英语语言学Chapter 3 Lexicon4.3 CHAPTER 3

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Chapter Three 语言学第三章大学英语语言学

Variable and invariable words
• Variable words have inflective endings ,i.e. part of the word remains constant while the other part changes regularly to fulfill different grammatical functions.
• Dormitory 一词常被简写为dorm; if you rearrange the word dormitory, what will happen? • You can spell the word dirty room ! • This kind of word game is called ANAGRAM(变位词).
Word is a Grammatical Unit
• This can be understood in two ways. First of all, word in itself possesses some grammatical features. • take is transitive verb. • book is a countable noun.
Classification of words
• Variable and invariable words ( 可变词和不变词) • Grammatical and lexical words ( 语法词和词汇词) • Closed-class words and open class words ( 封闭类词和开放类词) • Word class ( 词类)
Counterexamples
• dorm=to sleep • 来源于拉丁文dormire, “to sleep”。如 dormitory 睡觉的地方→宿舍。 • BrE: a large room for several people to sleep in, for example in a boarding school or hostel • AmE: a large building at a college or university where students live [= hall of residence BrE]

语言学第三章

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similarunits. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write”is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unitthat cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech orwriting.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relativepositional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example.If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment:dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “th e minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, byitself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. V ariable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have noinflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles,etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced intolinguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, whichone could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in asentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of anoun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can bedivided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 T ypes of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term forthe type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That isto say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, afterthe removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. Aroot may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceiveand perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a freeroot morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. Astem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g.friend-in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can beequivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class ofthe stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g.toys, walks, John’s,etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. Incontrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower,flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small andsmallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the wordthey attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes tonavigate on the internet.”is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereasderivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The choice ofclever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever”or wewant to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums,walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway,rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, thefirst member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V + N, V + A, andV + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc.Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics: Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics referring to theanalysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the appearance of morphemes, andcorrespondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes. It is also calledmorphonology or morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacentsound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon thearticulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of thetwo words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial partsof the original words.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in thisprocess.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. The loss of sounds may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressedwords.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e.the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion toa process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.。

语言学讲义第三章

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?•definition: It is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”:a. a physically definable unit;b. the common factor underlying a set of forms;c. a grammatical unit•a physical unit:a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks.It is wonderful.–Three words are recognized.–However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes–It‟s wonderful.–Are they two words or three?b. the common factor underlying a set of forms•-- walk, walks, walking, walked•How many words are there? (considered only one word/lexeme walk in dictionary)•I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven.•How many times did the word “have” occur?•Lexeme: the abstract and smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which can be distinguished from another smallest unit.e.g. “write” is the lexeme of the set of the following items:write wrote written writing writesc. a grammatical unit•Language is hierarchy.3.1.2. Identification of words•stability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc•relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word•a minimum free form:(suggested by Bloomfield)maximum→ sentenceminimum→ word3.1.3 Classification of words•Variable vs. Invariable Words:–Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.–Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.•Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:–Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.–Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.•Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:–Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.–Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.•Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Word class–Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. •Some new word class:–Particles:infinitive to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.–Auxiliaries: do, have–Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.–Pro-form–DeterminersPro-forms•Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.–Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone–Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.–Pro-verb: He spoke English better than she did.–Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.–Pro-locative: He went there.Determiner•Determiner: words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has.•There are 3 classes of determiners:predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third…central determiners: this, that, every, each, either, my…post determiners: cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, next, last, other, many, few, a great many o f…•Their positions are fixed:Predeterminers + central determiners +post determiners;•E.g. all her many good ideasP C P modifier•*their all trouble•*five the all boys•*all this boy•*all both girls3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 morpheme and morphology•Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.e.g. dis appoint ment (3)•Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.•Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.2.2 Types of morphemes•Free morphemes & Bound morphemesFree morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes fall into two categories:Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g. mooncake Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2) Root, affix and stem•Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,e.g. friend as in unfriendliness.•Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into–prefix (dis-, un-)–suffix (-en, -ify) and–Infix( feet, goose).•Stem : it is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. A stem can be bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3) Inflectional and Derivational AffixAffixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational•Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case.•- (e) s: plurality of nouns•- (e) s: third person singular, present tense•- (e) d: past tense for all three persons•- (e) d: past participle form of verbs•- ing: progressive aspect•- er : comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- est: superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- …s: the possessive case of nouns•Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Difference Between Roots ,Base and Stem ?•Some linguists consider the base to be the equivalent to the term root; that is, the base form of a word or that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved .•Some other linguists maintain that the base is any part of a word when an affix is added to a root or stem.( in the word unhappiness, unhappy may be the base, happy is the root )•A stem is the main part of a word to which inflectional affixes are added and it can be a bound root, afree morpheme, or a derived form itself. The stem and the root often coincide( stars: root=stem); 1 stem=2 root/free morphemes (motherlands)3.2.3 Inflection and Word FormationThere are 2 fields Morphology concerns:the study of Inflections (Inflectional Morphology) andWord Formation ( Lexical or Derivational Morphology).•Inflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy’s ) do not change the grammatical class of the stems•Derivation: shows the relations between roots and affixes, e.g.lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)(2) Word Formationi. compound•Compounds: two or more free roots combine to make a new word.–Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill–Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit–Adjective compounds: gray-haired,insect-eating, dutyfree–Preposition compounds: into, throughout•Endocentric & exocentric compounds•Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg–self-control: a kind of control–armchair: a kind of chair•E xocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg–scarecrow: not a kind of crow–breakneck: not a kind of neck•Written forms of compounds–Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard–Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length–Open: coffee table, washing machine•Free variation:–businessman, business-man, business man–winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle–no one, no-one, nooneii. Derivation•Word class changed:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Word class unchanged:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant3.3 lexical change3.3.1 lexical change proper3.3.2 Morphosyntactic change3.3.3 Semantic change3.3.4 Phonological change3.3.5 Orthographic change3.3.1 lexical change proper1. Invention (coinage)one of the least common process of word formation in English. The invention of totally new terms.e.g. kodak, nylon2. BlendingTwo words are blended by joining the initial part of the first one and the final part of the second, or by joining the initial part of the two parts, e.g.–transfer +resistor>transistor–smoke+fog>smog–motorist+hotel>motel–breakfast+lunch>brunch–modulator+demodulator>modem–dance+exercise>dancercise–advertisement+editorial>advertorial–education+entertainment>edutainment–information+commercial>infomercial3. Abbreviation/ Shortingwords can be formed by the reduction of other words or phrases.•(1)initialism•(2)acronym•(3)clipping•Initialism–AI: artificial intelligence–a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible–ECU: European Currency Unit–HIV: human immunodeficiency virus–PC: personal computer–PS: postscript–RSVP: répondez s‟il vous plait (…please reply‟ in French)•4. Acronym–AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome–ASAP: as soon as possible–CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory–WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant–dink(y): double income, no kids–nilk(y): no income, lots of kids•Clipping–Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s–Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake–Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)5. Back-formationa word of one type is reduced to form another word of a different type, e.g--diagnose < diagnosis–enthuse < enthusiasm–laze < lazy–liaise < liaison–reminisce < reminiscence–statistic < statistics–televise < television6. Analogical Creation–From irregular to regular:old new•work: wrought > worked•beseech: besought > beseeched•slay: slew > slayed•go: went > goed???7. Borrowing (loan words)•French: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, •Latin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minor•Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy•Spanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla•Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcano •Dutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yacht•Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zero•Indian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, yoga•Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoonTypes of loan words•Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed.–au pair, encore, coup d‟etat, kungfu, sputnik•Loanblend: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, the meaning is fully borrowed.–coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)–Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)•Loanshift: form is native, meaning is borrowed.–bridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte•Loan translation, or calque: each morpheme is translated in the equivalent morpheme in another language–free verse < L verse libre–black humor < Fr humour noir–found object < Fr objet trouvé8. CompoundingCompounding : to join two separate words to produce a single form.•(1) When the two words are in the same grammatical category ,the compound will be in this category :N + N = N : boyfriend ,elevator-operator, fighter-bomber, landlordAdj. + Adj. = Adj. icy-cold, red–hot•(2) When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound:N. + Adj. = Adj.: headstrong ,watertight, lifelongV. + N. = N. : daredevil, sawbones•Compounds formed with a preposition are in the category of the nonprepositional part of the compound:Overtake: prep + v. = v.Hanger-on: n. + prep. = n.Uplift: prep. + v. = v.Sit-in: v. +prep. = v.•(3)Though two-word compounds are the most common in English , it would be different to state an upper limit: e.g.Three-time loserFour-dimensional space-timeA middle-income-familyThe one –child-family policyA sentence in Washington post reads:“The air force is bei ng weaned away from the bomb-them-into-the-stone-age-with-the-biggest-fiercest-planes-imaginable-philosophy9. Derivationshow the relation between roots and affixes, e.g. nation, national, nationalize, nationalization, international;•Class-changing:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Class-preserving:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant10. Conversiona change in the function of a word,e.g a noun is used to be a verb: to dust11. Onomatopoeia•The use of words that sound like the thing that they are describing, like hiss, boom…3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change•Morphological change:–third person singular present tense:-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds–the campus of the university >the university‟s campus•Syntactical change:–He saw you not. > He d idn‟t see you.–I know not where to hide my head. > I don‟t know where to hide my head.•Fusion/blending:–equally good + just as good > equally as good–It‟s no use getting there before nine + There‟s no use in getting there before nine > There‟s no use getting there before nine.3.3.3 Semantic change•1) Broadening:–holiday: holy day (religion) > day for rest–bird: young bird > any kind–task: tax > work•2) Narrowing:–meat: food >–girl: young person > young woman–deer: beast > a special kind of animal•3) Meaning shift:•bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood•4) Class shift: conversion to other word classes–engineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)•5) Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase .–history: Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'.–his story > herstory•Fake etymology: a kind of folk etymology–Manhattan: man with hat on–MBA: married but available–PhD: perhaps have divorced–golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden3.3.4 phonological change•phonological change: refers to changes in sound leading to changes in forms.•Types: (1) loss(2) addition(3) metathesis 换位(4) assimilation 同化•Loss of sound:–loss of sound in fast speech, eg cabinet, laboratory –and > ‟n in connected speech, eg rock-‟n-roll •Addition of sound:–L. studium > O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estudo –English: strike > sutoraiki (Jap.) •Metathesis: changing the sequence of sound–O.E. brid > bird, O.E. ox/ax > ask •Assimilation:–impossible, immovable–irregular, irresponsible–illogical, illegal3.3.5 Orthographic change•Change of spelling:–Iesus > Jesus–sate > sat–Sunne > Sun。

语言学重点章节介绍

语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。

他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。

王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。

而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。

虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。

北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。

（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。

我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。

不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。

下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。

这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。

我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。

一定要在理解的基础上记忆。

Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。

也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。

错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。

因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。

语言学第三章笔记和习题

Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a Ianguage. It is synonymous with “vocabulary ”Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,., the an alysis and creati on of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in Ianguage. The features of wordWordis meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and unin terruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the in ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total nu mber of words stored in the brain is called the lexic on. _________Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of lin guistics, whereas lexic on is a comp onent of Ian guage in stead of a branch of lin guistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a Ian guage to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, . beatnik(a membeiof the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intern et, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chin ese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles,prepositi on and pronouns.Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage is called a morpheme.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may con sist of one morpheme or more morphemes,.1- morpheme 2- m orpheme 3- m orpheme 4- m orpheme 5- m orpheme 7-morpheme boy, desireboy+ish, desir(e)+bleboy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+itygen tle+ma n+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity un+ge ntle+ma n+li+ness an ti+dis+establish+me nt+ari+a n+ismMorph: whe n people wish to dist in guish the sound of a morpheme from the en tire morpheme, they may sued the term. It is the pho netic realizati on of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represe nted by differe nt forms, called allomorphs. It is the phon etic varia nt of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as “ dog, bark, cat ” ,etc. In otherin sta nces, there may be some variati on, that is, a morphememay have alter nate shapes or ph on etic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morphememaybe represented by:map----maps_ [s]dog----dogs _[z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen_[ n]tooth----teethsheep——sheep_Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur on ly before others,.un-, dis, an ti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others,.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may con stitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dan ce, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not sta nd by themselves, such as -s in dogs , al in national , dis - in disclose , ed in “recorded ” , etc.Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are n ever used in depe nden tly in speech and writ ing. They are alwaysattached to free morphemesto form new words. These morphemesare called bound morphemes. The distinction between a free morphemesand a bound morphemeis whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemesare the roots of words, while bound morphemesare the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivatio nal morpheme & in flect ional morphem eDerivati onal morphemes---- the morphemes which cha nge the category, or grammatical class of words, . modern---moder ni ze, length---len gthe n, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemeswhich are for the most part purely grammatical markers,sig nifying such con cepts as ten se, nu mber, case and so on; they n ever cha nge their syn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meanin g,.a) number: tables apples cars _ _b) pers on, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talkedc) case: Joh n/John 'sInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivati onal morphemes are bound morphemes added to exist ing forms to con struct new words.En glish affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some Ian guages have in fixes, bound morphemes which are in serted into other morphemes.Noun+ -' s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3 rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wordIn flecti onal morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivati onal + in flect ionalCon clusi on: classificati on of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesIn flexi onalDerivati on al: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rulesThe rules that govern the formation of words, . the “ un- + ---- ” rule.un fair un thi nkable un acceptable …Compo unding is ano ther way to form new words,.Ian dlady rain bow un dertake …The process of putt ing affixes to existi ng forms to create new words is called derivati on Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compo undsNoun compo undsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) wi ndmill (N+N)Verb compo undsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compo undsma neat ing (N+Vi ng) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Prepositi on compo undsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compo undsWhenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwill be in this category, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue- black …When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compo un d, . head- stro ng, pickpocket …Compo un dsiave differe nt stress patter ns from the non-compo un dedword seque nee, . red coat, gree n house…The meaning of a compo und is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formati on of new words1. 1 nflectio n: it is the mani festatio n of grammatical relati on ships through the additi on of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivati onDerivation forms a word by addi ng an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend , we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of addi ng more tha n one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. ________ Derivati on is also con stra ined by pho no logical factors.Some En glish suffixes also cha nge the word stress.3. CompoundingCompounding is ano ther com mon way to form words. It is the comb in ati on of free morphemes.The majority of En glish compo un dsare the comb in ati on of words from the three classes -nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.In compo un ds, the rightmost morpheme determ ines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compo unds is not always the sum of meaning of the comp onen ts.4. Conv ersi on (inven ti on)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conv ersi on is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipp ing (abbreviati ons) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shorte ns a polysyllabic word by delet ing one or more syllables.Clipped words are in itially used in spoke n En glish on in formal occasi ons.Someclipped words have becomewidely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus) , vet (veterinarian) , gym (gymnasium), fridge(refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.6. BlendingBlending is a process that creates newwords by putting together non-morphemic parts of existi ng words. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morni ng, replaci ng both breakfast and lun ch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also aninteresting word in the textbook for junior middle school students —“ plike ” (a kind of mach ine that is like both a pla ne and a bike).7. Back-formati onBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television . Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix —sion in English indicating nouns. Then peopleconsider the - sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verbtelevise .Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acro nyms can be read as a word and are usually Ion ger tha n abbreviati ons, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formatio n is com mon in n ames of orga ni zati ons and scie ntific termi no logy.Eponyms are words that origi nate from proper n ames of in dividuals or places. For example, the word san dwich is a comm onnoun orig in at ing from the fourth Earl of San dwich, who put his foodbetwee n two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambli ng.10. Coi nageCoin age is a process of inventing words not based on exist ing morphemes.This way of word formatio n is especially com mon in cases where in dustry requiresa word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola .11. Borrowing: English in its development has managedto widen its vocabulary by Borrowingwords from other Ianguages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other Ianguages have all played anactive role in this process, such as “atom, electricity ” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin,“violin, pizza ” from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3 : MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:I. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are the smallest meanin gful un its of Ian guage.3. Just as a phon eme is the basic unit in the study of phono logy, so is a morpheme the basic unitin the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that gover n which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed accordi ng to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.II. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:11. M ___ is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.12. The affix “- ish ” in the word boyish conveys a g ______ meaning.13. B __________ m orphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb inedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d _________ affixes.15. D ______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s _____ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it maycase change its part of speech.17. C ________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d _____________ can be viewed as the addition of affixesto stems to form new words.20. A s _____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivationalaffix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme“vision ” in the common word “television ” is a(n) ___________ .A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _______________________ .A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compoundsis generally determined by the part of speech of _______________ .A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.A. SyntaxC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______ .A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that __________ .A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. __ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _______ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s ” in the word “books ” is ____________ .A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root43.What are the main features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3IV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemesare the morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independentlybut have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixesmanifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to anexisting form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but theyusually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:IV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 33. derivational morphology 35. free morpheme 37. root 39. prefix 41. derivation V. Answer the following questions:32. inflectional morphology 34. morpheme 36. bound morpheme 38. affix 40. suffix 42. Compounding Morphology43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book- ” in the word “bookish ”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish ” in “bookish ”. Boundmorphemescan be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in th e word“generate ”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “ -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are ad ded to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform ”. Derivational affixes can also be dividedinto prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as word “dislike ”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “friendless“dis- ” in the -less ” in the word。

胡壮麟版《语言学教程》第三章Chapter3 Lexicon 总结

(2) Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性
By uninterru ptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.
Lexicon Change 词的变化
Phonological Change 音位 Orthographic Change 拼写变化
3.1 What is word?
WORD is a unit of expression that
native spears may recognize by intuition, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. A WORD is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.
(2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term 作为一般用语和具体用语的词作为一般用语和具体用语的词(The common factor underlying a set of forms)

英语语言学Chapter 3 Lexicon

Chapter 3
Lexicon
❖ Definition of “word”: word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
❖ Three senses of “word”:
1) A word is a physical definable unit
2) A word is a common factor underlying a set of forms. (check, checks, checked, checking)
The categories newly introduced:
a. particles(小品词): (1)to (2)not (3)get by, go up, look back, …(The subordinate units in phrasal verbs)
b. auxiliaries(助动词)
4) Word class(词类): Based on Latin tradition, eight or nine words classed are established, such as noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection and article.
3) A word is a grammatical unit. ( Hierarchical rank scale of grammar: sentence, clause, group/phrase, word, morpheme)

语言学胡壮麟第三版第三章笔记

Chapter 3 LexiconⅠWhat is word?1. 3 senses of word1) a physically definable unitWord may be seen as a set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.2)word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as a specific items (boy and boys are two words).3) a grammatical unitThe work rank is located between morpheme and word group.2.Identification of words1)StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.2)relative uninterruptibilityNew elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in a word.3) a minimum free formWord is the smallest unit that can be used by itself.3.Classification of wods1)Variable and invariable wordsVariable words may have inflective changes. The same word may have differentgrammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.Invariable words refer to those words that do not have inflective endings.2)grammatical words and lexical wordsThose which mainly work for constructing group are grammatical words, such as, conj., prep., art., and pron., are grammatical words also known as function words.Those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as n., v., adj.and adv., are lexical words, also known as content words.3)closed-class words and open-class wordsThe closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pron., prep., conj., art., and others.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as n.,v., adj., and many adv..4)word class: particle, auxiliaries, pro-form, determinersⅡThe formation of wordMorpheme: A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning whether it is lexical or grammatical.1.classification of morpheme1)free morpheme: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words bythemselves, are free morpheme.bound morpheme: Those that cannot occur alone, must appear with at last another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes,2)root: Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroyingits meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.affix: Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.stem: Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3) inflectional affix n. ----s n. ----`sv. ----ed v. ----ing w. ----ed/enadj./adv. ----er adj./adv. ----estderivational affixDifferences:1^ Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivational affixes are vey productive in making new words.2^ Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might or might not.3^ Whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence.4^ Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.2.word formation1)inflection: It indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes; and wheninflectional affixes are added, the grammatical class of the terms (to which they are attached) will not change.2)compound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, orthe way to join two separate words to produce a single form. It can be further divided into two kinds, the endocentric compound and the exocentric compound.3.Sememe Vs. Morpheme and Phoneme Vs. Morpheme1)sememe Vs. morpheme1^ one morpheme Vs. one sememe2^ one morpheme Vs. more than one sememe3^ one sememe Vs. more than one morpheme4^ morphemes that have no specific sememe5^ function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change2)morpheme Vs. phoneme1^ a single phoneme Vs. a single morpheme2^ a single morpheme Vs. multiple phoneme3^ allomorph4^ morphemic conditionsⅢLexical change1.lexical change proper1)invention2)blendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.3)abbreviation4)acronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5)back-formationBack-formation refers to an usually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.6)analogical creation7)borrowing1^ loanwords2^ loanblend3^ loanshift4^ loan translation2.morpho-syntactical change1)morphological changeThe present section is on the inflectional side, i.e. the form of inflectional affixes.2)syntactical changeEnglish speaker today no longer uses the fifteenth century’s double.3.semantic change1)broadingBroading is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.2)narrowingNarrowing is contrary to broading: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3)meaning shiftWhat makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.4)class shift5)folk etymologyIt refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.4.phonological change1)loss2)addition3)metathesis4)assimilation5. orthographie change。

英语语言学讲义Chapter3

Chapter 3 MorphologyMain points:•What is word•Classification of words•Morphology and the types of word formation•Lexical change3. 1 Concept of wordWord, word-form, lexemeνWhat is a word?ν A cat eats rats.νIn visual term s: a word is a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper.1) --- A physical definable unit2) Phonologically, a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds which are madevoluntarily with human vocal equipment to convey meaning and its boundaries are indicated by pauses.ν[Əkæt i:ts ræts]3) From an orthographical point of view, each of the forms eat, eats, ate, eaten, eating is a“word” in the sense of word-form.Semantically, however, the five forms share the same basic meaning.Grammatically the five forms are the inflectional variants in the paradigm (范例) of the verb EAT.“Word” used in this sense is known in linguistics as lexeme, i.e. “a minimal free form” in Bloomfield’s terminology. --- the common factor underlying set of formsνSo, Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.To sum up, A word is [a minimum free form of a language]. which has [a given sound] and [meaning] and [syntactic function].νThere are three factor to identify words1) stability2) a minimum free form3) relative un-interruptiblityν A lexeme (词位) is a word in an abstract sense. When it “occurs” (in a metaphorical sense of “occur”) in a certain context, it is a word-form, which has a particular phonological ororthographical shape.νThe actual occurrence of a lexeme in speech or writing always has phonological or orthographical form.νThe phonological or orthographical form is the realization of the lexeme.νLexeme is the standard form that enters the dictionary.νSentences Language is not only a linearityν-- clauses structure but also a hierarchyν-- word group structure.ν-- wordsν-- morphemes According to Bloomfield’s theoryν-- syllables Sentence is the maximum free formν-- phonemes Word is the minimum free form.ν-- distinctive featuresν-- super-segmental features3.2 Classification of wordsWords can be classified by different criteria into different types:1) variable and invariable words2) grammatical and lexical words3) close-class and open-class word4) part of speech1) variable and invariable wordsνWords cab be classified according to their variability.variable words:e.g. follow, following, follows, followedInvariable words: The words which do not have inflective endings.e.g. when, Hi, seldom, through etc.2) grammatical words and lexical words --- in terms of words’ meaningνBy notion, words can be divided into content words and function words3) Close-class and open-class wordsνClose-word is one whose membership is fixed or limited.νOpen-word is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the mergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.4) Word class and part of speechνAccording to traditional grammar – Latin grammar, there are 8 kinds of word class:νToady, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories: (1) particles; (2) pro-form (3) determiners; (4) auxiliariesFurthermore, there are other standards to classify words.νBy frequency ,words fall into the Basic word stock and Non-basic vocabulary.νBy notion, words can be divided into content words and functional words.νBy origin, words can be grouped into native words and foreign words.νBy Morphology, words can be divided into simple words and compoundsνBy cognition, The vocabulary can be divided into Active Vocabulary and Passive Vocabulary.3.3 Introduction to morphologyMorphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms andclasses of words.Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Word-building or word-formation is an important means of vocabulary enlargement. It refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationship.•Introduction to morphemeA morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.• Two types of morphemes free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: dog, nation and close.--- All mono-morphemic words.Bound morpheme: “-s”, “dis-” and “-al” they must appear with at least another morpheme. Introduction to free morphemeSome morphemes can stand alone as words, which are called free morphemes.A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is ,a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root .Introduction to root, stem and basePoly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes. ( prefix, suffix, and infix)A root is the base form of word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. It is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A base is an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of the kind can be added. Introduction to rootA root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Root may be further divided into free roots and bound roots.A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound , but an affix is naturally bound. Introduction to stemA stem of a word may be(i) a simple stem consisting of only 1 morpheme, in which case the root and the stem are the same, eg. In works, work is both the stem and the root;(ii) a root plus a derivational affix, eg. in workers, work is the root, worker is the stem;(iii) Two or more roots, e.g. in workshops, both work and shop are roots ,workshop is the stem. Lexical and functional morphemeFree morphemes can be divided into 2 categories.lexical morphemes and functional morphemeslexical morpheme : the set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of message we convey. These free morphemes are called lexical morpheme, since we can create new lexical morphemes for the language rather easily, they are called an open class of words. Functional morphemesfunctional morphemes: consists of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. As we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are called a closed class of words.Introduction to bound morphemesBound morphemes: Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g. –s,-er,-ed and –ing. Bound morphemes are actually affixes.All affixes in English are bound.Bound morphemes also can be divided into derivational and inflectional morphemes according to the their grammatical functionPrefixes, suffixes, and infixesPrefixes: affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which case they are called prefixes. Prefixes can change the meaning or function of the word.Suffixes: Affixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suffixes. Suffixes can also change the meaning or function of the word.Infixes: morphemes that are inserted into other morphemes.Derivational and inflectional morphemeDerivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.Inflectional morphemes are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word. English has only 8 inflectional morphemesThe eight inflectional morphemes• noun+ -’s (possessive), -s (plural)• verb+ -s(3rd person present singular),•-ing (present participle),•-ed (past tense and past participle),•-en (past participle)• adj.+ -est(superlative),-er(comparative)The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemesInflectional• (1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem••(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.•• (3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.•• (4) Occurs at margins of wordsDerivational(1)Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem(2)Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3)Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.Inflection & Word formationMorphology concerns two fields : Inflections and word-formation.(1)Inflection: It is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.Such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.(2)Word-formation: It refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further sub-classified into Compound and Derivation.Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.Compounding shows the relation between lexical words.Endocentric and Exocentric compoundCompound: refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.(1) Endocentric compound (向心复合词).Such as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washable(2) Exocentric compound (离心复合词).Such as: sit-down, playboy, take-home, runawayThe Features of compoundsDespite the various formations, all compounds share the following features.1. Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.e.g. armchair, follow-up, thunder bird.How a compound is written is simply a matter of convention, and convention should be respected in this case as it always is.2. Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element,e. g. icy-cold (adj). green-house. (n).But there are many exceptions, especially with those compounds ending with a verb or an adverb or a preposition..For example, follow-up, crackdown, kick-off are all nouns instead of adverbs, and toothpick, snowfall are nouns instead of verbs3 Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components..For example, a blackleg is not a leg that is black, a greenhouse is not a house that is green, a Red coat is not a coat at all, and neither is a hotdog a dog ..To find out the meaning of a compound, one sometimes has to consult thedictionary instead of doing some guess work.4 Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress..This is important because it helps us to distinguish –ing forms that are used as a pre-modifier of a noun and those that are used as the first part of a compound word.So the same form "running dog" can possibly be pronounced in two differently ways.Usually the right-hand member nor only determines the category of the whole compound, but it also determines the major part of the sense of the compound. SO the right member serves as the head.4.4 Lexical development1) The disappearance of some old words2) The occurrence of some new words3) The lexical change in words’ form and meaningSuch as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washableThere are five aspects about the lexical change.The types of lexical change(1) Lexical change proper --- minor means of word- formationIncluding：Invention，Blending, clipping, acronym (首字母拼音法), & Initialism（首字母缩略法）; back-formation; analogical creation(类比构词)，etc.Loanwords: Group1 Loanword (借词) ※Loanblend （混合借词）＝＝Denizen （同化词）& Alien (非同化词)Group 2 Loanshift （转移借词）※Loan－translation（翻译借词）Semantic－loan（借义词）& Translation loan ( 译借词)(2) Phonological change (音位变化) ---Such as, loss of sound; Sound addition; Metathesis; assimilation(3) Morpho-syntactical change (形态-句法变化)Such as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washable(4) Semantic change 语义变化)(5) Orthographic change （拼写的变化)Old English is an Synthetic language , which full of inflectional changes.Modern English is an analytic language.4) Types of word meaning changesνNarrowing (缩小)A process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow or specialized sense.νExtension /broadening (扩大)It is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo.νTransference / Meaning shift (转移)Refer to some word which were used to designate one thing but later changed to meansomething else which experienced the process of semantic transfer.(1) . Associated TransferThis is what is commonly known as figurative extension of word meaning.(2) Transfer between Abstract and Concrete meaning(3) Transfer between Subjective and Objective meaningνDegradation (降格)It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affectivewords come to be used in derogatory sense.νElevation (升华)It refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions ofimportance.Cause of word-meaning change1.Extra-linguistic factorsHistorical reasons; Class reasons; Psychological reasons.2. Linguistic factorsLanguage system; The influence of borrowings; Analogy。

语言学chapter three partIII

Chapter 3 Lexicon
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
1. invention Lexical change Coming directly from technological and economic activities.
Kodak; Coke; nylon; Xeros; granola
Meaning shift
Semantic change
The change of one meaning to another new one, with a departure from its original domain (bead). Zero-derivation; Class shift Folk etymology The change of the form of a word.
Chapter 3 Lexicon
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
2. blending A relatively complex form of compounding.
a. The initial part of the 1st word with the final part of the 2nd word. b. The initial parts of the two words. transfer resister smoke fog digital computer
Chapter 3 Lexicon
Part Three
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
Morpheme vs. phomeme morphophonemics( morphophonology A study of the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.

英语语言学Chapter 3 Lexicon[精]

c. prБайду номын сангаас-form(代词形式):
pro-adjective Your pen is red. So is mine.
pro-verb
He knows English better than he did.
pro-adverb He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.
Phoneme(音位): As a basic unit of phonological study, is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning. A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical.
The categories newly introduced:
a. particles(小品词): (1)to (2)not (3)get by, go up, look back, …(The subordinate units in phrasal verbs)
b. auxiliaries(助动词)
Chapter 3
Lexicon
Lexicon
1. What is word? 2. The formation of word 3. Lexical change
1. What is word?
Three senses of “word” Identification of words Classification of words
Three senses of “word”:

英语语言学Chapter3

英语语言学Chapter3Chapter3Ⅱ.Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M is the smallest meaningful unit of language. (Morpheme)12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g meaning.13. B morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d affixes.15. D affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. As can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.21. Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the of words and the by which words are formed.22. Morphology can be subdivided into two branches: morphology andor morphology.23. The phonological and orthographical realizations of a morpheme are termed .24. [-t]、[-d]、[-id] are of the morpheme {-ed}.25. “Careless” is the of the word “carelessness”.26. “Gentle” is the of the word “gentlemanliness”.27. A morpheme can convey two kinds of meanings: meaning andmeaning.28. affixes, ffixes, and roots are all bound morphemes.29. Compared with a free phrase, a compound has differentfeatures.30. The allomorphs [-s] and [-iz] of the morpheme {plural} indicates the applications of therule and rule.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound__________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of__________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes28. _______ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root31. Morphology is the study of _______.A. the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formationB. the uses of different types of utterances in different contextsC. the differences between sounds used inhuman languages and sounds in natureD. the rules that pertain to all languages throughout the world32. Which of the following does NOT belong to “open c lass words”?A. NounsB. AdjectivesC. ConjunctionsD. Adverbs33. What is the minimal unit of meaning?A. PhonemeB. MorphemeC. AllophoneD. Allomorph34. There are ______ morphemes in the word “undesirableity”.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six35. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?A. RainbowB. InactionC. Icy-coldD. Unpleasant36. ______ are bound morphemes because they cannot be used a separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. AffixesD. Compounds37. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because they ______.A. are complex wordsB. are technical wordsC. refer to the commonest things in lifeD. denote the most important concepts38. All the following words contain the inflectional affixes except _______.A. caresB. carefulC. fasterD. books39. The word “irresistible” is _______.A. a compound oneB. a clipped oneC. a blended oneD. a derived one40. Which of the following is not a free morpheme?A. bedB. treeC. danceD. children41. Which of the following affix differs from others?A. –lyB. –nessC. –ingD. –ful42. Of the following word-formation processes,_______ is the most productive.A. clippingB. blendingC. initialismD. derivation43. Morpheme that can occur “unattached” are called ______.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivational morphemes44. The word “motherboard” is _______.A. a clipped oneB. a blended oneC. a compound oneD. an acronym45. The word “kung-fu” is _______.A. a clipped oneB. a blended oneC. a compound oneD. a borrowed one。

语言学 chapter 3 总结

Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is Word?As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”reference:指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）Sense:词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）(1)A physical definable unitLanguage is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen asa set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.For example: It is wonderful.Phonological: /it is wandәful/O rthographic: it’s wonderful(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written(3) A grammatical unitThe grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them. ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme 3.1.2 Identification of words(1) Stability:A word can’t be rearranged, but a se ntence can.Word: nothingness **nessnothing(F)Sentence: a. John is a clever boyb. A clever boy John is(2) Relative uninterruptibility:A word can’t be separates or insertedwith other elements, but a sentence can.Word: disappointment *dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, byitself, as a complete utterance.Expression: ---Is Jane coming this evening?--- PossiblyException: ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog isbarking ”----- A3.1.3 Classification of Word(1) Variable and invariable wordsWord including①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariable words (not having inflective changes.E.g. since, when, hello)(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly workfor constructing group, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such asconj., prep, articles, pron..②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work forreferring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.(3) Closed- class and opened-class words①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, thiskind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such aspronouns, prep, articles and others.②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle orunlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)(4) Word class⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection, and article.⑵other word classes:①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twiceb. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, yourc. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)3.2 The Formation of Word3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. Itstudies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.3.2.2 Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis,-ed)(2) Root, affix, and stem①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyedwithout destroying its meaning(NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive inconceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.c. I t can be both free morpheme and bound morpheme.Child and child- in children))②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), including prefix(para-, mini-, un-,) , suffix(-ise, -tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. For example:a.friend- in friends shows that a stem may be the same as a rootb.friendship- in friendships indicates that a stem may contain a rootand one, or more than one, derivational affix.3) Inflective affix and derivational affixThe differences between inflective affix and derivational affix:①.inflective affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes;②.inflective affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,while derivational affixes often change the lexical lexical meaning;③.inflective affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final(e.g.-s). But derivational affixes can both be prefixes(e.g. sub-, de-) andsuffixes(e.g. -er, -able )3.2.3 Inflection and word formationTo be more specific, there are two fields that morphology is concerned with: (ⅰ).The study of inflections( also called as INFLECTIONA MORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ). The study of word formation( often referred to as LEICAL or DERIV ATIONAL MORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by addinginflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect andcase; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical classof the stem(to which they are attached) will not change. Forexample,(a)number: table/tables(b)person: finiteness and aspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case: boy/boy’s⑵Word formationWord-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how words are formed.Two sub-types: a. the compositional type(COMPOUND)b. the derivational type(DEROV ATION)ⅰ、Compound⑴(a)NOUN COMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g. day+brea k→daybreak(b)VERB COMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g. lip+rea d→lipread(c)ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g. dut y+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITION COMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g. in+t o→into⑵two kinds of compound: (a)endocentric compound(self-control)(b)exocentric compound(breakthrough)⑶the ways of written(a) as a single word(wardrobe, birdseed, bodyguard)(b)joined with a hyphen”-”(rest-room, wedding-ring)(c)with ordinary space between two words(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes, and make the word class of the original word either changed (length--lengthen)or unchanged (non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4 Sememe & Morpheme and Phoneme & Morpheme⑴Sememe vs. morphemeSememe is the smallest component of meaning, while morpheme is smallest unit of meaning①one morpheme vs. one sememe②one morpheme vs. more than one sememe③one sememe vs. more than one morpheme④morphemes that have no specific sememe⑤function changes in both sememe and moepheme without morphemechange⑵Morpheme vs. phoneme①a single phoneme vs. a single morpheme②a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme③allomorph④morphemic conditionsa. phonological conditionedb. morphonologically conditioned3.3 Lexical Change3.3.1 Lexical change proper⑴Invention: Coke, Nylon, granola⑵Blending: transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor. digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnother sort of blending is called FUSION, such as rippe(ripple+shuffle), stample(trample+stample), and spinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3) Abbreviatiom(also called CLIPPING)缩写词e.g. advertisemen t→adbicylc e→bike(4) Acronym(缩略词)e.g. CI A→Central Intelligence Agency(5) Back-formation: editor---edit(6) Analogical creation: work→wrough t→worked; sla y→sle w→slayed(7)Borrowing: a Loanwords: borrow both form and meaning(au pair fromFrench);b .Loanblend: borrow the meaning, the form isblended(china-town);c Loanshift: meaning is borrowed and the form isnative(bridge); loan translation(翻译借词):：black humor 3.3.2 Morph-Syntactical Change(词素句法变化)(1) Morphological change: third person; plural form, possessive case(2) Syntactical changes:--Split infinitive:e.g.. I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it--Postponed Preposition:e.g.The person is impossible to work with--Objective case of relative pronoune.g. The girl who(m) he talked about is a violinist3.3.3 Semantic change(1) Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from itsoriginally specific sense to a relatively general one.e.g. “holiday”→”holy day” in religious Englis h→”a day for rest”(2) Narrowing is contrary to broadening: the original meaning of a word canbe narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.e.g. meat→“food”→the edible flesh of mammals.(3) Meaning shift here understood in its narrow sense, that is, the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.e.g. “bead”→“the prayer bead”→“small, ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood”(4) class shift: By changing the word class one can change the meaning of aword from a concrete or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIV ATION, or CONVERSIONe.g. hog→N(a pig)→V(to take and keep (all of something) foroneself )(5) folk stymology(民俗词源学) refers to the change of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.e.g. Spanish cucaracha changed into English cokroach3.3.4 Phonological change(1) loss(省音)：temperature /’tempәrәt ә/----/’temprәt /(2) Addition(增音)：a(n) article(3) Metathesis(换位)：is a process involving a change in the sequence ofsound.e.g. They taxed him with his failures. (accused)They took him to task for his failures. ( scolded)(4) Assimilation: 同化cap----can3.3.5 Orthographic changea. The same day went Iesus(sun)out of the house, and sate by theseaside.b. And when the Sunne (sun) was up, they were scorched。

语言学chapter three partI

Chapter 3 Lexicon
Part One
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
Teaching aim Introduce to the students the senses, identification and classification of words, the types of morphemes in English.
Generally
What is word?
A unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
A set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks. Three senses Both as a general term and as a specific term. A grammatical unit between morpheme and word group in the hierarchical scale of language.
Negation; inversion; code; emphasis
Pro-adjective
Pro-verb
Pro-form
Pro-adverb
Pro-locative
determiners
Chapter 3 Lexicon
Part One
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
All; both
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE

语言学教程Chapter 3. Lexicon

• invariable words: words which do not have inflective endings.
2) grammatical words and lexical words
• grammatical words : words mainly working for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. • lexical words: words mainly working for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. • Lexical words carry the main content of a language while grammatical ones serve to link together different content parts. • Lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones as function words.
3.2.1 morpheme and morphology
• Definition of morpheme • Definition or morphology
3.2.2 types of morphemes
• (1) free morpheme and bound morpheme • Free morphemes: they can make up words by themselves. All mono-morphemic words ( words consisting of only one morpheme) are free morphemes. • Some poly-morphemic words are made up of two free morphemes, so they are free morphemes, too. Such poly-morphemic words are called compounds. • Morphemes which must appear with at least another morpheme are named as bound morphemes.

chapter3语言学

chapter3语言学Chapter 3 Lexicon1.Define the following terms.morpheme compound inflectionaffix derivation root .allomorph stem bound morphemefree morpheme lexeme lexicongrammatical word lexical word closed-class .open_class blending loanwordloanblend loanshift acronymloss back- formation assimilationdissimilation folk etymology/doc/de16510810.html,plete the words with suitable negative prefixes.a. removable m. syllabicb. formaln. normal c. practicable -o. workabled. sensible p. writtene. Tangibleq. usual f. logical r. thinkableg. regular s. human h. proportionatet. relevant i. effective u. Editablej. elastic v. mobile k. ductivew. legal l. rational x. Discreet3. MORPHEME is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship betweenExpression on and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or asemantic one?what is its relation to phoneme? Can amorpherne and aphoneme form an organic whole?4. Read the following paragraph and list all the function words you can find.(Include all forms of be as function words. ) Give the percentage of function words in this paragraph.She was a small woman9 0ld and wrinkled. When she started washing for us, she was already past seventy. Most Jewish women ofher age were sickly, weak, broken in body. But this washwoman,small and thin as she was~ possessed a strength that came fromgenerations of peasant ancestors. Mother would count out to her a bagof Laundry that had accumulated over several weeks. She would lift theheavy bag, load it on her narrow shoulders, and carry it the long wayHome.5. A free form which consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms. . .is aphrase. A free form which is not a phrase is a word. A word, then,. . .is a minimum free form" (Bloomfield, 1935: 178). Answer the followingquestions :a) The term“word" is ambiguous. what kind of words is Bloomfield'sdefinition intended to cover?(b) Are there any traditionally recognized words of English (intheappropriate sense of“word") that fail to satisfy Bloomfield's definition?(c) what other criteria have been involved in the definition of the word ?6. Find the sources of the following blends. In cases where the dictionary not provide the answer9 your own ingenuity will be your guide.(a)bash (b) smash (c) glimmer(d) flimmer (e) clash (f) flare(g) brunch (h) motel (i) transistor(j) medicare (k) workaholic (l) spam(m) telethon (n) aerobicise (o) chunnel(p) chortle (q) bit (r) modem(s) guestimate (t) threepeatDetermine the historically accurate etymology of the words in the first column, and underline the correct one in the second or in the third column.Column l Column 2 Column 3(a) hangnail aching nail hanging nail(b) female a male's companion little woman(c) crayfish crawling fish crab(d) shamefaced face reflecting shame bound by shame(e) Jordan almond imported almond garden almond(f sparrowgrass a genus of herbs bird nesting in grass(g) beltre bell tower bell(h) bridegroom a woman is just or a man is just, oraboutabout to be married to be married(i) muskrat a large rat-like animal a large musk deer(Algonquian: musquash)(j) woodchuck a north American goat a north American (Algonquian: otchek) marmotDetermine the original term from which the following' words were back formed.(a) asset (b) burgle (c) enthuse .(d) greed (e) hush (f) automate .(g) donate (h) escalate (i)homesick(i) peddle (k) diagnose (l)tuit(m)amusing (n)loaf (o)self-destruct(p) attrit (q)hairdress (r)emote(s) drowse (t) frivolIdentify the immediate etymological source of the following words(for example, the immediate source of "meaning " is French,although the more remote source is Latin. )(a) air (b) barbecue (c) bungalow ; *. (d) cola (e) gusto (f) babel(g) buffalo (h) cocoa (i)costume(j) ill (k) mule (1) decreed(m) revolution (n) benevolent (o) lie(p) topic (q) subject (r) theme(s) wind (t) datum10.Classify the following words as loanwords (LW), loanblends(LB)loanshifts (LS) or loan translation (LT)Booby trap coconut loan-wordmonkfirewater free verse war paintYankee11. If there are two affixes-ly ,one producing adjectives and the other attachingto adjectives to produce adverbs, can we find words with both of theseaffixes?12. Make a list of nouns from the following words that -s can attach to.Epiphany foot hathousekitchen ox phenomenon .region sheep tomato13. Are there any affixes that attach (relatively) productively to verbs,contribute no or very specific meaning, and do not change category?-。

语言学 chapter 3 总结

语言学教程03Chapter 3_lexicon

Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:
Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.
As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.
Pre Central all her
her all her
Post many many
many
all
what a
the
one
a few
both my father’s
Modifier Noun good ideas good ideas good ideas good ideas good ideas good ideas good idea good idea
ideas parents
Problem: blackboard
1.2 Identification of words
Stability: stable linguistic units.
chairman, but not *manchair
Relative uninterruptibility: though we recognize three components in the word
Chapter Three Lexicon
1. What is word?
A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.

语言学--3.Lexicon

Linguistics Made by LI Jinmei
3
1. Word 1.1 Three senses of ―word‖
(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound
segments or letters between two pause or blank.
11
Linguistics
Made by LI Jinmei
(4) word class (词类)
• The traditionally recognized word classes are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word classes have been introduced into grammar:
4
Linguistics
Made by LI Jinmei
1. Word
Generally, and especially in English, a word is a basic and meaningful sentence component that speakers recognize as the smallest and speech units admitting between them a momentary pause in normal speech and a pace in written texts.
• the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化） while the latter refers to words having no such endings.

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Chapter 3 LEXICON3.1. Basic conceptions of wordsWordQuestion: What is a “word”?(1) “A word is a speech sound or combination of sounds having meaning and used as a basic unit of language and human communication.” (Longman Modern English Dictionary, LMED1[1] 1968)Disadvantages:●phrases could be combination of sounds: ex. a piece of●morpheme is also a “basic unit” of language(2) “A word is one or more sounds which and be spoken (together) to represent an idea, object,action, etc.”(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, LDCE2[2] 1978) Disadvantages:●The combination of “one or more sounds” does not necessarily result in a word.● A sound is likely to be a word or a morpheme, ex. (-)a●Written forms are missing(3) “词是具有完整意义并在口语或书面语中可独立使用的最小语言单位。

”(“A word is theminimal free form with full meaning, the smallest form that may occur in isolation in spoken or written form.”) (王文斌2001: 4)3.1.1. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses orblanks(2) LexemeEx. “SHARE” for share, shared, shares, sharing(3) A grammatical unit between morpheme and word group/phrase in the lexicalgramaticalhierarchy.sentenceclauseword group/phrasewordmorphemeQuestion: How to classify would like, electronic mail (word phrase or word), work (free morpheme or word)3.1.2. Properties of words●Stability●Relative uninterruptibilityE.g. dis+ appoint+ ment(Even) Paul (even) didn’t (even) love (even) Jane (even).● A minimum free formE.g. ---- Is Jane coming this evening?---- Possibly.●Discreteness●Intuitive3.1.3 Classification of words(1)Variable & invariable words (variability)Variable words1[1] Watson, O., 1968. London: Longman Group Limited.2[2] Pocter, P. 1978. London: Longman Group Limited.Ex. follow, follows, following, followedInvariable words: words which are comparatively constantEx. when, seldom, net, hello(2) Grammatical words and lexical words (functional words and content words) (meaningexpressed by the word)Grammatical words (functional words):E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns (?)Lexical words (content words)E.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbsFurther questions :1.Do pronouns belong to content words or functional words?2.Do English adverbials correspond to Chinese adverbials?(3) Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-classE.g. due to, because of, be going to, and, with regard to, 和, 关于Open-classE.g. navigate the internet, EuroNote: METAPHOR(4) Word class●Classification standard: grammatical, semantic and phonological properties; formalsimilarities in terms of inflections and distribution;●Similar to parts of speech in Latin and Greeki. Particles : to, not, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as into, up, etc.ii.Auxiliaries: do, caniii.Pro-formEx. (a) John is very tall and so is Mary.(b) I like films and John does too.(c) I think so.iv. DeterminersEx. the (definite), a(n)(indefinite), some(partitive), all(universal)NOTE: Quirk (1985: 253)’s classification: predeterminers (all, both, twice), central determiners (this, that, any, some, his), and postdeterminers (next, last, many)3.2 The formation of wordQUESTION: What is in a word?3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphemeMorphologyEx. horrify, terrify, simplify, purifyNOTE: c.f. word & morphemeThe minimal meaningful unit; free or not free3.2.2. Types of morphemes(1)Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemesEx. cut, speak, careCOMPOUNDSEx. homemade, laptop, conscience-strickenBound MorphemesEx. mis- in misfortune, -ful in careful, -ed in kicked(2)Root, affix and stemROOTEx. -rage in enrage (free), -cide in suicide (bound)●Meaningful and unanalyzable●Free or boundNOTE 1: All words contain a root morpheme.NOTE 2: Some English roots may have both free and bound variants.Ex. sleep and slep- in sleptAFFIXPrefix: dis-, im-, un-●Suffix: -ify, -ize, -ation●Infix: foot/ feet, goose/geeseSTEMEx. friend and friendly in unfriendlyQUESTION: Does a morphemic shape, such as–er donate only one meaning?C.f. clever, teacher, and typewriter(3)Inflectional affix vs. derivational affix(or inflectional morpheme vs. derivational morpheme)Inflectional affixNoun+ -’s, -sVerb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -enAdjective+ -er, -estEx. Let me tell you about Jim’s sisters.One likes to have fun and is always laughing.The other liked to study and has always taken things seriously.One is the loudest person in the house and the other is quieter than a mouse.Derivational affixEx.–ness, -ful,-less, -ish, ex-, co-, pre-, etcC.f. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflectionalDerivationallexicalfree functionalMorpheme derivationalbound inflectional3.2.3. Inflection and word formation(1) INFLECTION (INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY)Ex. Person, finiteness and aspectopen/opens/opening/opened(2)WORD FORMATION (LEXICAL MORPHOLOGY): the process of word variationssignaling lexical relationshipsi. CompoundEx. classroom, table tennis, sunrise(a) Classification(b) Orthographical classificationOpen form: cold war, sun beamHyphenated form: tax-free, cease-fireSolid form: skybus, heartfelt(c) Endocentric compound vs. exocentric compound●endocentric compound: verbal compound/synthetic compound (综合复合词), X+VE.g. self-control, sun-tanned, machine washable, virus-sensitiveHEAD●exocentric compound: V+XE.g. scarecrow, sit-down, take-home, breakneckNOTE: Syntactic structures of morphemes of noun compounds and adjective compoundsii. DerivationDERIV ATION shows the relation between roots and affixesNOTE: Inflections make the word class of the original word changed, and derivations can make the word class either changed or unchanged. (Pp 91)(a)Word class changeN V length + -en lengthen(b)Word class unchangedN N book + -let bookletOTE: open and large derivational forms; multiple derivational affixes are allowed for one word inflectional morphology (Inflection)Morphology compound (endocentric, exocentric) lexical morphology (Word formation)derivation3.2.4. The counterpoint of phonology and morphologyQUESTION: How to represent a morpheme? A phoneme? A phonological structure?(1)Morpheme & phonemeMorpheme: the smallest unit in grammarPhoneme: the smallest unit in soundInterface: Morphophonology/morphophonetics(2)Morphemic structure and phonological structureMonophonemic catsMonosyllabic most + lyPolysyllabic tobacooNOTE: Morphemic (grammatical) structure and syllabic (phonological) structure do not necessarily correspond.C.f. teller & bigger(3)AllomorphAllomorphEx. allomorphs of plural morpheme (Pp 94)-s～-z～-iz～-ai～-i:～-n～-øMorpheme:(4)Morphophonology or MorphophonemicsMorphophonology (morphonology) or Morphophonemics (morphonemics)i. Phonologically conditioned●AssimilationEx. irregular, infirm, impossible, imperfect/n/(alveolar nasal), /m/(bilabial nasal), /p/(bilabial)●DissimilationEx. marbre (French) marbleii. Morphologically conditionedThree requirements:(a) common meaningE.g. -s～-z～-iz～-ai～-i:～-n～-ø(b) complementary distribution(c)parallel formation (Pp 96)3.3 Lexical change3.3.1. Lexical change proper(1)Invention/Coinage: AIDS, SARS, dink, drink-straw, 菜鸟, 小强Assignment: at least three coinage(2)Blending(3) E.x. breakfast + lunch brunchswear + curse swurseFusion (溶合): the blending at the cognitive levelE.x. ripple + shuffle riffle(4)Abbreviation/Clipping(5)Back clipping: ad, auto, bike, dorm,Front clipping: phone telephoneFront and back clipping: flu influenzaName abbreviation: Bob for RobertAbbreviation in education domain: exam, math, lab(6)Acronym/Initialism: result of word formation in which the first letters or syllables of wordgroups are written and pronounced as words.Acronyme.x. NATO, TOFEL, 老少边穷地区, 机考Initialisme.x. BBC, DIY, GRE, ID card, USA, UN, VIP, VOA, WHO, Y2Kyuppies = young urban professionals, buppies, Juppies, guppies, puppiesaids = acquired immune deficiency syndrome(7)Back formationE.x. burgle burglar(8)Analogical creationE.x. work wrought, worked(9)Borrowingi. Loanwordse.x. bravo, fiancé, cliché, coup d’étatii. Loanblende.x. coconut, Chinatowniii.Loanshifte.x. foul (fair dirty in Spanish)iv.Loan translation /Calquee.x. running dog(走狗)(10)F unctional shift/conversione.x. dos and don’tsThe policeman dogged the suspect.(11)P roper nameE.x. hoover, waterloo, Samaritan, Spartan(12)C ompounding:e.x. earthquake, moonwalk, round-the-clock, kowhow, instant coffee, instant soldiers, instant speech, instant star, pickpocket, diehard.(13)D erivativesE.x. telecon(电话会议), antiabortionists, solarium, bibliophobia,sputnik(前苏联人造地球),beatnik, cinenik, computernik3.3.2. Phonological changeChanges in sound leading to changes in form.(1) LossE.x. /x/ øO.E. niht /nixt/ night /nait/(2) AdditionE.x. studium (Latin) estuide (O.F.), estudio (Spanish), estudo (Portugese)(3) MetathesisE.x. ask ——/aks/(4) AssimilationContact /contiguous assimilationNon-contact / distant assimilation3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change(1)Morphological changeE.x. third person singular——do(e)th, goeth, has,etc.(2)Syntactical changeSplit infinitive, postponed prepositions, objective case of relative pronoun; fusion/blending3.3.4. Semantic changea word with multiple meanings, ex. polysemyBroadeningNarrowingMeaning shiftClass shift/zero-derivationFolk etymology (俗词源学):E.x. sparrowgrass asparagus (文竹)3.3.5. Orthographic changeORTHOGRAPHICAL CHANGE: changes found at the graphetic level (Pp110) E.g. Iesus Jesus ; sate sat ; sunne sun。

英语语言学Chapter 3 Lexicon4.3 CHAPTER 3

Chapter Three 语言学 第三章 大学英语语言学

语言学第三章

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语言学第三章笔记和习题

胡壮麟版《语言学教程》 第三章Chapter3 Lexicon 总结

英语语言学Chapter 3 Lexicon

语言学胡壮麟第三版第三章笔记

英语语言学讲义Chapter3

语言学chapter three partIII

英语语言学Chapter 3 Lexicon[精]

英语语言学Chapter3

语言学 chapter 3 总结

语言学chapter three partI

语言学教程Chapter 3. Lexicon

chapter3语言学

语言学 chapter 3 总结

语言学教程03Chapter 3_lexicon

语言学--3.Lexicon

Chapter Three 语言学第三章大学英语语言学

胡壮麟版《语言学教程》第三章Chapter3 Lexicon 总结