英语修辞学第二章 - 360文档中心

《英语修辞学》第二章

• Development: The development of English ethics can be traced back to any Greece and Rome, where philosophers and orators are such as Aristotle and Cicero established the fundamental principles of ethics Over time, these principles were adapted and adapted by English writers and speakers, resulting in the evolution of a distinct English style of rhetoric that emphasizes clarity, logic, and wit
to the entire cream
Personality and anthropology
要点一
Personalization
Personalization is a rhetorical device where abstract ideas or inanimate objects are given human qualities or attributes For example, "the waves dance in the moonlight" personalizes the waves by giving them the ability to dance
Importance
Rhetoric plays a critical role in communication, allowing individuals to express their ideas clearly and persistently It is essential in various fields such as politics, law, education, and business, where the ability to influence and supervise others is key to success

现代英语修辞学

普通高等教育“十五”国家级规划教材现代英语修辞学Moder n English Rhetor ic胡曙中编著上海外语教育出版社图书在版编目(CIP)数据现代英语修辞学/胡曙中编著.—上海:上海外语教育出版社,2004ISBN7-81095-185-8Ⅰ.现…Ⅱ.胡…Ⅲ.英语修辞教材Ⅳ.H315中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字(2004)第014498号早在1982年,我的导师杨小石先生有意要编一本适合我国英语专业使用的英语修辞学教材,为此,他邀请了包括我在内的三位教师一起参加编写,我们商定了编写大纲,也作了具体的分工。

我当时只有35岁,对编写这么一本教材的困难程度并不清楚,但却凭着一股劲,居然勉强地完成了自己那一部分,但是由于他们未能完成自己的部分,我的那一部分最后也就不了了之了。

从那时到现在,时间过去了20多年。

在这20多年中,我读了一些书,作了一些研究,从《英汉修辞比较研究》、《美国新修辞学》到《英语修辞学》,我走了过来。

坦诚地说,前面走过的路不都是一步一个脚印的,但就在这步履艰难的过程中,我逐渐知道了什么是英语修辞,知道了如何来阐释和应用英语修辞。

现在奉献给大家的这本《现代英语修辞学》,承蒙教育部和有关专家的厚爱,被确定为普通高等教育“十五”国家级规划教材。

我把这本书写成一本英语修辞学的入门书,是想回答许多学生提出的问题:“什么是英语修辞学?”“英语修辞学是不是就是研究英语写作?”“英语修辞学是英语专业的课程,还是语言学的课程?”我希望我的这本书能较为满意地回答这些问题。

在这儿,我想概括一下本书的各章内容和目的:第0章导论解释英语修辞的种种意义,并说明本书的目的———对英语修辞现象的描述、应用和阐释第1章影响修辞活动的要素论述信息、使用场合、受话者之间的关系,说明语气如何反映其间的关系第2章词汇的修辞描述英语选字遣词的修辞规律及其应用第3章句子的修辞描述英语连词组句的修辞规律及其应用第4章段落的修辞描述英语段落构成的修辞规律及其应用第5章语篇的修辞描述英语语篇构成的修辞规律及其应用第6章语篇的种类描述语篇的种类及其特点第7章语体描述作为修辞活动综合体的语体特征第8章修辞手段描述修辞布局和辞格的规律第9章理论阐释简述主要的英语修辞理论第10章传统与发展回顾英语修辞学的传统,预测其发展本书主要适合英语专业高年级学生和研究生使用。

大学英语修辞学第二章

The book Rhetoric falls in three parts treating respectively (1) the nature of rhetoric, (2) invention, and (3) arrangement and style. two categories of arguments based on the kinds of proof: artistic and inartistic. Inartistic proofs external evidence such as witnesses, contracts, evidence based on torture. Artistic proofs three means of persuasion:
about education: Education is the savior of the world. The teacher should explain principles and provide examples as models; The teacher should guide his students to the acquisition of practical wisdom. Contribution: His trained a large amount of political figures, and statesmen, promoted the practical use of rhetorical arts.
Pathos--emotional appeal The effects of emotional appeal include moral anger, ambition, excitement, fear, happiness, pity, jealousy, etc. Emotional appeal depends on the skillful and witty handling of language.

英语修辞学(打印版)

英语修辞手法1) Simile：(明喻）It is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic (特性)in common. To make the comparison, words like as, as...as, as if and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other. For example, As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country./ This elephant is like a snake as anybody can see.2) Metaphor：(暗喻）It is like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. For example, the world is a stage./ The diamond department was the heart and center of the store.3) Analogy: (类比）It is also a form of comparison, but unlike simile or metaphor which usually uses comparison on one point of resemblance, analogy draws a parallel between two unlike things that have several common qualities or points of resemblance.4) Personification: (拟人）It gives human form of feelings to animals, or life and personal attributes(赋予) to inanimate(无生命的) objects, or to ideas and abstractions(抽象). For example, the wind whistled through the trees.5) Hyperbole: (夸张）It is the deliberate use of overstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis. For instance, he almost died laughing.6) Understatement: (含蓄陈述）It is the opposite of hyperbole, or overstatement. It achieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately(故意地) understating it, impressing the listener or the reader more by what is merely implied or left unsaid than by bare statement. For instance, It is no laughing matter.7) Euphemism: (委婉）It is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive(无冒犯) expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. For instance, we refer to "die" as” pass away".8) Metonymy (转喻）It is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the mane of one thing for that of another. For instance, the pen (words) is mightier than the sword (forces). 借代（metonymy）是指两种不同事物并不相似，但又密不可分，因而常用其中一种事物名称代替另一种。

英语修辞学Ss' handouts2

English Rhetoric Chapter 2Reading 3I am more than angry. I did not give birth to my one and onlyson to have him snatched away from me 18 years later. My child has been loved and cared for and taught right from wrong and will not be fed into any egomaniac’s war machine.Our 18-to 25-year-olds have not brought this world to its present sorry state. Men over the age of 35, down through the centuries, have brought us here, and we women have been in silent accord.Well, this is one woman, one mother, who says No. I did not go through the magnificent agony of childbirth to have that glorious young life snuffed out.Until the presidents, premiers, supreme rulers, politburos, senators and congressmen of the world are ready to physically, as opposed to verbally, lead the world into combat, they can bloody well forget my child.Unite mothers！Don’t throw your sons and daughters away.Sometime, somewhere, women must say No.No. No. No. No. No. Never my child.(Louise M. Saylor, Washington Post, Jan.28, 1980)Reading 4In informal situations, we often overgeneralize from the facts: “She’s never on time”; “Advertising is only a pack of lies.”A little consideration shows us that in reality all-or-none, black-or-white situations are rare; reality is more accurately described in terms of finer shadings and degrees. Most readers are aware of this, and although they will accept and make statements like the above uncritically enough in conversations, they are suspicious of them in writing.Be especially cautious in using terms like “all”, “always”, “everybody”, “nobody”, “never”, “none”, “only”and “most”. Before making such all-inclusive statements, make sure that they are justified. If there are any exceptions to some assertion you make, modify your language to make it more accurate. Don’t say that all young people have such and such a disadvantage: “some” or “many” might be more accurate. Before you say that almost all the schools in that area have very poor educational facilities,ascertain from some reliable source whether more than 80 percent actually do;otherwise you are not really justified in saying it. Keep in mind that the English vocabulary provides you with a wealth of qualifying terms (some, few, often, to name only a few) and choose those that most accurately describe the number, extent, and frequency of the facts you are asserting.Exercise twoⅠ. Identify the reasoning pattern used in each of the following passages.1.There seems to be a general assumption that brilliant people cannotstand routine, and that they need a varied, exciting life in order to dotheir best. It is also assumed that dull people are particularly suited fordull work. We are told that the reason present-day young people protestso loudly against the dullness of factory jobs is that they are bettereducated and brighter than the youth of the past. (Eric Hoffer, “DullWork”)2.The cases of Adolf Beck, of Oscar, of the unhappy Brooklyn bank tellerwho vaguely resembled a forger and spent eight years in Sing Sing[State Prison in New Y ork] only to “emerge”a broken, friendless,useless, “compenstated” man—all these, if the dignity of the individualhas any meaning, had better have been dead before the prison door everopened for them. This is what counsel always says to the jury in thecourse of a murder trial and counsel is right: far better to hang this manthan “give him life.”(Jacques Barzun, “In Favor of Capital Punishment”)Ⅱ. Fill in each blank with an appropriate preposition.Emotional fallacies appeal directly (1)_______ the human frailties(2)_______ the audience: some (3)________their prejudices, some (4)________ their vanity, some (5)________their national pride, others(6)_______their desire to emulate people they admire. Because(7)______this, they exert great persuasive force. These fallacies should beavoided (8)______writing (9)______essentially the same reason that you shun slanting: they deceive your readers. Remember how often you have felt cheated because an advertiser convinced you to buy an expensive, ineffective product (10)______ playing (11)______your desire to be attractive (12)______the opposite sex. Using such tactics(13)_______argument can only have short-range effectiveness; yourcommitment should be to make a lasting impression (14)______your readers.(Michael E. Adelstein and Jean G..Pival: The Writing Commitment, 2nd ed. 1980, pp. 328-329)III. An elementary acquaintance with the general patterns of inference can help writers in two ways.,1.It can make them aware of the premises that underlie an argument.Analyze the following example and provide its major premise:“There is a school ahead. Here we come across a traffic sign onwhich there are school children.”2.It can also help a writer check the validity of his line of reasoning.Examine the following example, point out its fallacy and provide possible remedies:Some elected officials are bribe-takers.Smith is an elected official.Therefore, Smith is a bribe-taker.IV. Identify the fallacies of pathos in each of the following paragraphs as “Ad Hominen”, “Name calling”, or “Bandwagon Appeal”with the help of a dictionary.1.Many advertising slogans urge readers to buy something so that they becomeassociated with the majority of people or with a particular prestigious group: “Beer belongs,”“Camels aren’t for everybody (but then, they don’t try to be),”“John the Pepsi generation,”“The car for the people who think,”“长龙，只为少数派的宣言”.2.When challenged by an opponent to discuss military spending, a politicianaccuses the opponent of alcoholism.3.He (the male) is a half dead, unresponsive lump, incapable of giving orreceiving pleasure or happiness; consequently he is at best an utter bore, an inoffensive blob, since only those capable of absorption in others can be charming.。

英语修辞学 Onomatopoei apotrophe pun

注释：Cuckoo 布谷鸟的叫声 jug-jug 夜莺 pu-we to-witta-woo 泛指各种鸟鸣形象的烘托出春天欢乐的气氛，让人读后难忘
Onomatopoeia
杜甫的《登高》一是一著例。“风急天高猿啸哀，渚清沙白鸟飞回，无边落木萧萧下，不尽长江滚滚来。万里悲秋常作客，百年多病独登台。艰难苦恨繁霜鬓，潦倒新停浊酒杯。” The wind so swift, the sky so wide, apes wail and cry, Water so clear and beach so white, birds wheel and fly. The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower, The endless river rolls its waves hour after hour. 作者当时流落夔州，重九登高，心中有无限悲凉之情。前四句，作者为
• O Nature, how hair is thy face, And how lights is thy heart. • “You Heavens, give me that patience, patience I need!” 上帝，赐予我耐力，我梦寐以求的耐力吧！ -- Shakespeare: King Lear
Apostrophe
Expressed by persons
• O Captain! My Captain; our fearful trip is done. The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won… --- Walt Whitman
"Blue Moon, you saw me standing alone Without a dream in my heart Without a love of my own." (Lorenz Hart, "Blue Moon")

英语修辞学课程教学大纲版汇编

《英语修辞学》课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息1．课程编号：325025062．课程名称：英语修辞学3．英文名称：English Rhetoric4. 课程简介：《英语修辞学》是为英语专业本科高年级开设的一门专业选修课，适用于英语专业教师教育方向和应用翻译方向，于第五学期开设，主要讲授英语修辞的基本原理及其应用，以及各类英语文体的语言风格特征，旨在引导学习者全面认识英语的语体特征、文体风格及其修辞要求和技巧，从本质上了解英语语体，掌握各类文体的修辞手段和语言特点，熟悉各种修辞手法，各类英语的功能，掌握语言使用中的“常规”和变异及其在各种文体中所表现出的规律，提高语言使用中的修辞与文体意识，使学习者具备一定的文学批评和对各类文体的分析和鉴赏水平。

二、课程说明1．教学目的和要求：通过本课程的学习，使学习者较系统地了解英语修辞产生的原因及其对提高语言表现力的重要作用认识，增强对英语的理解能力，提高恰当运用英语语言的交际能力。

学会从修辞的观点出发，从英语语言现象入手，对其内涵进行分析，初步掌握对各类文体的语言进行研究、分析和比较的方法。

掌握各种主要的修辞手段，提高实践中运用英语的能力和理解与欣赏英语文体的能力。

2．与相关课程衔接：先修课程：《英语国家概况》、《基础英语》、《英语听说》、《英语阅读》、《英语写作》、《英语语法》、《英国文学》等专业必修课，以及《英语词汇学》、《西方文化入门》等选修课。

并修课程：《高级英语》、《英语语言学》、《英国文学》后续课程：《美国文学》、《学术论文写作》等必修课，《笔译1》、《笔译2》、《口译1》、《口译2》、《实用文体翻译》等专业方向课程，以及《跨文化交际》、《商务英语翻译》、《经贸口译》、《会展口译》、《计算机辅助翻译》等选修课程。

3．学时：本课程周学时为2，共开16周，讲授学时32，总学时32，共计2学分。

4．开课学期：本课程于第五学期开设5．教学方法：以教师为主导、学生为中心。

大学英语修辞学第二章培训课件

Aristotle's Modes of Persuasion
According to Aristotle, persuasion can be achieved through three modes: ethos (credibility), pathos (emotional appeal), and logos (logical reasoning). Each mode plays a vital role in effective communication.
Celebrity Endorsements
Utilizing the credibility and influence of famous personalities to promote products or causes.
Effective Call to Action
Encouraging immediate response or purchase by utilizing strong and compelling language.
Alliteration, assonance, and rhyme schemes that enhance the musicality and impact of the text.
3
Narrative Techniques
Foreshadowing, irony, and suspense that engage readers and create memorable experiences.
2
Expand Vocabulary
Increase your repertoire of words to effectively convey emotions, ideas, and arguments.

英语修辞学(Rhetoric).ppt

ຫໍສະໝຸດ 1. Simile(明喻)
拉丁语 similis (like) 1.three parts : subject (主体) reference （喻体） indicator of resemblance （比喻词） My love is like a red red rose. 2。主体和喻体一般指两个不同的事物。 John is as tall as a Maypole.五朔节花柱(庆祝五朔节围绕此柱歌舞)
五朔节欧洲传统民间节日。用以祭祀树神、谷物神、庆祝农业收获及春天的来临。历史悠久，最早起源于古代东方，后传至欧洲。每年5月1日举行。五朔节前夕，在英国、法国、瑞典的一些地区，人们通常会在家门前插上一根青树枝或栽一棵幼树，并用花冠、花束装饰起来。少女们手持树枝花环，挨家挨户去唱五朔节赞歌，祝福主人。在一些农村，每年5月1日凌晨，青年们便奏着音乐、唱着赞歌，结伴去树林砍树枝，待太阳出来后返回，将树枝插在门窗上。
6. 英语大量使用抽象名词，这类名词涵义概括，指称笼统，覆盖面广，往往有一种“虚”、“泛”、“暗”、“曲”、“隐”的魅力，因而便于用来表达复杂的思想和微妙的情绪。
The signs of the times point to the necessity of the modification of the system of administration. 管理体制需要改革，这已越来越清楚了。 No year passes now without evidence of the truth of the statement that the work of government is becoming increasingly difficult. 行政管理工作已变得越来越困难了，每年都证明确实如此。

《英语修辞学》第二章

这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来的50多个著名的哲学家和思想家聚于一堂包括柏拉图亚里士多德苏格拉底毕达哥拉斯等以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理的追求赞美人类的创造力
English Rhetoric
Chapter Two Brief History of Western Rhetoric
By Song Pingfeng
Page 9
/NewInfor/html/30370.htm • 拉斐尔最著名的壁画是为梵蒂冈宫绘制的《雅典学院》。这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来
的５０多个著名的哲学家和思想家聚于一堂，包括柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底、毕达哥拉斯等，以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理的追求，赞美人类的创造力。
• 然而，柏拉图对修辞的看法并非一成不变。海德格尔在1924-1925年讲授《智者篇》时提出，柏拉图的修辞观念有一个演变的过程，其轨迹可以通过比较三篇对话勾勒出来（Brogan：3-15）。《高尔吉亚篇》代表了早期柏拉图全盘否定修辞的态度；海德格尔认为，在《智者篇》中，柏拉图的态度有了重大变化，转而相信修辞对“不在”（non-being）或者说“存在”之外的领域的关注应当在哲学中占据一席之地，辩证（dialectic）能够克服修辞的欺骗倾向，使之为哲学服务；《斐德若篇》(Phaedrus)则是发生这一转变的关键场所。在这篇对话中，柏拉图着重探讨了真理（ aletheia ）与语言（logos）的关系。
Page 6
1.4 Some Ancient Greek Rhetoricians and their theory
(1). Corax (科拉克斯)
Corax of Syracuse and his students Tisias(蒂西亚斯，有名的捉刀人，专门为诉讼者撰写诉状) were the first rhetoricians in history. His theory: the first is a theory of how arguments should be developed from probabilities; the second is their first concept of organization of a message. According to Corax, legal arguments should consist of four parts: introductory, explanation, argumentation and conclusion. (Corax 将法律演说分成四个部分：前言，解释，论辩和结论。)

英语修辞学

英语修辞学(Rhetoric) English Figures of Speech英语修辞的一般规律与特点General principles and features of English rhetoric▪1.关系词丰富，介词、连词、关系代词和关系副词等的充分利用，使英语成为一种更为形式的语言，即以形合为主的语言。

而汉语是以意合为主的语言。

That is our policy and that is our declaration.▪这就是我们的国策。

这就是我们的宣言。

▪If winter comes,can spring be far behind?▪冬天来了，春天还会远吗？▪This is the reason why he is leaving so soon.▪这就是他所以这么快就要离开的原因。

▪ 2.英语名词用得多，汉语动词用得多。

因此，从总体修辞效果上看，英语呈静态，汉语呈动态。

▪I fell madly in love with her,and she–with me.▪我疯狂地爱上了她，她也疯狂地爱上了我。

▪A woman with fair opportunities,and without an absolute hump may marry whom she likes.▪一个女人只要不是驼背驼得厉害，机会好的话，想嫁给谁就嫁给谁。

▪Laser is one of the most sensational developments in recent years,because of its applicability to many fields of science and its adaptability to practical uses.▪激光可以应用于许多科学领域，又适合于各种实际用途，因此成了近年来轰动一时的科学成就之一。

▪ 3.英语有“物称倾向”，即主语往往是表示无生命物体的名词或表示事物的名词词组。

英语修辞学(2)

从词汇学的角度论英语新词田海鹰【摘要】：语言随着社会生活的变化而变化。

词汇作为语言中最为积极的因素对社会生活的变化尤为敏感。

二十世纪九十年代以来,社会经济、政治、科学、技术和教育领域发生了巨大的变化。

新的词语和表达方式也随着社会生活中出现的新事物、新观念而产生。

英语语言中涌现了大量反映新事物的词汇和表达手法。

本文拟从词汇学的角度,采用构词法理论及FU DGE衡量准则研究英语新词这一语言现象。

所谓新词是指新创造的词语或表达方式,或是在原有的意思上衍生新意的词语。

随着语言的发展,新词会被接纳为已有词汇的一部分,否则就会被淘汰而消失。

新词能否成为已有词汇的一部分取决于很多因素。

英语中几乎每天都会有新词产生,但却只有少数新词可能被收录到词典中成为我们日常词汇的一部分。

为什么只有这少数新词被收录?我们有没有可能判断一个新词能否得到社会的广泛认可成为既有词汇的一部分?又是哪些因素决定了新词的去留?有关新词研究的书籍和文章很多,但是大部分的研究主要针对新词构词结构,只有少数讨论新词能否被社会语言接受最终收录到词典。

本文作者通过对大量新词及其产生背景的研究论述了上述几个问题。

对于语言的学习者我们不仅仅要教授语言中已有的词汇,同样还要教给学生方法帮助他们理解英语中出现的新词新语。

水平较好的学生还应该掌握被收录到词汇中的这些新词的产生方法和构词的规则。

对于构词规则的了解有助于学生增加现有的词汇量。

为此本文拟从五个章节深入研究英语新词。

论文简介部分主要介绍了英语新词研究的目的和意义。

接下来第一章是英语新词研究的理论阐述,包括词语的定义、新词的定义以及研究的背景。

论文第二章,系统全面地介绍了英语新词产生的原因、形式及分类。

论文第三章,全面阐述了英语新词产生的途径方法;在第四章,作者用大量的文字论述了英语新词能否被社会接受并最终收录到字典中去的几个决定因素,提出了FUDGE衡量准则。

然后作者通过应用FUDGE衡量准则详细的分析了大量的最新英语词汇。

英语修辞学Teaching material 2 for Ss

Chapter 2 The Three Aesthetic Criteria in English RhetoricEnglish rhetoric has long-standing traditions tracing back to Aristotle (382-322BC) and even earlier. The three aesthetic criteria, logos, pathos and ethos, are its fundamental elements.The three aesthetic criteria discussed here are confined to their basic meanings and applications in writing and speaking, equivalent to Chinese―逻辑‖、―情感‖and ―人格‖respectively. Although they can be analyzed separately, these three appeals work together in combination toward persuasive ends.2.1 Logos2.1.1 Logos and logical thinking•Logos refers to the use of logical reasoning to persuade the audience or readers.Effective logical reasoning comes from sound logical thinking, expressed in relevant material, proper organization, coherent sentences, and words that appropriately convey one’s intended meanings. Examine the following example t aken from a student’s composition:To us Chinese, learning a foreign language is not an easy thing. After all, it is different from our mother tongue. Others can learn it well, why not we?Improved paragraph:Learning English is not an easy thing for a Chinese student like me, because English is quite different from my mother tongue in spelling, pronunciation and grammar. However, since many other Chinese students have learned English well, why can’t I?2.1.2 Formal logic and syllogism•Formal logicIn formal logic there are two basic approaches people often use for logical reasoning: deduction and induction.Deduction is the process of drawing a conclusion from propositions命题known to be true, or accepted as true, or assumed to be true. The typical expression of deductive inference is the syllogism 三段论(法).Induction is the opposite process of reasoning, the conscious mental process by which we pass from the perception of particular phenomena (things and events) to the knowledge of general truths. The sense perception is expressed logically in the singular or particular judgment.•SyllogismSyllogism represents deductive reasoning in a pattern consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. The essential feature of deduction is the necessary character of the connexion between the antecedent or premises and the consequent or conclusion. Granted the truth of the antecedent judgments, the consequent must follow; and the firmness of our assent to the latter is conditioned by that of our assent to the former.Common patterns of syllogism:1. The hypothetical syllogism:Major premise: If P, then Q If P, then QMinor premise: P Not QConclusion: Therefore Q Therefore not PExample:If the lines of a poem do not rhyme, the poem may be called blank verse; as this poem is rhymeless, you may call it blank verse.2. The either-or syllogism:Major premise: Either A or B (not both) Either A or BMinor premise: A Not AConclusion: Therefore not B Therefore BExample:We could have driven here or taken a taxi. Unfortunately our car broke that day, and so we went there by taxi.3. The categorical syllogism:Major premise: All M’s are P’sMinor premise: S is an MConclusion: Therefore S is a PExample:All men are mortal creatures. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is a mortal creature.2.2. Pathos2.2.1 Changes in the connotation of pathosOriginally, the term ―pathos‖ referred to the emotions in general which a speaker tried to arouse in the audience. In modern rhetoric, it ranges from the study of the psychology of the audience or readers to the application of technology to convince them by emotional appeals.The effects of emotional appeals include moral anger, ambition, excitement, fear, happiness, pity as well as various other feelings. By playing upon such feelings, the writer intends to change the beliefs and behavior of his or her readers.2.2.2 Pathos in use todayEffective appeals to the emotions depend upon the skillful — often witty handling of language, frequently accompanied by exposure and eloquence.•Exposure evokes moral indignation – sometimes humorously, sometimes angrily – by condemning the unjust reality or revealing the difference between how things should be and how they are.Please read a letter in your handout 1, Reading 3 that shows how an American mother resorts to this skill to move others to stand against the US unjust war in Vietnam.•Eloquence refers to language used powerfully and fluently to appeal to people’s nobler emotions--the sense of honor, love of one’s country and hometown, desire to reach toward virtue. Eloquence i s often used emotively, to express one’s emotions and evoke the sympathy of the audience on solemn occasions or issues of great significance. In this respect, the speech made by Martin Luther King, Jr., on August 28, 1963, at the March on Washington can be regarded as a fine sample of ―the emotional crescendo of an emotional day‖2.3 Ethos2.3.1 Multifaceted meanings of ethosThe three basic aspects:•It generally refers to character, sentiment, moral nature: The guiding beliefs, standards, or ideals that characterize or pervade a group, a community, a people, or an ideology; or the spirit that motivates the ideas, customs, or practices of a people, an epoch, or a region.•It refers to the complex fundamental values that underlie, permeate, or actuate major patterns of thought or behavior in any particular culture, society, or institution.•In Aristotelian philosophy, it refers to the character or personality of a human being, especially with respect to a balance between the passion and caution, or the con trast between one’s thought and action.2.3.2 Ethos in rhetoric•In modern rhetoric, ―ethos‖ demonsrates itself in the following ways:1. On serious occasion or disputes of principle, ethos takes as its basis a thorough going study of various schools of philosophical views on different values, different ways of living and different world outlooks.2. In ordinary speech or writing, ethos refers to the personal standing, academic authority, and moral qualities of the writer or speaker, used to guarantee or even raise the writer’s or speaker’s credibility and acceptability in the eyes of the readers or audience.2.4. Fallacies2.4.1 Fallacies in logical reasoningThe term ―fallacy‖ as used in logic refers to the following two cases:1. When a writer makes misleading statements by withholding facts, slanting evidence, drawing an unjustified inference, or arguing beside the point.2. When a writer’s (or speaker’s) attempt to reach a sound conclusion is thwarted because he does not know enough about a situation or because he makes a mistake in interpreting his information.•Some of the common errors in logical reasoning:Non sequitur不根据前提而下的论断:the phrase means ―it does not follow‖ and applies to errors of reasoning in which the conclusion does not follow from the evidence presented. Sometimes a step in reasoning has been omitted, and the fallacy can be corrected by supplying the missing link. But sometimes the conclusion is drawn from evidence that has no bearing on the issue.For example, once a Scot argued that Shakespeare must have been a Scot, and when asked for his evidence, he replied, ―The ability of the man warrants the assumption.‖ Reasoning of this kind is also called ―false assumption‖.Begging the question (故意回避论点时)以假定为论据的狡辩The phrase means to assume the truth of a point that needs to be proved.Examples:―This senseless language requirement should be dropped.‖―The foreign language requirement, because it is valuable, should be retained.‖These two views, contradicting each other, are both begging the question, i.e. they both assume what they should prove. There is an extended form of begging the question called ―circular reasoning‖ 循环论证.For example:―T.S. Eliot is the best 20th-century poet, because the best critics say so.‖Post hoc, ergo propter hoc:牵强附会The phrase in Latin refers to the generalization from insufficient evidence as ―based on this supposition, therefore, on account of it‖. For example:―Since they abolish ed capital punishment, the crime rate there has increased, which tells that capital punishment must be restored.‖This conclusion is not well grounded, for although the abolition can be a factor to the crime increase, other factors, such as economic depression and increase of unemployment, must also be observed.2.4.2 Fallacies related to pathos•Fallacious use of pathos arises chiefly from two types of relations:1. When one lacks evidence, and tries to please people’s ears by emotional appeal.2. When one is poor in logical reasoning, and resorts to sophistry or merely personal attack to divert the readers’ or audience’s attention from the grounds of the argument.•Two common errors in the use of pathos:1. Ignoring the question:This is a broad term for various irrelevant arguments. Some people merely resorts to using fine words or other emotional means to persuade the audience to arrive at a judgment without examining the evidence. What a governor said in defense of his administration can be taken as an example:My administration is not corrupt because the state budget is balanced, and my devotion and dedication to the fine people of this great state is therefore evident.2. Argument about a person:This fallacy is also called ―Personal attack‖ or ―Argument Ad Hominem‖, which resorts to abusing the character of an opponent rather than disputing his opinion.Example:The public should not take seriously Dr. Mason’s plan for upgrading county health service. He is a former alcoholic whose wife recently divorced him.2.4.3 Fallacious use of ethos•Blind worship of one’s own standard of ethos1. Since there are differences in ethos in different regions, different c ountries and different groups of people, the correct attitude is to respect each other, and seek the common ground while reserving differences, otherwise there will be disputes, quarrels, conflicts and wars.2. Certain people of power tend to compel other people and even other countries to accept their standard of ethos. For example, according to Hitler, his nationality and his ideology were superior to all others and had the right to lord it over them.•The practice of ―sham ethos‖ 虚假的1. Business advertisements are important means to promote sales, but there are people who resort to false propaganda in their ad campaigns. For example, some companies declare their products are a ―famous brand‖ or fabricate names which sound or appear similar to t hose of world fame. However, such dealing is dishonest and will definitely cause troubles.2. Name cards are useful in communication, but some people print a long list of titles and positions on a small card so as to raise their status. However, this may produce a negative effect, because some of the titles or positions are not so significant.Assignment: See your Handout 1: Exercise Two。

英语修辞学(打印版)

英语修辞手法1) Simile：(明喻）It is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic (特性)in common. To make the comparison, words like as, as...as, as if and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other. For example, As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country./ This elephant is like a snake as anybody can see.2) Metaphor：(暗喻）It is like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. For example, the world is a stage./ The diamond department was the heart and center of the store.3) Analogy: (类比）It is also a form of comparison, but unlike simile or metaphor which usually uses comparison on one point of resemblance, analogy draws a parallel between two unlike things that have several common qualities or points of resemblance.4) Personification: (拟人）It gives human form of feelings to animals, or life and personal attributes(赋予) to inanimate(无生命的) objects, or to ideas and abstractions(抽象). For example, the wind whistled through the trees.5) Hyperbole: (夸张）It is the deliberate use of overstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis. For instance, he almost died laughing.6) Understatement: (含蓄陈述）It is the opposite of hyperbole, or overstatement. It achieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately(故意地) understating it, impressing the listener or the reader more by what is merely implied or left unsaid than by bare statement. For instance, It is no laughing matter.7) Euphemism: (委婉）It is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive(无冒犯) expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. For instance, we refer to "die" as” pass away".8) Metonymy (转喻）It is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the mane of one thing for that of another. For instance, the pen (words) is mightier than the sword (forces). 借代（metonymy）是指两种不同事物并不相似，但又密不可分，因而常用其中一种事物名称代替另一种。

英语修辞学Lecture 2

The diamond department was the heart and center of the store.
以下为英语Metaphor的常见运用格式： 1. 名词型 E.g All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players. Money is a bottomless sea, in which honour, conscience, and truth may be drowned.
（三）、用as if或as though表示比喻关系 seem 虚拟句型, 最常见的是as if/though Eg: He was a beautiful horse that looked as though he had come out of a painting by Vealsquez.
(3)用remind…of表示比喻关系本体与喻体之间以“remind…of”作桥梁，把二者联系起来，触景生情。 1．She reminds me of a tigress 2．His nose was particularly white and his large nostrils，correspondingly dark，reminds me of an oboe when they dilated. 3．These red roses remind him of his lovely and dear wife ten years ago．
英语Metaphor的运用格式灵活多样，它可以体现在任何句子成分上，如主语、谓语、表语、定语、宾语或状语。在表达上它可以是一个单词、一个词组或一个句子，甚至是一个段落。 E.g Hope is a good breakfast, but it is a bad supper. Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. German guns and German planes rained down bombs, shells and bullets...