新版简明英语语言学 Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学
第六张语用学pragmatics
第六张语用学pragmatics Chapter 6pragmatics一、定义1.语境Context The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language,it's generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.2.言语行为理论Speech act theory It's an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.it's aphilosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.it aims to answer the question"what do we do when using language?"The concept of causatives performatives,the locutionary act,the illocutionary act,the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.3.叙述句Constatives Constatives are statements that either state or describe,and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.；4.行为句Performatives Performatives are sentences that did not state afact or describe astate,and are not verifiable.5.言内行为Locutionary Act Alocutionary act is the act ofuttering words,phrases,clauses.it's the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.6.言外行为Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention it's the act performed in saying something.7.言后行为Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.it's the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.8.句子意义Sentence meaning It refers to asentence and is agrammatical concept,the meaning of asentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.9.话语意义Utterance meaning It refers to asentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.10.合作原则Cooperative Principle It's proposed and formulated by P.Grice,a pragmatic hypothesis,is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate,otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.11.会话含义Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice,it refers to the extra meaning not contained in thutterance,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker's knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。
Chapter6pragmatics语言学整理的资料
Chapter 61.pragmatics:自测：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)术语：pragmatics语用学解释：语用学处理的是语言的实际意义，是在应用中的意义，而不是固有的意义。
术语：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
解释：Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么，听者或读者读到的是什么。
并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。
新编简明英语语言学教程_第二版_戴炜栋6_pragmatics
For example,“It is cold in here.”
Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold in here; Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window; Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request. ----Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.” Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.
Correctness vs. appropriateness
“John play golf”---- grammatically incorrect; “Golf played John” ---- logically incorrect; but it might be appropriate pragmatically in certain context. Note: Pragmatics can make sense out of nonsense, given a suitable context. Appropriateness is very important in linguistic communication, especially in cross-cultural communication. If you say something grammatically incorrect, you are at worse condemned as “speaking badly”, but, if you say something inappropriately, you will be judged as “behaving badly”, such as insincere, untruthful, or deceitful. (Thomas, 1983)
6.Pragmatics 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋
extralinguistic context
context of situation
time & space of the communication subject of communication formality of communication
relationship of participants
b. The patient is lying in bed when the nurse comes in. the window is open. The patient says: It’s cold in here.
Within context, the two utterances have different meanings. In (a), Cecilia most probably suggests, “let’s leave here and find a warmer place”, while in (b), the patient is suggesting to the nurse: “Close the window please”.
knowledge about the language
linguistic context
knowledge about the linguistic environment
common sense
Context
background knowledge social-cultural conventions speech conventions
linguistic and contextual
knowledge
knowledge
Semantics
新版简明英语语言学Chapter6pragmatics语用学
新版简明英语语言学Chapter6pragmatics语用学Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学知识点：1.*Definition: pragmatics; context2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory4.Searle’s classification of speech acts5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle考核目标：识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle一、定义1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。
语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。
(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。
)2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。
新编语言学教程chapter 6 pragmatics
you don’t work today. (c). Situation: John promised to go shopping
with his wife on Sunday. I: Don’t forget what you promised.
Utterance: unit of speech actually used for communication. It can be understood as the speaker’s purpose or the speaker’s intention.
1.2 Context
Generally, context refers to the background knowledge shared by the speaker and hearer, including general knowledge of the world, knowledge specific to the situation of communication, specific to the counterparts of communication, the knowledge of the purpose of communication.
• Performatives: different from constatives, performative is used to perform an action, to do a thing. Uttering a performative is doing a thing.
新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1--u6期末笔记整理
●语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole）2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力（competence）和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度（sociological view）他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴（social conventions）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Psychological view），认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征（property of mind of each individual）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（descriptive），传统语法是规定性的（prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phonetics(语音学) Phonology（音位学）●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础）●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久）(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrowtranscription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a：} ）和圆唇的（rounded）后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l}分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体●音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。
[整理]新编简明英语语言学教程笔记
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新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
英语语言学 语用学 Pragmatics
The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning.
6.1.2 pragmatics and semantics
related but different linguistic studies of meaning both study meaning
Semantics treats meaning as an abstract, self contained, intrinsic system, a property attached to language itself, which is not influenced by context.
研究语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际 的
It is a discipline of studying meaning not in isolation, but in context.
Pragmatics： the study of linguistic acts and the contexts in which they are performed
因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语 义学和语用学的根本区别所在。
如 It is cold in here 这个句子，对传统语义学 家来说，只是表达了“某一地点气温比较低” 这样的命题内容。而对语用学家来说，除了陈 述一个客观的气温情况外，说话人很可能是为 了请听话人做点什么，如关上窗户、打开暖气、 借件衣服御寒等。
Chapter 6 Pragmatics(语用学)
Language in use
6.1 definition
• Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences or language to effect successful communication. • Or principles of language use/ usage • Or the study of language in context: how language is used in context to convey specific meaning: A Can you tell me the time? B well the milkman has come. “Darling, today is Sunday” • Pragmatics:How langauge is used in communication
Pragmatics and semantics
• Both are concerned with meaning. • Meaning in semantics is defined purely as a property of expressions in a given language, in abstraction from particular situations, speakers, hearers. • Meaning in Pragmatics is defined relative to a speaker or the user of the language: meaning in relation to speech situations or context.
(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics：语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ，but it studies language in general）2。
General linguistics：普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics。
（language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ）nguage：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。
4.descriptive (描述性)：A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use。
5。
prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors。
i.e。
what they should say and what they should not to say.6。
synchronic（共时语言学)：the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7。
diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3）speech（口语）Writing（书面语)These the two media of communication。
Lecture 6 pragmatics语用学
Sentence meaning vs utterance meaning
Sentence meaning（句子意义）: abstract, de-contextualized utterance meaning（话语意义）: concrete, context-dependent Eg. John is still single. JOHN(BEING SINGLE) Utterance meaning might be…? My bag is is like a fish. There will be several possible interpretations to this sentence. 1: if it is said when John is swimming… 2: if it is said at a party…(John can drink a lot of wine.) 3: on other occasion it can mean “John is as cold as fish”.
Pragmatics
Language in use
“语用”一词的由来 Pragma-表示“行动，做” 哲学：美国哲学家Morris和 Carnap—研究符号与符号解释 者之间的关系。
definition
The study of language in use and linguistic communication.
Topics for study:
deixis（指示） speech acts（言语行为） indirect language（语言的间接性） conversation（会话原则） politeness（礼貌原则） cross-cultural communication, presupposition（前提）
新编简明英语语言学教程(完整资料)
新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h is language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
语言学_Chapter 6_Pragmatics
对所使用语言的掌握 语言知识
对语言上文的了解 百科全书式的知识（常识）
语境
背景知识
语言外知识 情景知识
特定文化的社会规范 特定文化的会话规则 交际的时间、地点 交际的主题 交际的正式程度 交际参与者的相互关系
相互知识Biblioteka • 1. Situational context
• • • •
refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events existent in the situation.
performed via utterances • 3 simultaneous act in a speech act
6.2.1 Austin’s model: Speech Acts （言语 行为理论）
Austin (1962) distinguish two categories of utterances.
Annie: Cats were very happy today.
I think Annie means “Cats eat the cream.” What does Annie mean? Cats today were in high spirit.
Both are right. It is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning!
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学
Performatives (行事话语)
Instead of stating or describing something, the speaker, when uttering these sentences, is actually doing something, i.e. performing certain acts.
It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin. He thought that some statements were used by the speakers to do something.
He made a distinction between “constatives” aБайду номын сангаасd “performatives”
1.4 Sentence meaning & utterance meaning
(句子意义&话语意义)
Semantics is concerned with word meaning and sentence meaning, meanings predictable from the linguistic knowledge alone.
In contrast, pragmatics studies the meaning intended by the speakers, which can only be inferred with the contextual meaning.
For example, suppose a speaker said:
Another hearer, who was a native speaker might still ask for the further information: Which professor? before he could get the utterance meaning.
简明英语语言学教程第二版第6章答案
简明英语语言学教程第二版第6章答案Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not bepossible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with acertain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of anutterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is verymessy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other p erson sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intentio n; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example: You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thusexpressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer todo some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this generalprinciple:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution a s informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。
语言学课件Chapter 6 Pragmatics
e.g. My bag is heavy.
Semantic analysis: BAG ( BEING HEAVY)
Pragmatic analysis: a statement; an indirect, polite request; a refusal
Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
话语是句子意义与语境的结合，是句子意 义在特定语境中的具体化，体现了说话人 的意g is much richer than sentence meaning.
It varies with the context in which the sentence is used.
Context consists of the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
It includes the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, which can be subdivided into the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which communication is taking place.
1) The room is messy.
新编简明英语语言学教程【笔记】
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
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Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学知识点：1.*Definition: pragmatics; context2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory4.Searle’s classification of speech acts5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle考核目标：识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle一、定义1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。
语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。
(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。
)2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。
一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。
二、知识点6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。
语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。
两者都是对意义的研究。
传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。
因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。
语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。
语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。
Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.6.1.3 contextContext 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic studyof language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。
一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。
（语境是交际双方共有的知识，它包括双方具有的语言知识以及有关客观世界的知识，而客观世界的知识又包括有关世界的常识性知识以及交际发生的实际情景知识。
）(参考p79英p235-236中例子)6.1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义与话语意义1）Sentence meaning句子意义---abstract抽象的, decontextualized脱离语境的2）Utterance meaning话语意义---concrete具体的, contextualized依赖语境的，it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 话语的意义是基于句子意义之上的；它是一个句子的抽象意义在一个真实的交际场合，或仅在一个语境中的体现。
区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
句子是语法单位。
当把句子用在实际交际中时，句子便成了话语。
句子意义是抽象的，是句子的语义内容，它孤立于语境之外；话语意义是具体的，它基于句子意义与语境的结合，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，体现了说话人的意图和目的。
由于话语语义是句子意义与语境结合的结果，话语语义要比句子的语义丰富得多。
如：”You are a machine.”句子的意思是“你是机器。
”，但是一旦与具体的语境相结合，就会产生不同的话语语义，如说话人可能是说听话人没有情感，或说听话人不知疲倦地工作，或者说听话人做事比较机械等。
要如何理解它要视它所发生的语境和言者说这话的目的而定。
大部分话语在语法形式上与句子相吻合，但是也有一些话语在语法上是不完整的，有些甚至不能还原为完整的句子。
如，语言使用者在特定的语境中可以使用话语” The door, please!”去行使关门的请求。
像“Hi!” 和“Ouch!”这样的话语很难还原成语法完整的句子。
❀区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
While most utterances take the form of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences.In terms of syn tax, some utterances are not, and some can’t even be restored to complete sentences6.2 speech act theory言语行为理论6.2.Austin’s model speech act 奥斯汀的言语行为模式1.英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出了speech act theory言语行为理论。
在他的言语行为理论中，奥斯汀区分了叙事话语(constative)和行事话语(performative)。
P238中 e.g.1）叙事话语是陈述之言，用于陈述或描述，其真值是可以检验的。
2）行事话语的话语不是以陈述或描述事实为目的的，是没有真值的。
奥斯汀认为语言使用者在使用句子时并不总是为了去陈述或描述，而是为了实施一个言语行为。
2. 他又设立了另一个新模式，定义了言内行为locutionary act、言外行为illocutionary act,和perlocutionary act言后行为奥斯汀认为人在说话时很可能同时实施三种言语行为，即言内行为（locutionary act）、言外行为(illocutionary act)和言后行为(perlocutionary act)。
1）言内行为指的是“说话”这一行为本身，如说出单词、短语和句子等。
言内行为通过句法、词汇和语音传递一个字面语义。
2）言外行为是通过说话这一动作实施一种行为，体现了说话人的说话意图。
人们通过说话可以达到各种目的，如传递信息，发出命令、作出承诺、提出建议等。
3）言后行为是指说话带来的后果，例如通过说话听话人受到了警告等。
e.g. You have left the door wide open.1）Locutionary act: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. 表达了每个词的字面意义。
2）Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. 表达了他说话的意图（即请某人把门关上，或者抱怨，视语境而定。
）3）Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed. 指话语的效果（即听者听到言者信息，明白并言者要他关门，并把门关上，这样就成功地实施了。
）※在这三种行为中，语言学家对illocutionary act言外行为最感兴趣this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and alsohow his intention is recognized by the hearer. 因为这种语言行为与言者的意图一致，而且在他们对语言交际的研究中，语言学家门最感兴趣的是言者是如何表达其意图，以及他的意图是如何为听者所识别。
（它与说话人的真实意图相吻合。
）6.2.2 Searle’s classification of speech acts（Searle对语言行为的分类）美国语言学家John Searle把illocutionary act言外行为分为五大类：the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.每一类中的具体行为都具有相同的言外之意，但是他们的力度有所不同。