B0/ P + K0) consumption in year1 + real saving in year1 = real income in year1
p.v. of consumption = value of initial assets + p.v. of wage incomes − p.v. of assets end year 2
V = (1 + i0)·(B0/P+K0) + (w/P)1·L + (w/P)2·L/(1+i1)
p.v. of sources of funds = value of initial assets + p.v. of wage incomes
Year2 C2 + ( B2/ P + K2) − ( B1/ P + K1) = ( w/ P) 2 ·L + i1 ·( B1/ P + K1) consumption in year 2 + real saving in year 2 = real income in year 2
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
11
Consumption and Saving
Choosing consumption: income effects
Consumption and Saving
Consumption Over Two Years
C2+(1+i1)·C1 = (1+i1)·(1+i0)·(B0/P+K0) +(1+i1)·(w/P)1·L+(w/P)2·L - (B2/P + K2)
Two-year household budget constr and Saving
Consumption Over Two Years
Combine the budget constraints to describe a household’s choice between consuming this year, C1, and next year, C2.
B1/P + K1 = B0/P + K0 + i0·(B0/P + K0) + ( w/P)1·L− C1
Real assets end year1 = real assets end year0 + real income year1 − consumption year1
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
Dollars received or spent in year 2 must be discounted to make them comparable to dollars in year 1.
The term 1+i1 is called a discount factor.
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
9
Consumption and Saving
Household chooses the time path of consumption—in this case, C1 and C2— to maximize utility, subject to the budget constraint.
C1 + C2/(1+i1) = (1+ i0)·(B0/P+K0) + (w/P)1·L+(w/P)2·L/(1+i1)−(B2/P+K2)/(1+i1)
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
8
Consumption and Saving
Present value
If the interest rate, i1, is greater than zero, $1 received or spent in year 1 is equivalent to more than $1 in year 2.
B2/P + K2 = (1+ i1) ·(B1/P + K1) + (w/P)2 ·L − C2
B2/P + K2 = (1+i1) ·[(1+i0)·( B0/P + K0) + (w/P)1·L − C1] + (w/P)2 ·L − C2
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
7
4
Consumption and Saving
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
5
Consumption and Saving
Macroeconomics Chapter 7
6
Consumption and Saving
Consumption Over Two Years
B1/P + K1 = (1+i0) ·(B0/P + K0) + (w/P)1 ·L − C1
Consumption and Saving
Household budget constraint
C + (1/P) ·∆B+ ∆K = π/P + ( w/P )·L + i·( B/P + K)
π /P = 0 C+(1/P)·∆B+∆K=(w/P)·L+i·(B/P+K) consumption+ real saving = real income