克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解(第11章 贸易政策中的争议)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第19章宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调19.1复习笔记1．支持浮动汇率制的观点（1）货币政策自主性在布雷顿森林体系的固定汇率制度下，除美国以外的其他国家极少有机会运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡。
由于要抵消资本流动的影响，货币政策的作用被弱化了。
但是，如果各国中央银行不再为固定汇率而被迫干预货币市场，各国政府就能够运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡，并且各国不再会因为外部因素导致本国出现通货膨胀或通货紧缩。
浮动汇率制的提倡者认为，如果中央银行不必再承担稳定其币值的义务，那么它们将恢复对货币的控制。
货币贬值会降低本国产品的相对价格，从而使外国对本国产品的需求增加，进而减少本国的失业。
同样，在经济过热的国家中，中央银行可以通过压缩货币供给来抑制过热的经济活动，而不必担心过多的国际储备流入会破坏其稳定币值的努力。
通过加强对货币政策的控制，各国可以排除那些扭曲国际支付的障碍。
浮动汇率制的提倡者还认为，各国如果使用浮动汇率，就能够选择自己愿意接受的长期通货膨胀率，而不再会被动地引进国外的通货膨胀率。
支持浮动汇率最为有力的理论之一就是认为它能够通过汇率的自动调整来隔绝国外持续性通货膨胀带来的影响。
产生这种隔绝的机制是购买力平价。
（2）对称性浮动汇率制的支持者认为：浮动汇率制可以消除类似布雷顿森林体系所造成的不对称。
由于各国不再将本国货币钉住对美元的汇率，也就不必因此而持有美元作储备。
所以，各国都可以自主决定本国的货币状况。
同样，美国在运用货币政策或财政政策改变美元汇率时，不会再遇到特别的阻碍。
最后，在全球范围内，所有国家的汇率都将由市场而不是由政府决定。
（3）汇率自动稳定器功能与固定汇率相比，浮动汇率相对减少了需求冲击对就业的影响，从而有利于经济稳定。
当对本国产品和劳务的需求下降时，浮动汇率下的货币贬值，会使本国产品和劳务的价格下降，部分地减轻了这种需求下降的不利影响。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch05
Chapter 5The Standard Trade ModelChapter OrganizationA Standard Model of a Trading EconomyProduction Possibilities and Relative SupplyRelative Prices and DemandThe Welfare Effect of Changes in the Terms of TradeDetermining Relative PricesEconomic Growth: A Shift of the RS CurveGrowth and the Production Possibility FrontierRelative Supply and the Terms of TradeInternational Effects of GrowthCase Study: Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing Countries Hurt Advanced Nations? International Transfers of Income: Shifting the RD CurveThe Transfer ProblemEffects of a Transfer on the Terms of TradePresumptions about the Terms of Trade Effects of TransfersCase Study: The Transfer Problem and the Asian CrisisTariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RDRelative Demand and Supply Effects of a TariffEffects of an Export SubsidyImplications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?SummaryAppendix: Representing International Equilibrium with Offer CurvesDeriving a Country’s Offer CurveInternational EquilibriumChapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 17Chapter OverviewPrevious chapters have highlighted specific sources of comparative advantage which give rise to international trade. This chapter presents a general model which admits previous models as special cases. This “standard trade model” is the workhorse of international trade theory and can be used to address a wide range of issues. Some of these issues, such as the welfare and distributional effects of economic growth, transfers between nations, and tariffs and subsidies on traded goods are considered in this chapter. The standard trade model is based upon four relationships. First, an economy will produce at the point where the production possibilities curve is tangent to the relative price line (called the isovalue line). Second, indifference curves describe the tastes of an economy, and the consumption point for that economy is found at the tangency of the budget line and the highest indifference curve. These two relationships yield the familiar general equilibrium trade diagram for a small economy (one which takes as given the terms of trade), where the consumption point and production point are the tangencies of the isovalue line with the highest indifference curve and the production possibilities frontier, respectively.You may want to work with this standard diagram to demonstrate a number of basic points. First, an autarkic economy must produce what it consumes, which determines the equilibrium price ratio; and second, opening an economy to trade shifts the price ratio line and unambiguously increases welfare. Third, an improvement in the terms of trade increases welfare in the economy. Fourth, it is straightforward to move from a small country analysis to a two country analysis by introducing a structure of world relative demand and supply curves which determine relative prices.These relationships can be used in conjunction with the Rybczynski and the Stolper-Samuelson Theorems from the previous chapter to address a range of issues. For example, you can consider whether the dramatic economic growth of countries like Japan and Korea has helped or hurt the United States as a whole, and also identify the classes of individuals within the United States who have been hurt by the particular growth biases of these countries. In teaching these points, it might be interesting and useful to relate them to current events. For example, you can lead a class discussion of the implications for the United States of the provision of forms of technical and economic assistance to the emerging economies around the world or the ways in which a world recession can lead to a fall in demand for U.S. export goods.The example provided in the text considers the popular arguments in the media that growth in Japan or Korea hurts the United States. The analysis presented in this chapter demonstrates that the bias of growth is important in determining welfare effects rather than the country in which growth occurs. The existence of biased growth, and the possibility of immiserizing growth is discussed. The Relative Supply (RS) and Relative Demand (RD) curves illustrate the effect of biased growth on the terms of trade. The new terms of trade line can be used with the general equilibrium analysis to find the welfare effects of growth. A general principle which emerges is that a country which experiences export-biased growth will have a deterioration in its terms of trade, while a country which experiences import-biased growth has an improvement in its terms of trade. A case study points out that growth in the rest of the world has made other countries more like the United States. This import-biased growth has worsened the terms of trade for the United States. The second issue addressed in the context of the standard trade model is the effect of international transfers. The salient point here is the direction, if any, in which the relative demand curve shifts in response to the redistribution of income from a transfer. A transfer worsens the donor’s ter ms of trade if it has a higher marginal propensity to consume its export good than the recipient. The presence of non-traded goods tends to reinforce the deterioration of terms of trade for the donor country. The case study attendant to this issue involves the deterioration of many Asian countries’ terms of trade due to the large capital withdrawals at the end of the 1990s.18 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThe third area to which the standard trade model is applied are the effects of tariffs and export subsidies on welfare and terms of trade. The analysis proceeds by recognizing that tariffs or subsidies shift both the relative supply and relative demand curves. A tariff on imports improves the terms of trade, expressed in external prices, while a subsidy on exports worsens terms of trade. The size of the effect depends upon the size of the country in the world. Tariffs and subsidies also impose distortionary costs upon the economy. Thus, if a country is large enough, there may be an optimum, non-zero tariff. Export subsidies, however, only impose costs upon an economy. Intranationally, tariffs aid import-competing sectors and hurt export sectors while subsidies have the opposite effect. An appendix presents offer curve diagrams and explains this mode of analysis.Answers to Textbook Problems1.Note how welfare in both countries increases as the two countries move from productionpatterns governed by domestic prices (dashed line) to production patterns governed by worldprices (straight line).2.3. An increase in the terms of trade increases welfare when the PPF is right-angled. The production pointis the corner of the PPF. The consumption point is the tangency of the relative price line and the highest indifference curve. An improvement in the terms of trade rotates the relative price line about its intercept with the PPF rectangle (since there is no substitution of immobile factors, the production point stays fixed). The economy can then reach a higher indifference curve. Intuitively, although there is no supply response, the economy receives more for the exports it supplies and pays less for the imports it purchases.Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 19 4. The difference from the standard diagram is that the indifference curves are right angles rather thansmooth curves. Here, a terms of trade increase enables an economy to move to a higher indifference curve. The income expansion path for this economy is a ray from the origin. A terms of tradeimprovement moves the consumption point further out along the ray.5. The terms of trade of Japan, a manufactures (M) exporter and a raw materials (R) importer, is the worldrelative price of manufactures in terms of raw materials (p M/p R). The terms of trade change can be determined by the shifts in the world relative supply and demand (manufactures relative to raw materials) curves. Note that in the following answers, world relative supply (RS) and relative demand (RD) are always M relative to R. We consider all countries to be large, such that changes affect the world relative price.a. Oil supply disruption from the Middle East decreases the supply of raw materials, which increasesthe world relative supply. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of t rade.b. Korea’s increased automobile production increases the supply of manufactures, which increasesthe world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price ofmanufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of tr ade.c. U.S. development of a substitute for fossil fuel decreases the demand for raw materials. Thisincreases world RD, and the world relative demand curve shifts out, increasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and improving Japan’s terms of trade. This occurs even if no fusion reactors are installed in Japan since world demand for raw materials falls.d. A harvest failure in Russia decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the world RS.The world relative supply curve shifts o ut. Also, Russia’s demand for manufactures decreases,which reduces world demand so that the world relative demand curve shifts in. These forcesdecrease the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorate Japan’s terms of trade.e. A reduction in Japan’s tariff on raw materials will raise its internal relative price of manufactures.This price change will increase Japan’s RS and decrease Japan’s RD, which increases the worldRS and decreases the world RD (i.e., world RS shifts out and world RD shifts in). The worldrelative price of manufactures declines and Japan’s terms of trade deteriorate.6. The declining price of services relative to manufactured goods shifts the isovalue line clockwise sothat relatively fewer services and more manufactured goods are produced in the United States, thus reducing U.S. welfare.20 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition7. These results acknowledge the biased growth which occurs when there is an increase in one factor ofproduction. An increase in the capital stock of either country favors production of Good X, while an increase in the labor supply favors production of Good Y. Also, recognize the Heckscher-Ohlin result that an economy will export that good which uses intensively the factor which that economy has in relative abundance. Country A exports Good X to Country B and imports Good Y from Country B.The possibility of immiserizing growth makes the welfare effects of a terms of trade improvement due to export-biased growth ambiguous. Import-biased growth unambiguously improves welfare for the growing country.a. A’s terms of trade worsen, A’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and B’s welfareincreases.b. A’s terms of trade improve, A’s welfare increases and B’s welfare decreases.c. B’s terms of trade improve, B’s welfare increases and A’s welfare decreases.d. B’s terms of trade worsen, B’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and A’s welfareincreases.8. Immiserizing growth occurs when the welfare deteriorating effects of a worsening in an economy’sterms of trade swamp the welfare improving effects of growth. For this to occur, an economy must undergo very biased growth, and the economy must be a large enough actor in the world economy such that its actions spill over to adversely alter the terms of trade to a large degree. This combination of events is unlikely to occur in practice.9. India opening should be good for the U.S. if it reduces the relative price of goods that China sends tothe U.S. and hence increases the relative price of goods that the U.S. exports. Obviously, any sector in the U.S. hurt by trade with China would be hurt again by India, but on net, the U.S. wins. Note that here we are making different assumptions about what India produces and what is tradable than we are in Question #6. Here we are assuming India exports products the U.S. currently imports and China currently exports. China will lose by having the relative price of its export good driven down by the increased production in India.10. Aid which must be spent on exports increases the demand for those export goods and raises their pricerelative to other goods. There will be a terms of trade deterioration for the recipient country. This can be viewed as a polar case of the effect of a transfer on the terms of trade. Here, the marginal propensity to consume the export good by the recipient country is 1. The donor benefits from a terms of trade improvement. As with immiserizing growth, it is theoretically possible that a transfer actuallyworsens the welfare of the recipient.11. When a country subsidizes its exports, the world relative supply and relative demand schedules shiftsuch that the terms of trade for the country worsen. A countervailing import tariff in a second country exacerbates this effect, moving the terms of trade even further against the first country. The firstcountry is worse off both because of the deterioration of the terms of trade and the distortionsintroduced by the new internal relative prices. The second country definitely gains from the firstcountry’s export su bsidy, and may gain further from its own tariff. If the second country retaliated with an export subsidy, then this would offset the initial improvement in the terms of trade; the“retaliatory” export subsidy definitely helps the first country and hurts th e second.。
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？6．答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
7．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
8．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
克鲁格曼国际经济学中文版第11章
全球化运动出现了。
• 出口产业工人工资低
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 11-22
环境与文化议题
• 出口产业环境标准在发展中国家比在发达国家要低
得多
• 贸易协议中环境标准达成一致会导致:
– 环境的改善 – 贫困国家潜在出口产业倒闭
• 全球化已经使世界文化趋同
– 举例: 到处都可以找到麦当劳的踪影
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 11-19
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 11-11
贸易政策激进派的复杂争论
波音
表 11-3: 两家企业竞争：另一种情况 空客
生产
不生产
生产
-20
0
5
125
100
0
不生
产
0
0
均衡结果是 A（空客）=0 and B（波音）=125; 波音生产，
空客不生产。
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 11-5
贸易政策激进派的复杂争论
• 政府支持高科技产业的情况
– 应该对具有外部性的活动给与补贴，而不是所有的 活动。
– 比如，用于生产的研发活动就应该得到补贴。
• 外部性有多重要?
– 外部性很难根据经验衡量. – 即使在像美国这样大的国家，国家范围内可用性问
第十一章
贸易政策论战
章节安排
导言 贸易政策激进派的复杂争论 全球化与劳动力低工资 提要
克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案
Chapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income DistributionChapter OrganizationA Model of a Two-Factor EconomyPrices and ProductionChoosing the Mix of InputsFactor Prices and Goods PricesResources and OutputEffects of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies Relative Prices and the Pattern of TradeTrade and the Distribution of IncomeFactor Price EqualizationTrade and Income Distribution in the Short RunCase Study: North-South Trade and Income InequalityThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThe Gains from Trade, RevisitedOptimal Trade PolicyIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsBox: Income Distribution and the Beginnings of Trade Theory Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelTesting the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelImplications of the TestsSummaryAppendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input Choices Choice of TechniqueGoods Prices and Factor PricesChapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade which will arise when countries have different endowments of factors of production, such as labor, capital, and land. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are intensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources, and tends to lead to equalization across countries of prices of the factors of production. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods which are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (The appendix develops the model when the production functions have variable coefficients.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good which uses that factor intensively.The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the “Baby Boom” generation differ from the pattern of production for post Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior?The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. This is demonstrated by showing that, using the relative supply and relative demand analysis, the country relatively abundantly endowed with a certain factor will produce that factor more cheaply than the other country. International trade leads to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the results from the Stolper-Samuelson effect demonstrate that owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but ownersof a country’s scarce factors lose. The extension of this result is the important Factor Price Equalization Theorem, which states that trade in (and thus price equalization of) goods leads to an equalization in the rewards to factors across countries. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.The chapter also introduces some political economy considerations. First, it briefly notes that many of the results regarding trade and income distribution assume full and swift adjustment in the economy. In the short run, though, labor and capital that are currently in a particular industry may have sector-specific skills or knowledge and are being forced to move to another sector, and this involves costs. Thus, even if a shift in relative prices were to improve the lot of labor, for those laborers who must change jobs, there is a short run cost.The core of the political economy discussion focuses on the fact that when opening to trade, some may benefit and some may lose, but the expansion of economic opportunity should allow society to redistribute some of the gains towards those who lose, making sure everyone benefits on net. In practice, though, those who lose are often more concentrated and hence have more incentive to try to affect policy. Thus, trade policy is not always welfare maximizing, but may simply reflect the preferences of the loudest and best organized in society.Empirical results concerning the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, beginning with the Leontief paradox and extending to current research, do not support its predictions concerning resource endowments explaining overall patterns of trade, though some patterns do match the broad outlines of its theory (e.g., theUnited States imports more low-skill products from Bangladesh and more high-skill products from Germany). This observation has motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be exploredin later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries as well if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between another country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose.2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the lengthof the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray from each of the two cornersrepresenting the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the questionconcerning the ratios of the production coefficients. The question states that a LC/a TC= 20 anda LF/a TF= 5.Since a LC/a TC= (L C/Q C)/(T C/Q C) =L C/T C we have L C= 20T C. Using the same reasoning,a LF/a TF= (L F/Q F)/(T F/Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F= 5T F. We cansolve this algebraically since L=L C+ L F= 600 and T=T C+ T F= 60.The solution is L C= 400, T C= 20, L F= 200 and T F= 40.b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor, but the slopes of the raysfrom the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different cases are as follows.L= 800: T C= 33.33, L C= 666.67, T F= 26.67, L F= 133.33L= 1000: T C= 46.67, L C= 933.33, T F= 13.33, L F= 66.67L= 1200: T C= 60, L C= 1200, T F= 0, L F= 0. (complete specialization).c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, orthere would be unemployment.3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter 3. What matters is not the absolute abundanceof factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. Thisresult does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on theowners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses fromtrade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from theHeckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. In the short run, certainunskilled unions may gain or lose from trade depending on in which sector they work, but in theory, in the longer run, the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin model will dominate.5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistentwith skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goodsoverall. In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector specific skills who will facetransition costs. There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the U.S., making the entire country better off on average.Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade which is making the nation as a whole better off. In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the U.S. blocked the programming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensivein factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, whichhas a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found for the world as a whole the correlation between factorendowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ e xports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7. If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be moresuccessful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled workercould earn twice what lower-skilled workers do, and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解（第11章贸易政策中的争议）【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解（第11章贸易政策中的争议）【圣才出品】第11章贸易政策中的争议一、概念题1．以邻为壑的政策（beggar-thy-neighbor policies）答：以邻为壑的政策是指以牺牲别国的利益来提高本国福利的政策，即当一个国家采取某种政策或行动的时候，事实上其得到的好处来自于另一个国家的损失，一个国家所得到的，最终会是另一个国家所失去的。
从货币角度来说，本国货币扩张会引起汇率贬值，净出口增加，从而增加产出与就业，但是本国增加净出口对应着国外贸易余额的恶化。
本国货币贬值使需求从国外商品转移到本国商品上，国外的产出与就业会因此下降。
正是由于这个原因，由贬值引起的贸易余额的变动就是以邻为壑的政策，它是输出失业，或以损害其他国家来创造本国就业的一种方式。
本国福利的提高是以牺牲别国利益为代价的，因此这一政策很容易引起别国的报复和贸易战的爆发，最终损害各方的利益。
从国际贸易角度来说，战略性贸易政策就是一种以邻为壑的政策。
战略性贸易政策通过鼓励国内特定产品的出口和限制国外特定产品的进口，来保持本国在世界市场上的竞争优势，虽然使本国受益，但使外国受到了损失，本国也面临着受到外国报复的问题。
反之，如果外国的净出口增加，相当于本国消费者购买了很多外国的商品。
这样，对本国该产业的产品需求的下降就是对本国的该产业的一个冲击。
这种冲击会阻碍对其进行的投资和经营，从而使得这个产业的状况变坏，进而影响本国经济。
总之，以邻为壑的政策将引发贸易战从而使得各方均受到损害。
2．外部性（externalities）答：外部性是指当某个企业的经济行为（或者某个人的消费行为），经过非价格手段，直接地、不可避免地影响了其他企业的生产（或者其他人的效用），并且成为后者自己所不能加以控制的情况时，对前者来说就存在着外部性问题。
外部性可以分为正外部性和负外部性。
正外部性是指某个经济行为主体的行为使他人或者整个社会受益，而受益者无须花费代价；负外部性是指某经济行为主体的行为引起他人成本的增加或者效用的减少。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解 第12章~第14章【圣才出品】
第3篇汇率与开放经济的宏观经济学第12章国民收入核算与国际收支平衡12.1复习笔记1．国民收入账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是一国的国民生产总值（GNP），它是一国的生产要素在一定时期内所生产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究一国产出时所用的基本度量手段，由花费在最终产品上的支出的市场价值量加总而得到。
GNP的支出与劳动、资本以及其他生产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能用途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私人消费的数额）、投资（私人企业为进行再生产而留下的用于购买厂房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使用的数额）和经常项目余额（对外净出口的商品和服务的数额）。
（2）国民收入国民收入等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移支付，再减去间接商业税。
即：国民收入＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移支付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收入的恒等关系完全成立，必须对GNP的定义作一定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使用过程中由于磨损而引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收入。
为了计算一定时期的国民收入，必须从GNP 中减去这一时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民生产净值（NNP）。
②一国的收入可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移支付。
单边转移支付的例子包括向居住在国外的退休公民支付养老金、赔偿支付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移支付是一国收入的一部分，但不是一国产出的一部分，因此，净单边转移支付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收入。
③国民收入取决于生产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所支付的价格。
但是，这两组价格并不是完全一致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的支付大于销售者的收入，导致GNP被高估，超过了国民收入。
这部分税收被称为间接商业税。
在计算国民收入时，这部分间接商业税必须从GNP中减去。
（3）GDP大多数国家采用国内生产总值（GDP）作为国民经济活动的主要指标，来度量一国境内的生产量。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(规模经济、不完全竞争和国际贸易)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第6章规模经济、不完全竞争和国际贸易6.1复习笔记1．规模经济（1）规模经济和国际贸易①规模经济的表现规模经济表现为生产规模越大，生产效率越高，产出的增长大于投入的增长。
表6-1列出了某一行业的投入产出关系，且该产品的生产只需要劳动这一种投入。
从表中可以看出，生产10件产品需要15小时的劳动，而生产25件产品只需要30个小时的劳动。
规模经济表现为：劳动投入增加1倍（从15小时增加到30小时），产出却增加了1.5倍（从10件增加到25件）。
表6-1某一假定行业的投入产出关系②规模经济是国际贸易的动因之一假定世界上只有A和B两个国家，二者都具有生产这种产品的同样技术，最初都生产10个单位。
根据表6-1，该产量在每个国家均要15小时的劳动投入，即全世界用30个小时来生产20单位产品。
但是，现在假定该新产品的生产集中到一个国家，比如说A国，且A国在这一行业也投入30个小时的劳动。
然而，在一个国家内投入30个小时的劳动，却能生产出25件产品。
显然，生产集中到A国可以使得世界以同样的劳动投入多产出25%的产品。
可见，各国可以用比以往更有效的规模专业化地生产有限类别的产品；同时，它们之间的相互贸易又使得消费所有产品成为可能。
（2）规模经济和市场结构①规模经济的分类a．外部规模经济，指单位产品成本取决于整个行业规模而非单个厂商规模的规模经济类型。
b．内部规模经济，指单位产品成本取决于单个厂商的规模而不是其所在的行业规模的规模经济类型。
②规模经济对市场结构的影响外部的和内部的规模经济对市场结构具有不同的影响。
一个只存在外部规模经济的行业（即大厂商没有优势）一般由许多相对较小的厂商构成，且处于完全竞争的状态；相反，存在内部规模经济的行业中，大厂商比小厂商更具有成本优势，就形成了不完全竞争的市场结构。
外部规模经济和内部规模经济都是国际贸易的重要原因。
但是，由于它们对市场结构的影响不同，下面将对它们进行分别讨论。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解(发展中国家的贸易政策)【圣才出品】
十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台第10章发展中国家的贸易政策10.1 复习笔记1．进口替代战略（1）含义及特征进口替代战略又称内向型发展战略，其基本特征是以国内生产的工业制成品代替进口品，满足国内需求，并以此带动国民经济增长。
（2）一般做法①首先发展相对简易的日用工业，然后发展重化工业。
②压缩政府的不必要开支，增加生产性投资比重。
③对建立替代工业所必须的机器设备、中间品或原料进口采取关税减免和政府补贴的优惠政策。
④通过关税、非关税壁垒以及高估本国币值的方式，限制一般工业品进口，同时保证资本品以较低价格进口。
（3）幼稚工业论（幼稚工业论是进口替代战略的指导思想）①含义发展中国家具有制造业的潜在的比较优势，但发展中国家新建的制造工业最初却不能与发达国家已经成熟完善的制造业竞争。
为了使新成长的制造业获得立足之地，政府应该暂时地给予支持，直到它们足够强大，能够参与国际竞争为止。
②注意之处十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台a．试图从现在就进入未来才会具有比较优势的产业，并不总能得到好处。
b．如果政府保护本身有助于培养制造业的竞争力，那么保护才是值得的。
反之，则不值得。
总之，只有存在某种国内市场失灵的情况下，幼稚工业论才能成为政府干预的有效论据。
③市场失灵幼稚工业是否需要保护取决于幼稚工业的保护必须与一种具体的市场失灵相联系，这种市场失灵会使得私有市场不能以应有的速度发展这一产业。
有两种类型的市场失灵可以作为保护幼稚工业的依据：不完全资本市场和无偿占用问题。
a．不完全资本市场作为保护幼稚工业的依据认为，如果一个发展中国家没有一整套金融机构可以使得传统部门的储蓄用于新成长部门的投资，那么新工业部门的增长将会受这些工业当前盈利能力的限制。
最优政策是建立更完善的资本市场。
但是，由于对这些幼稚工业的保护可以提高利润，从而使其更快成长，所以保护幼稚工业可以作为次优的政策选择。
b．无偿占用问题的思想是：新产业产生的社会福利没有得到补偿。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch08
Chapter 8The Instruments of Trade PolicyChapter OrganizationBasic Tariff AnalysisSupply, Demand, and Trade in a Single IndustryEffects of a TariffMeasuring the Amount of ProtectionCosts and Benefits of a TariffConsumer and Producer SurplusMeasuring the Costs and BenefitsOther Instruments of Trade PolicyExport Subsidies: TheoryCase Study: Europe’s Common Agricultural PolicyImport Quotas: TheoryCase Study: An Import Quota in Practice: U.S. SugarVoluntary Export RestraintsCase Study: A Voluntary Export Restraint in Practice: Japanese Autos Local Content RequirementsBox: American Buses, Made in HungaryOther Trade Policy InstrumentsThe Effects of Trade Policy: A SummarySummaryAppendix I: Tariff Analysis in General EquilibriumA Tariff in a Small CountryA Tariff in a Large CountryAppendix II: Tariffs and Import Quotas in the Presence of Monopoly The Model with Free TradeThe Model with a TariffThe Model with an Import QuotaComparing a Tariff with a QuotaChapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 33Chapter OverviewThis chapter and the next three focus on international trade policy. Students will have heard various arguments for and against restrictive trade practices in the media. Some of these arguments are sound and some are clearly not grounded in fact. This chapter provides a framework for analyzing the economic effects of trade policies by describing the tools of trade policy and analyzing their effects on consumers and producers in domestic and foreign countries. Case studies discuss actual episodes of restrictive trade practices. An instructor might try to underscore the relevance of these issues by having students scan newspapers and magazines for other timely examples of protectionism at work.The analysis presented here takes a partial equilibrium view, focusing on demand and supply in one market, rather than the general equilibrium approach followed in previous chapters. Import demand and export supply curves are derived from domestic and foreign demand and supply curves. There are a number of trade policy instruments analyzed in this chapter using these tools. Some of the important instruments of trade policy include specific tariffs, defined as taxes levied as a fixed charge for each unit of a good imported; ad valorem tariffs, levied as a fraction of the value of the imported good; export subsidies, which are payments given to a firm or industry that ships a good abroad; import quotas, which are direct restrictions on the quantity of some good that may be imported; voluntary export restraints, which are quotas on trading that are imposed by the exporting country instead of the importing country; and local content requirements, which are regulations that require that some specified fraction of a good is produced domestically.The import supply and export demand analysis demonstrates that the imposition of a tariff drives a wedge between prices in domestic and foreign markets, and increases prices in the country imposing the tariff and lowers the price in the other country by less than the amount of the tariff. This contrasts with most textbook presentations which make the small country assumption that the domestic internal price equals the world price times one plus the tariff rate. The actual protection provided by a tariff willnot equal the tariff rate if imported intermediate goods are used in the production of the protected good. The proper measurement, the effective rate of protection, is described in the text and calculated for a sample problem.The analysis of the costs and benefits of trade restrictions require tools of welfare analysis. The text explains the essential tools of consumer and producer surplus. Consumer surplus on each unit sold is defined as the difference between the actual price and the amount that consumers would have been willing to pay for the product. Geometrically, consumer surplus is equal to the area under the demand curve and above the price of the good. Producer surplus is the difference between the minimum amount for which a producer is willing to sell his product and the price which he actually receives. Geometrically, producer surplus is equal to the area above the supply curve and below the price line. These tools are fundamental to the student’s understanding of the implications of trade polici es and should be developed carefully. The costs of a tariff include distortionary efficiency losses in both consumption and production. A tariff provides gains from terms of trade improvement when and if it lowers the foreign export price. Summing the areas in a diagram of internal demand and supply provides a method for analyzing the net loss or gain from a tariff.Other instruments of trade policy can be analyzed with this method. An export subsidy operates in exactly the reverse fashion of an import tariff. An import quota has similar effects as an import tariff upon prices and quantities, but revenues, in the form of quota rents, accrue to foreign producers of the protected good. Voluntary export restraints are a form of quotas in which import licenses are held by foreign governments. Local content requirements raise the price of imports and domestic goods and do not result in either government revenue or quota rents.34 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThroughout the chapter the analysis of different trade restrictions are illustrated by drawing upon specific episodes. Europe’s common agricultural policy provides and example of export subsidies in action. The case study corresponding to quotas describes trade restrictions on U.S. sugar imports. Voluntary export restraints are discussed in the context of Japanese auto sales to the United States. The oil import quota in the United States in the 1960’s provides an example of a local content scheme.There are two appendices to this chapter. Appendix I uses a general equilibrium framework to analyze the impact of a tariff, departing from the partial equilibrium approach taken in the chapter. When a small country imposes a tariff, it shifts production away from its exported good and toward the imported good. Consumption shifts toward the domestically produced goods. Both the volume of trade and welfare of the country decline. A large country imposing a tariff can improve its terms of trade by an amount potentially large enough to offset the production and consumption distortions. For a large country, a tariff may be welfare improving.Appendix II discusses tariffs and import quotas in the presence of a domestic monopoly. Free trade eliminates the monopoly power of a domestic producer and the monopolist mimics the actions of a firm in a perfectly competitive market, setting output such that marginal cost equals world price. A tariff raises domestic price. The monopolist, still facing a perfectly elastic demand curve, sets output such that marginal cost equals internal price. A monopolist faces a downward sloping demand curve under a quota.A quota is not equivalent to a tariff in this case. Domestic production is lower and internal price higher when a particular level of imports is obtained through the imposition of a quota rather than a tariff.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The import demand equation, MD, is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the homedemand equation. This results in MD= 80 - 40 ⨯P. Without trade, domestic prices and quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2. a. Foreign’s export supply curve, XS, is XS=-40 + 40⨯P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b. When trade occurs, export supply is equal to import demand, XS=MD. Thus, using theequations from Problems 1 and 2a, P= 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 ⨯ (P+ t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: Insolving these problems, you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD= 80 - 40 ⨯(1 + t)P.) The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving,we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from thefree trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b. andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8.1.Figure 8.1Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 35where the areas in the figure are:a.55(1.75 - 1.50) -0.5(55 - 50)(1.75 - 1.50) = 13.125b. 0.5(55 - 50)(1.75 - 1.50) = 0.625c. (65 - 55)(1.75 - 1.50) = 2.50d. 0.5(70 - 65)(1.75 - 1.50) = 0.625e. (65 - 55)(1.50 - 1.25) = 2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+ b+ c+ d) =-16.875. Producer surplus change: a= 13.125.Government revenue change: c+ e= 5. Efficiency losses b+ d are exceeded by terms of tradegain e. (Note: In the calculations for the a, b, and d areas, a figure of 0.5 shows up. This isbecause we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangledefined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.)4. Using the same solution methodology as in Problem 3, when the home country is very small relativeto the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The smallcountry is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now$36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal home price is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90, and the volume of trade is 18.20.When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of 0.5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large.In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+ d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example, the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. ERP = (200 ⨯ 1.50 - 200)/100 = 100%6. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods.Here, 55% of the cost can be imported, suggesting with no distortion, home value added would be 45%. A 15% increase in the price of ethanol, though, means home value added could be as high as 60%. Effective rate of protection = (V t-V w)/V w, where V t is the value added in the presence of trade policies, and V w is the value added without trade distortions. In this case, we have (60 - 45)/45 = 33% effective rate of protection.7. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the newworld price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit,becomes XS=-40 + 40(1 + 0.5) ⨯P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2)⨯ 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by 7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 ⨯ 0.3 + 0.5 (6⨯ 0.3) = 21.9, while Home producers surplus falls by 44 ⨯ 0.3 + 0.5(6 ⨯ 0.3) =14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.36 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition8. a. False, unemployment has more to do with labor market issues and the business cycle than withtariff policy.b. False, the opposite is true because tariffs by large countries can actually reduce world priceswhich helps offset their effects on consumers.c. This kind of policy might reduce automobile production and Mexico, but also would increase theprice of automobiles in the United States, and would result in the same welfare loss associatedwith any quota.9. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting theimport of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) ⨯ 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is 0.5 ⨯ 100 bags ⨯ $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is 0.5 ⨯ 50 bags ⨯ $10 per bag = $250.10. The reason is largely that the benefits of these policies accrue to a small group of people and thecosts are spread out over many people. Thus, those that benefit care far more deeply about these policies. These typical political economy problems associated with trade policy are probably even more troublesome in agriculture, where there are long standing cultural reasons for farmers andfarming communities to want to hold onto their way of life, making the interests even moreentrenched than they would normally be.11. It would improve the income distribution within the economy since wages in manufacturing wouldincrease, and real incomes for others in the economy would decrease due to higher prices formanufactured goods. This is true only under the assumption that manufacturing wages are lower than all others in the economy. If they were higher than others in the economy, the tariff policies would worsen the income distribution.。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收入核算与国际收支平衡）【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡）【圣才出品】⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台第12章国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡12.1 复习笔记1．国民收⼊账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是⼀国的国民⽣产总值（GNP），它是⼀国的⽣产要素在⼀定时期内所⽣产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究⼀国产出时所⽤的基本度量⼿段，由花费在最终产品上的⽀出的市场价值量加总⽽得到。
GNP的⽀出与劳动、资本以及其他⽣产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能⽤途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私⼈消费的数额）、投资（私⼈企业为进⾏再⽣产⽽留下的⽤于购买⼚房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使⽤的数额）和经常项⽬余额（对外净出⼝的商品和服务的数额）。
（2）国民收⼊国民收⼊等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移⽀付，再减去间接商业税。
即：国民收⼊＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移⽀付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收⼊的恒等关系完全成⽴，必须对GNP的定义作⼀定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使⽤过程中由于磨损⽽引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收⼊。
为了计算⼀定时期的国民收⼊，必须从GNP 中减去这⼀时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民⽣产净值（NNP）。
⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台②⼀国的收⼊可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移⽀付。
单边转移⽀付的例⼦包括向居住在国外的退休公民⽀付养⽼⾦、赔偿⽀付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移⽀付是⼀国收⼊的⼀部分，但不是⼀国产出的⼀部分，因此，净单边转移⽀付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收⼊。
③国民收⼊取决于⽣产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所⽀付的价格。
但是，这两组价格并不是完全⼀致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的⽀付⼤于销售者的收⼊，导致GNP被⾼估，超过了国民收⼊。
国际经济学第八版下册答案
国际经济学第八版下册答案【篇一：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-ch10】>trade policy in developing countries? chapter organizationimport-substituting industrializationthe infant industry argumentpromoting manufacturing through protectionismcase study: mexico abandons import-substituting industrializationresults of favoring manufacturing: problems of import-substituting industrializationtrade liberalization since 1985export-oriented industrialization: the east asian miraclethe facts of asian growthtrade policy in the hpaesindustrial policy in the hpaesbox: india’s boomother factors in growthsummary? chapter overviewthe final two chapters on international trade, chapters 10 and 11, discuss trade policy considerations in the context of specific issues. chapter 10 focuses on the use of trade policyin developing countries and chapter 11 focuses on new controversies in trade policy.while there is great diversity among the developing countries, they share some common policy concerns. these include the development of domestic manufacturing industries, the uneven degree of development within the country, and the desire to foster economic growth and improve living standards. this chapter discusses both the successful and unsuccessful trade policy strategies which have been applied by developing countries in attempts to address these concerns.many developing countries pose the creation of a significant manufacturing sector as a key goal of economic development. one commonly voiced argument for protecting manufacturing industries is the infant industry argument, which states thatdeveloping countries have a potential comparative advantage inmanufacturing and can realize that potential through an initial period of protection. this argument assumes market failure in the form of imperfect capital markets or the existence of externalities in production. such a market failure makes the social return to production higher than the private return. this implies that a firm will not be able to recapture rents or profits that are in line with the contribution to welfare made by the product or industry establishment of the firm. without some government support, the argument goes, the amount of investment which will occur in this industry will be less than socially optimal levels.chapter 10 trade policy in developing countries 43given these arguments, many nations have attempted import-substitution-led industrialization. in the 1950s and 1960s the strategy was quite popular and did lead to a dramatic reduction in imports in some countries. the overall result, though, was not a success. the infant industry argument did not always hold, as protection could let young industries survive, but could not make them efficient. by the late 1980s, most countries had shifted away from the strategy, and the chapter includes a case study of mexico’s change from import substitution to a more open strategy.since 1985 many developing countries had abandoned import substitution and pursued (sometimesaggressively) trade liberalization. the chapter notes two sides of the experience. on the one hand, trade has gone up considerably and changed in character. developing countries export far more of the gdpthan prior to liberalization, and more of it is in manufacturing as opposed to agricultural or mining sectors. at the same time, the growth experience of these countries has not been universally good and it is difficult to tell if the success stories are due to trade or due to reforms that came at the same time as liberalization. the east asian “miracle” of the high-performing asian economies (hpaes) provides a striking andcontroversial example of export-oriented industrialization. while these countries encountered difficulties in the late 1990s (see chapter 22), this chapter focuses on their spectaculargrowth from the 1960s to 1990s. it is acknowledged that the growth was extremely impressive; the controversy is over the source of the success in these countries. some observers argue that although these countries do not practice free trade, they have lower rates of protection (and more outward orientation) than other developing countries. other observers argue that the interventionist industrial policies pursued by the hpaes have been the reason for success, and outward orientation is just a by-product of active rather than passive government involvement in industry. still others argue that high rates of domestic savings and rapid improvements in education are behind the stunning growth performance.? answers to textbook problems1. the countries that seem to benefit most from international trade include many of the countries of thepacific rim, south korea, taiwan, singapore, hong kong, malaysia, indonesia, and others. though the experience of each country is somewhat different, most of these countries employed some kind of infant industry protection during the beginning phases of their development, but then withdrew protection relatively quickly after industries became competitive on world markets. concerningwhether their experiences lend support to the infant industry argument or argues against it is still a matter of controversy. however, it appears that it would have been difficult for these countries to engage in export-led growth without some kind of initial government intervention.the japanese example gives pause to those who believe that protectionism is always disastrous.however, the fact of japanese success does not demonstrate that protectionist trade policy wasresponsible for that success. japan was an exceptional society that had emerged into the ranks of advanced nations before world war ii and was recovering from wartime devastation. it is arguable that economic success would have come anyway, so that the apparent success of protection represents a “pseudo-infant-industry” case of the kind discussed in the text.a. the initial high costs of production would justify infant industry protection if the costs to thesociety during the period of protection were less than the future stream of benefits from a mature, low cost industry.b. an individual firm does not have an incentive to bear development costs itself for an entireindustry when these benefits will accrue to other firms. thereis a stronger case for infantindustry protection in this instance because of the existenceof market failure in the form of theappropriability of technology. 2. 3.44 krugman/obstfeld ? international economics: theory and policy, eighth edition4. india ceased being a colony of britain in 1948, thus its dramatic break from all imports in favor ofmexico (as opposed to recently deposed colonial firms in india) may have helped keep mexico open to importing capital goods necessary in the manufacturing process.in some countries the infant industry argument simply did not appear to work well. such protection will not create a competitive manufacturing sector if there are basic reasonswhy a country does not have a competitive advantage in a particular area. this was particularly the case in manufacturing where many low-income countries lack skilled labor, entrepreneurs, and the level of managerialacumen necessary to be competitive in world markets. the argument is that trade policy alone cannot rectify these problems. often manufacturing was also created on such a small-scale that it made the industries noncompetitive, where economies of scale are critical to being a low-cost producer.moreover protectionist policies in less-developed countries have had a negative impact on incentives, which has led to “rent-seeking” or corruption.question 6 involves assessing the impact of dual labor markets. the topic is not covered extensively in the current edition of the book and instructors may not want to assign the question unless they bring additional material into the classroom to augment the text.a. we know that the wages should be equivalent, so, given that80 – la ? wa, we can substitute wm for wa, and recall that wm ? 100 – lm. combined with the information that la ? lm ? 100, we getl*a?40 and the equilibrium wage ? 40.b. since wm ? 50, lm ? 50 and thus la ? 50 and wm ? 30, we have a net loss of (0.5)(10)(20) ? 100 in national income. 5. 6.【篇二：国际经济学(克鲁格曼)课后习题答案1-8章】1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案
Chapter 18The International Monetary System, 1870–1973?Chapter OrganizationMacroeconomic Policy Goals in an Open EconomyInternal Balance: Full Employment and Price-Level StabilityExternal Balance: The Optimal Level of the Current Account International Macroeconomic Policy under the Gold Standard, 1870–1914 Origins of the Gold StandardExternal Balance under the Gold StandardThe Price-Specie-Flow MechanismThe Gold Standard “Rules of the Game”: Myth and RealityBox: Hume v. the MercantilistsInternal Balance under the Gold StandardCase Study: The Political Economy of Exchange Rate Regimes:Conflict over America’s Monetary Standard During the 1890s The Interwar Years, 1918–1939The Fleeting Return to GoldInternational Economic DisintegrationCase Study: The International Gold Standard and the Great Depression The Bretton Woods System and the International Monetary Fund Goals and Structure of the IMFConvertibility and the Expansion of Private Capital FlowsSpeculative Capital Flows and CrisesAnalyzing Policy Options under the Bretton Woods SystemMaintaining Internal BalanceMaintaining External BalanceExpenditure-Changing and Expenditure-Switching PoliciesThe External-Balance Problem of the United StatesCase Study: The Decline and Fall of the Bretton Woods SystemWorldwide Inflation and the Transition to Floating Rates Summary?Chapter OverviewThis is the first of five international monetary policy chapters. These chapters complement the preceding theory chapters in several ways. They provide the historical and institutional background students require to place their theoretical knowledge in a useful context. The chapters also allow students, through study of historical and current events, to sharpen their grasp of the theoretical models and to develop the intuition those models can provide. (Application of the theory to events of current interest will hopefully motivate students to return to earlier chapters and master points that may have been missed on the first pass.)Chapter 18 chronicles the evolution of the international monetary system from the gold standard of1870–1914, through the interwar years, and up to and including the post-World War II Bretton Woods regime that ended in March 1973. The central focus of the chapter is the manner in which each system addressed, or failed to address, the requirements of internal and external balance for its participants.A country is in internal balance when its resources are fully employed and there is price level stability. External balance implies an optimal time path of the current account subject to its being balanced over the long run. Other factors have been important in the definition of external balance at various times, and these are discussed in the text. The basic definition of external balance as an appropriate current-account level, however, seems to capture a goal that most policy-makers share regardless of the particular circumstances.The price-specie-flow mechanism described by David Hume shows how the gold standard could ensure convergence to external balance. You may want to present the following model of the price-specie-flow mechanism. This model is based upon three equations: 1. The balance sheet of the central bank. At the most simple level, this is justgold holdings equals the money supply: G ? M.2. The quantity theory. With velocity and output assumed constant and bothnormalized to 1, this yields the simple equation M ? P.3. A balance of payments equation where the current account is a function of thereal exchange rate and there are no private capital flows: CA ? f(E ? P*/P)These equations can be combined in a figure like the one below. The 45? line represents the quantity theory, and the vertical line is the price level where the real exchange rate results in a balanced current account. The economy moves along the 45? line back towards the equilibrium Point 0 whenever it is out of equilibrium. For example, the loss of four-fifths of a country’s gold would put that country at Point a with lower prices and a lower money supply. The resulting real exchange rate depreciation causes a current account surplus which restores money balances as the country proceeds up the 45? line froma to 0.FigureThe automatic adjustment process described by the price-specie-flow mechanism is expedited by following “rules of the game” under which governments contract the domestic source components oftheir monetary bases when gold reserves are falling (corresponding to a current-account deficit) and expand when gold reserves are rising (the surplus case).In practice, there was little incentive for countries with expanding gold reserves to follow the “rules of the game.” This increased the contractionary burden shouldered by countries with persistent current account deficits. The gold standard also subjugated internal balance to the demands of external balance. Research suggests price-level stability and high employment were attained less consistently under the gold standard than in the post-1945 period.The interwar years were marked by severe economic instability. The monetization of war debt and of reparation payments led to episodes of hyperinflation in Europe. Anill-fated attempt to return to thepre-war gold parity for the pound led to stagnation in Britain. Competitive devaluations and protectionism were pursued in a futile effort to stimulate domestic economic growth during the Great Depression.These beggar-thy-neighbor policies provoked foreign retaliation and led to the disintegration of the world economy. As one of the case studies shows, strict adherence to the Gold Standard appears to have hurt many countries during the Great Depression.Determined to avoid repeating the mistakes of the interwar years, Allied economic policy-makers metat Bretton Woods in 1944 to forge a new international monetary system for the postwar world. The exchange-rate regime that emerged from this conference had at its center the . dollar. All other currencies had fixed exchange rates against the dollar, which itself had a fixed value in terms of gold.An International Monetary Fund was set up to oversee the system and facilitate its functioning by lending to countries with temporary balance of payments problems.A formal discussion of internal and external balance introduces the concepts of expenditure-switching and expenditure-changing policies. The Bretton Woods system, with its emphasis on infrequent adjustmentof fixed parities, restricted the use of expenditure-switching policies. Increases in U.S. monetary growth to finance fiscal expenditures after the mid-1960s led to a loss of confidence in the dollar and the termination of the dollar’s convertibility into gold. The analysis presented in the text demonstrateshow the Bretton Woods system forced countries to “import” inflation from the United States and shows that the breakdown of the system occurred when countries were no longer willing to accept this burden.?Answers to Textbook Problems1. a. Since it takes considerable investment to develop uranium mines, you wouldwant a larger current account deficit to allow your country to finance some of the investment with foreign savings.b. A permanent increase in the world price of copper would cause a short-termcurrent account deficit if the price rise leads you to invest more in coppermining. If there are no investment effects, you would not change yourexternal balance target because it would be optimal simply to spend youradditional income.c. A temporary increase in the world price of copper would cause a currentaccount surplus. You would want to smooth out your country’s consumption bysaving some of its temporarily higher income.d. A temporary rise in the world price of oil would cause a current accountdeficit if you were an importer of oil, but a surplus if you were an exporter of oil.2. Because the marginal propensity to consume out of income is less than 1, atransfer of income from B to A increases savings in A and decreases savings in B.Therefore, A has a current account surplus and B has a corresponding deficit.This corresponds to a balance of payments disequilibrium in Hume’s world, which must be financed by gold flows from B to A. These gold flows increase A’s money supply and decrease B’s money supply, pushing up prices in A and depressingprices in B. These price changes cease once balance of payments equilibrium has been restored.3. Changes in parities reflected both initial misalignments and balance of paymentscrises. Attempts to return to the parities of the prewar period after the war ignored the changes in underlying economic fundamentals that the war caused. This made some exchange rates less than fully credible and encouraged balance ofpayments crises. Central bank commitments to the gold parities were also less than credible after the wartime suspension of the gold standard, and as a result of the increasing concern of governments with internal economic conditions.4. A monetary contraction, under the gold standard, will lead to an increase in thegold holdings of the contracting country’s central bank if other countries do not pursue a similar policy. All countries cannot succeed in doing thissimultaneously since the total stock of gold reserves is fixed in the short run.Under a reserve currency system, however, a monetary contraction causes anincipient rise in the domestic interest rate, which attracts foreign capital. The central bank must accommodate the inflow of foreign capital to preserve theexchange rate parity. There is thus an increase in the central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves equal to the fall in its holdings of domestic assets. There is no obstacle to a simultaneous increase in reserves by all central banksbecause central banks acquire more claims on the reserve currency country while their citizens end up with correspondingly greater liabilities.5. The increase in domestic prices makes home exports less attractive and causes acurrent account deficit. This diminishes the money supply and causescontractionary pressures in the economywhich serve to mitigate and ultimately reverse wage demands and price increases.6. A “demand determined” increase in dollar reserve holdings would not affect theworld supply of money as central banks merely attempt to trade their holdings of domestic assets for dollar rese rves. A “supply determined” increase in reserve holdings, however, would result from expansionary monetary policy in the United States (the reserve center). At least at the end of the Bretton Woods era the increase in world dollar reserves arose in part because of an expansionarymonetary policyin the United States rather than a desire by other central banks to increasetheir holdings of dollar assets. Only the “supply determined” increase indollar reserves is relevant for analyzing the relationship between world holdings of dollar reserves by central banks and inflation.7. An increase in the world interest rate leads to a fall in a central bank’sholdings of foreign reserves as domestic residents trade in their cash forforeign bonds. This leads to a d ecline in the home country’s money supply. The central bank of a “small” country cannot offset these effects sinceit cannot alter the world interest rate. An attempt to sterilize the reserve loss through open market purchases would fail unless bonds are imperfect substitutes.8. Capital account restrictions insulate the domestic interest rate from the worldinterest rate. Monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. Because there are no offsetting capital flows, monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. The costs of capital controls include the inefficiency which is introduced when the domestic interest rate differs from the world rate and the high costs of enforcing the controls.9. Yes, it does seem that the external balance problem of a deficit country is moresevere. While the macroeconomic imbalance may be equally problematic in the long run regardless of whether it is a deficit or surplus, large external deficits involve the risk that the market will fix the problem quickly by ceasing to fund the external deficit. In this case, there may have to be rapid adjustment that could be disruptive. Surplus countries are rarely forced into rapid adjustments, making the problems less risky.10. An inflow attack is different from capital flight, but many parallels exist. Inan “outflow” attack, speculators sell the home currency and drain the central bank of its foreign assets. The central bank could always defend if it so chooses (they can raise interest rates to improbably high levels), but if it is unwilling to cripple the economy with tight monetary policy, it must relent. An “inflow”attack is similar in that the central bank can always maintain the peg, it is just that the consequences of doing so may be more unpalatable than breaking the peg. If money flows in, the central bank must buy foreign assets to keep thecurrency from appreciating. If the central bank cannot sterilize all the inflows (eventually they may run out of domestic assets to sell to sterilize thetransactions where they are buying foreign assets), it will have to either let the currency appreciate or let the money supply rise. If it is unwilling to allow and increase in inflation due to a rising money supply, breaking the peg may be preferable.11. a. We know that China has a very large current account surplus, placing them highabove the XX line. They also have moderate inflationary pressures (describedas “gathering” in the question, implying they are not yet very strong). This suggests that China is above the II line, but not too far above it. It wouldbe placed in Zone 1 (see below).b. China needs to appreciate the exchange rate to move down on the graph towardsbalance. (Shown on the graph with the dashed line down)c. China would need to expand government spending to move to the right and hitthe overall balance point. Such a policy would help cushion the negativeaggregate demand pressurethat the appreciation might generate.。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解第1章绪论本章不是考试的重点章节，建议读者对本章内容只作大致了解即可，本章没有相关的课后习题。
第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1>(发展中国家(developing countries)答:发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。
通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。
衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。
一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。
比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。
2>(服务外包(service outsourcing)答:服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。
20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。
从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。
3>(引力模型(gravity model)答:丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为:其中，是国与国的贸易额，为常量，是国的国内生产总值，是国的国内生产总值，是两国的距离。
、、三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。
引力模型方程式表明:其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。
把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。
另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(贸易政策中的政治经济学)【圣才出品】
（2）反对自由贸易的观点 ①贸易条件改善论 对一个能够影响国际价格的大国而言，关税可以降低进口产品的价格从而使贸易条件得 到改善，但这一收益必须抵补剔除关税带来的成本。所以，贸易条件改善的收益可能会超过 其成本。当关税到达某个程度才有可能改善一国福利，这里存在最优关税问题。 a．最优关税。由于不断提高关税税率改善贸易条件而提高福利的速度与减少贸易量而 降低福利水平的速度不一致，在理论上存在一个最优关税，在这种最优关税下，该国的福利 水平达到最高。如图 9-2 所示，在曲线上对应于关税率 t0 的点 1，社会福利达到最大。
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
失为一种次优的增进社会福利的做法。利用次优理论的最有代表性的论点是国内市场失灵 论。
a．国内市场失灵论。国内市场失灵论建立在反对生产者剩余和消费者剩余理论的基础 上。国内市场失灵论认为，国内市场失灵即国内市场没有发挥应有功能，导致生产者剩余没 有正确衡量成本和收益。图 9-3 阐释了反对自由贸易的国内市场失灵论。
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解-第二章至第八章【圣才出品】
第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1．发展中国家（developing countries）答：发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。
通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。
衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。
一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。
比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。
2．服务外包（service outsourcing）答：服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。
20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。
从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。
3．引力模型（gravity model）答：丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为：其中，T是i国与j国的贸易额，A为常量，i Y是i国的国内生产总值，j Y是j国的国ij内生产总值，D是两国的距离。
a、b、c三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。
引力模型ij方程式表明：其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。
把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。
另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。
4．第三世界（third world）答：第三世界这个名词原本是指法国大革命中的Third Estate（第三阶级）。
冷战时期，一些经济发展比较落后的国家为表示并不靠拢北约或华约任何一方，用“第三世界”一词界定自己。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题标准答案要点
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：23 《国际经济学》（国际金融）习题答案要点第12章 国民收入核算与国际收支1、如问题所述，GNP 仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。
在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从GNP 中减去，出口的中间品价值加到GNP 中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。
例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。
其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的GNP 中。
出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的GNP ，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。
所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的GNP 中减去，并加入美国的GNP 。
2、（1）等式12-2可以写成()()p CA S I T G =-+-。
美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。
（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。
不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。
例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。
（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。
）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。
一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。
这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。
3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。
这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。
（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(最优货币区和欧洲的经验)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第20章最优货币区和欧洲的经验20.1复习笔记1．欧洲单一货币的演变（1）1969～1978年欧洲货币改革的原因欧盟国家从20世纪60年代末开始努力寻求货币政策的一致性和汇率的更大稳定性，其主要有三个原因：一是影响世界经济的政策形势发生了变化；二是人们希望欧盟能发挥更大的作用；三是汇率的变动给欧盟带来了不少管理上的问题。
具体原因有两个：①为了提高欧洲在世界货币体系中的地位。
1969年的货币危机使得欧洲对美国将其国际货币职责放在其国家利益之前的可靠性失去信心。
面对美国越来越自私的政策，欧盟国家为了更加有效地维护自己的经济利益，决定在货币问题上采取一致行动。
②为了把欧盟变成一个真正的统一市场。
欧盟的长远目标就是要消除所有障碍，把欧盟变成一个巨大的统一的市场。
欧洲的政府官员认为，汇率的不确定性，是减少欧盟内部贸易的主要原因之一，只有在欧洲国家之间建立起固定的相互汇率，才能形成一个真正的统一欧洲市场。
（2）1979～1998年的欧洲货币体系（EMS）欧洲货币体系是欧洲共同体国家为实现经济一体化而于1979年3月13日建立的区域性金融体系。
当时参加的国家有联邦德国、法国、意大利、荷兰、比利时、卢森堡、丹麦和爱尔兰。
1984年9月希腊加入，1987年5月12日西班牙加入，1987年11月10日葡萄牙加入，1995年1月1日奥地利、芬兰和瑞典加入。
欧洲货币体系的主要内容包括三个方面：①创建欧洲货币单位。
欧洲货币单位是欧洲货币体系的中心内容。
在结构上，欧洲货币单位与欧洲记账单位相同，都是由成员国的一定量的货币组成，是一个货币“篮子”。
与欧洲记账单位的本质区别是，欧洲货币单位不仅可以作为价值尺度给资产和负债标价，而且还是一种支付手段，在许多方面发挥着货币的功能。
所以，欧洲货币单位既是一个货币“篮子”，也是一种“篮子货币”。
②建立双重的中心汇率制，以保证成员国汇率的稳定。
国际经济学(克鲁格曼)课后习题答案1-8章
第一章练习与答案1 . 为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2. 仿效图1—6和图1—乙试推导出丫商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3. 在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4. 如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示:5. 如果改用丫商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A 国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1 —13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
6. 说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
7. 如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
& 根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国9* .为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？答案提示：第二章答案1.根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解(国民收入核算与国际收支平衡)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第12章国民收入核算与国际收支平衡12.1复习笔记1．国民收入账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是一国的国民生产总值（GNP），它是一国的生产要素在一定时期内所生产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究一国产出时所用的基本度量手段，由花费在最终产品上的支出的市场价值量加总而得到。
GNP的支出与劳动、资本以及其他生产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能用途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私人消费的数额）、投资（私人企业为进行再生产而留下的用于购买厂房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使用的数额）和经常项目余额（对外净出口的商品和服务的数额）。
（2）国民收入国民收入等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移支付，再减去间接商业税。
即：国民收入＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移支付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收入的恒等关系完全成立，必须对GNP的定义作一定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使用过程中由于磨损而引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收入。
为了计算一定时期的国民收入，必须从GNP 中减去这一时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民生产净值（NNP）。
②一国的收入可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移支付。
单边转移支付的例子包括向居住在国外的退休公民支付养老金、赔偿支付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移支付是一国收入的一部分，但不是一国产出的一部分，因此，净单边转移支付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收入。
③国民收入取决于生产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所支付的价格。
但是，这两组价格并不是完全一致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的支付大于销售者的收入，导致GNP被高估，超过了国民收入。
这部分税收被称为间接商业税。
在计算国民收入时，这部分间接商业税必须从GNP中减去。
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第11章贸易政策中的争议一、概念题1．以邻为壑的政策（beggar-thy-neighbor policies）答：以邻为壑的政策是指以牺牲别国的利益来提高本国福利的政策，即当一个国家采取某种政策或行动的时候，事实上其得到的好处来自于另一个国家的损失，一个国家所得到的，最终会是另一个国家所失去的。
从货币角度来说，本国货币扩张会引起汇率贬值，净出口增加，从而增加产出与就业，但是本国增加净出口对应着国外贸易余额的恶化。
本国货币贬值使需求从国外商品转移到本国商品上，国外的产出与就业会因此下降。
正是由于这个原因，由贬值引起的贸易余额的变动就是以邻为壑的政策，它是输出失业，或以损害其他国家来创造本国就业的一种方式。
本国福利的提高是以牺牲别国利益为代价的，因此这一政策很容易引起别国的报复和贸易战的爆发，最终损害各方的利益。
从国际贸易角度来说，战略性贸易政策就是一种以邻为壑的政策。
战略性贸易政策通过鼓励国内特定产品的出口和限制国外特定产品的进口，来保持本国在世界市场上的竞争优势，虽然使本国受益，但使外国受到了损失，本国也面临着受到外国报复的问题。
反之，如果外国的净出口增加，相当于本国消费者购买了很多外国的商品。
这样，对本国该产业的产品需求的下降就是对本国的该产业的一个冲击。
这种冲击会阻碍对其进行的投资和经营，从而使得这个产业的状况变坏，进而影响本国经济。
总之，以邻为壑的政策将引发贸易战从而使得各方均受到损害。
2．外部性（externalities）答：外部性是指当某个企业的经济行为（或者某个人的消费行为），经过非价格手段，直接地、不可避免地影响了其他企业的生产（或者其他人的效用），并且成为后者自己所不能加以控制的情况时，对前者来说就存在着外部性问题。
外部性可以分为正外部性和负外部性。
正外部性是指某个经济行为主体的行为使他人或者整个社会受益，而受益者无须花费代价；负外部性是指某经济行为主体的行为引起他人成本的增加或者效用的减少。
外部性意味着私人成本和社会成本之间、私人收益和社会收益之间存在着差异：负外部性的存在是因为某个经济当事人的生产或消费活动的私人成本小于该活动的社会成本，因而一部分成本由他人或整个社会承担了；正外部性的存在是因为某人的生产或消费活动的私人收益小于该活动的社会收益，即他人或者整个社会从这个活动中得到了一部分收益。
3．布兰德-斯潘塞分析（Brander-Spencer analysis）答：“布兰德-斯潘塞分析”是指一国政府通过对国内企业实行补贴政策，将国外企业排斥在本国市场之外，从而增加国内企业利润的分析方法，由加拿大经济学家斯潘塞和布兰德首先提出。
具体分析方法如下：假定国内外各有一家条件完全相同的企业打算生产某种产品并供应整个市场。
如果一家企业生产，则生产的一家获取10单位的利润（不生产的一家利润为0）；如果两家都生产，那么过度竞争将导致它们的利润均为-2单位；如果两家都不生产，则利润均为0。
如果政府不参与其中，那么谁领先一步就意味着谁将生产。
如果已知对方开始生产，那么本国企业就不会生产（不生产的利润为0，生产的利润为-2单位）。
如果政府参与其中，承诺如果本国企业从事生产将给予5单位的补贴，那么就整个地改变了竞争状况。
这时不论外国企业是否生产，本国企业都会选择生产。
已知本国企业必然生产，则外国企业必然不会选择生产。
其最终结果是：外国企业退出了竞争，本国企业获得15单位的利润。
从总体上看，本国净增10单位的利润，从而使国民福利增加。
因此，政府补贴能够大大提高本国企业的竞争力，增加本国企业的利润，并将外国企业可能获得的利益转移至本国。
“布兰德-斯潘塞分析”是一国实施战略性贸易政策的理论依据之一，它表明，积极的政府政策可以在不减少国民福利的同时，有效地帮助本国企业击败国外的竞争对手。
4．污染避难地（pollution haven）答：由于国际贸易的原因，贸易活动本应在环境控制较严格的国家进行，但是贸易却转到了环境控制较松的国家进行，因为环境控制较松而吸引了大批污染工业移入的国家和地区就被称为污染避难地。
5．库兹涅茨环境曲线（environment Kuznets curve）答：20世纪90年代早期，普林斯顿大学经济学家吉恩·格罗斯曼和艾伦·克鲁格曼在研究国民收入水平和污染物比如二氧化硫之间的关系发现，这些抵消经济增长作用的因素会在人均收入和环境破坏之间产生倒U形关系，这条倒U形曲线即为库兹涅茨环境曲线。
该曲线表明，当国家经济增长时，它们初始增长会增加环境的破坏，但是当这些经济体变得足够富裕时，它们的经济增长对环境有利。
6．战略性贸易政策（strategic trade policy）答：战略性贸易政策是指通过鼓励国内特定产业的发展和特定产品的出口，以限制国外特定产品的进口，来保持本国在世界市场上的竞争优势，并进而提高一国经济绩效的贸易保护政策。
该政策认为，为了保持本国某些前景远大或意义重大的产业在世界市场上的竞争优势和领先地位，有必要采取有针对性的保护政策来促进这些产业的发展和特定产品的出口。
战略性贸易政策的理论依据主要有高新技术产业的“技术外溢”和不完全竞争条件下的“布兰德—斯潘塞分析”。
7．超额收益（excess returns）答：超额收益是指超出行业平均利润的收益。
一般情况下，在一个比较充分的市场竞争条件下，企业只能得到平均利润。
但是，在一些产业所在的市场，仅有为数不多的几家企业参与实际竞争。
因为参与的企业数目少，所以市场是不完全竞争的。
企业在这个市场中进行生产，能够获得比在经济中其他地方进行相同风险的生产更高的收益，即超额收益。
超额收益要高于行业的平均收益。
得到超额收益的两个条件是高劳动效率和低成本，即单位产品的个别劳动时间低于社会必要劳动。
在这种情况下，按照社会必要劳动时间所决定的价值出卖产品就能够得到超额收益。
二、习题1．即使实行战略性贸易政策能够增加国家福利，那么这种政策不利的后果是什么？What are the disadvantages of engaging in strategic trade policy even in cases in which it can be shown to yield an increase in a country’s welfare?答：实行战略性贸易政策主要的不利后果是它会导致寻租和以邻为壑的政策，即以别的国家受损为代价来增加一国的福利水平。
这样的政策可能会导致使所有国家福利都受损的贸易战。
即使是在别国没有察觉的情况下能使自己变得更好，这也是实行战略性贸易政策的危险：它会引起别国的报复，这使得长期看来，会使得所有国家利益都受到损害。
2．假设美国政府能够确知在以后的20年中哪些产业的增长最为迅速，为什么这并不一定意味着美国应该采取政策支持这些产业的增长？Suppose the U.S. government were able to determine which industries willgrow most rapidly over the next 20 years. Why doesn’t this automatically mean that the nation should have a policy of supporting these industries’ growth?答：只有存在市场失灵时，政府采取行动才是合理的。
如果每个人都知道某个产业会快速增长，私人市场即使在没有政府支持的情形下也会将资源引入这个产业。
可见，只有存在市场失灵时才需要政府采取特别的行动，仅仅有增长前景是不足以构成政府干预的依据。
3．如果美国能够办到的话，它将会要求日本在基础科学研究上多花些钱，在产业应用研究方面少花些钱。
从无偿占用的角度分析上面的原因。
If the United States had its way, it would demand that Japan spend more money on basic research in science and less on applied research into industrial applications. Explain why in terms of the analysis of appropriability.答：美国希望日本在基础科学研究上多花些钱，在产业应用研究方面少花些钱，因为美国知道，与适用于特定产业的研究结果相比，基础研究的结果可能能让更大范围的企业和产业无偿占用。
日本的基础研究对美国的好处将超过对日本产业中特定问题的研究带来的好处。
4．表11-1和表11-2说明了欧洲政府可以通过补贴获得战略优势的情形，而表11-3和表11-4则说明不能获得战略优势的情形。
两种情形有什么重要的区别？也即决定补贴是否有效的普遍规则是什么？表11-1 两家企业竞争表11-2 补贴对空中客车公司的影响表11-3 两家企业竞争：另一种情况表11-4 补贴对空中客车公司的影响Tables 11-1 and 11-2 presented a situation in which European governments were able to use a subsidy to achieve a strategic advantage, while Tables 11-3 and 11-4 presented a situation in which it could not. What is the crucial distinction between these two cases? That is, what is the general rule for determining when a subsidy can work?答：当本国企业进入某个市场从而导致外国企业无法生存而退出时，对本国企业进行补贴才是有效的。
补贴使空中客车公司的生产和利润增加，使波音公司的生产下降。
可见，补贴提高了市场准入门槛，阻止了国外竞争。
但是，即使空中客车公司得到了政府补贴，波音公司仍然会继续生产。
如果波音公司进入这个市场，空中客车公司的收益将小于补贴所得。