The Application of Task-Based Approach in English Grammar Teaching in Junior High Schools 任务型教
task-based approach in language teaching
Task-based Language Teaching任务型语言教学简介The word "Task" first appeared in applied linguistics literature was in the early nineteen eighties. Task is not concerned with language form, but the meaning of the language, that is, the meaning of expression. Due to the different research purposes and research methods, there are many different definitions about “task”. Here are some well-known ones.Michael Long defined it like "A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence，dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation，borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination and helping someone across a road. In other words, by `task' it meant the hundred and one thing people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between."Richards said “An activity or action which is carried out as the result of pro cessing or understanding language (i.e., as a response). For example, drawing a map while listening to an instruction and performing a command, may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production of language. A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. The use of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make language teaching more communicative, since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake.”Prabhu thought that “Task is an activity which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which slows learners to control and regulate that pr ocess.”David Nunan believed that “Any classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.”Bygate, Skehan and Swain held the idea that “A task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an object.”Ellis expressed it like “Tasks are activities that call for primarily meaning-focused language use.”Due to the different needs of people and different angles on the task classification, the types of task are also different. For example, it can be divided into open tasks and closed tasks from the purposes of research, and it can be divided into simple tasks and complex tasks from the teaching needs. According to the reality and the relationship among task, Nunan classified task into the real-world tasks and pedagogic tasks. (1) The real-world tasks are the tasks which close to the real life. That is to say, the students can be encountered in a variety of things in their daily life even after they left the classroom. The purpose of language learning is to enable students to use English to complete various things in real life, so the classroom language learning activities should be the rehearsal of these things. (2) Pedagogic tasks are tasks which are generally not happened outside the classroom. The pedagogic tasks are designed tasks in order to achieve a purpose. In general, the pedagogic tasks do not occur in reality, but they could improve the language learning process. Richards lists several types of pedagogic tasks: jigsaw tasks, information-gap tasks, problem-solving tasks, decision-making tasks, and opinion exchange tasks.According to the need of practical teaching, the task can be divided into simple tasks and complex tasks.(1) Simple tasks generally only need one to two steps. The information learners obtained is relatively single, and people only need to do activities which are simple and specific. What’s more, the language knowledge and languageskills which are needed is very easy, and learners could complete tasks just in a short period of time. (2) Complex tasks often have multiple steps. Learners are usually required to work in small groups, and sometimes they need to cooperate with each other. They need to obtain a variety of information, and then analysis them. Because complex tasks include more steps, learners need to finish certain things in different stages. It may involve a variety of language knowledge and language skills, and generally need twenty to thirty minutes, while some tasks require longer.Task-based language teaching (TBLT), also known as task-based language learning (TBLL) or task-based instruction (TBI), focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. It refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of instruction in language, and requires that language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in real life. “TBLT” has stressed the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching. It is a modern language teaching approach for second language learners. It aims at providing opportunities for the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes.Features of Task-based Language TeachingTask-based teaching method is an advanced method, which absorbs all sorts of outstanding teaching methods. At the same time, it also has its own characteristics. The most prominent feature is" learn by doing ". This is mainly manifested in the following aspects.Firstly, people learn to communicate by finishing tasks through interaction in the target language. Secondly, TBLT lays emphasis on the reality of both learning activities and learning materials. Thirdly, the learning activities are mainly to expressthe significance, such as information transmission. Fourthly, it places emphasis on the learner-centered approach. Fifthly, TBLT encourages students to use language in a creative way. Finally, task-based language teaching method cheers on the connection among classroom teaching activities.Three StagesTask-based language teaching method can be divided into three stages. The first one is the pre-task phase. It refers to preparations that teachers do for students, including the preparation of language, vocabulary, grammar and sentence patterns. It also includes preparations of topic and knowledge. The purpose of this phase is to make students do some related things with following content, and let the students have a perceptual awareness, as well as the clear purpose. The second one is the during-task phase. It means the process students perform and complete the task according to teachers’ design. And this phase is the most important part. The third one is the post-task phase. It asks students to experience a process from meaning to form. After completing the tasks, students are required to report the circumstance and result of task to their team members, and they need to make a summary on the important language points involved in the task during the process of implementation.Task-designIn the task-based language teaching, the biggest challenge for teachers istask-design. Many teachers can not distinguish the differences between the tasks they should design with general teaching activities. They design tasks too simple or too complicated that make tasks can not be used, and they can not achieve the purpose of teaching as well. Therefore, teachers should consider the influent factors during the teaching process, so as to do better in teaching activities. The factors are as follows:The first factor is the goal. The purpose of task-design is to make sure that students could develop their abilities of using language. But if the goals are too abstract or not specific enough, it will be not conductive for teachers and students to make a well understanding on the task. That will obstruct the completion of task and goal achievement. The second factor is the input. Teachers of Task-based teaching are usually asked to provide students some input, which are the necessary information. So that students could complete the task on the basis of the input. But when offering information, teachers should take some specific elements into consideration, such as the difficulty of the material, the amount of information, distribution and so on. The third one is the activity. The task is actually made up of a series of interrelated activities, so the activity-design is an important factor in the process of task design.。
Problems in the Application of Task—based Language Teaching in English Class
龙源期刊网 Problems in the Application of Task—based Language Teaching in English Class作者：李锡岚来源：《校园英语·上旬》2016年第12期【Abstract】This paper attempts to discuss the problems in the application of task-based language teaching approach in English class of Chinese vocational colleges， including the using of target language， classroom management，teacher’s qualification， design and evaluation of tasks.【Key words】task-based language teaching； vocational collegesTask-based language teaching （TBLT） refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction of language. Although TBLT promotes communication and provides a better context for activation of learning process， there are problems in its application in Chinese context， especially in vocational colleges.First， we know that many tasks will be done in groups in TBLT， but students may not be using English as the medium of communication. The author found that there was excessive dependence on Chinese to solve communication problems， which deprives students of the opportunity to listen and speak in English. Besides，vocational students’ low proficiency of English and lack of self-confidence may prevent them from using it to communicate.Secondly， TBLT creates problems of classroom management. The familiar PPP sequence represents a way of delivering the language specified in the syllabus and controlling the communication in class. A concern voiced by many teachers is that when students are engaged in independent， task-related work， this control no longer operates. Many students just have no interest in the tasks and sit there idling their time.Thirdly， there are quite a lot of English teachers that are not qualified in implementing TBLT. So the teachers should be given more opportunities to acquire the knowledge of TBLT in relation to designing， planning and evaluating tasks，in order to raise students’ interest in the activity.The two biggest reasons for the teachers to avoid administering TBLT were connected with the large class size and lack of confidence to assess students’ task-based performance. It is suggested that reducing the large-sized class and reforming the assessment system should be stressed on the agenda.。
task-based approach (introduction)
The communicative task
❖ The communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending， manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form.
Definition of the Activities-based Approach
活动教学法是以活动体现教学目标、 教学内容、教学手段和教学考核的语言教 学方法。活动涉及有目的的积极的语言使 用，学员在活动中需要利用语言材料满足 特定交际情景需求。换句话说，学员在活 动中以听、说、读、写等方式使用目的语 达到某一目的。他们对所要表达的意思和 所需用的语言没有预先的准备，必须正确 处理语言加工过程和语言技能，确保所用 语言在社会文化方面保持得体。活动教学 法是以学生为主的语言教学方法，是交际 法语言教学的分支和新发展。
❖ It is meant what people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. (Long 1985:89) 任务是人们在日常生活中所从事的 有目的的活动。
What people do in everyday life:
7 involve learners in sharing information
Task-based 正文
IntroductionMarianne Celce-Murcia (1985) maintained that noticing and persuasive evidences show that no grammar teaching will lead to the product of clumsy and impropriate foreign languages, which means that grammar teaching is essential for language teaching. Grammar teaching has played an important role in language learning and acquisition. According to Woods (1981), “Nobody can doubt that a good knowledge of the grammatical system is essential to master a foreign language and it is also one of the most important parts of communicative competence”(14). However, grammar teaching is still one of the most controversial and least understood aspects of foreign language teaching although it has been a central aspect of foreign language teaching．A task-based language teaching approach, where learners actively engage in meaning focused activities, for much (but not all) of their time in class, is explicitly designed as a good way for grammar teaching. TBLT offers a realistic alternative to the traditional grammar-based approaches which have consistently failed our learners. It focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words, the appropriate completion of tasks) rather than on accuracy of language forms. This makes TBLT especially popular for developing target language fluency and student confidence.The purpose of this article is to address some of the questions which are constantly raised about TBLT and which perhaps get in the way of a much wider application of TBLT principles.1.English Grammar1.1 The historical development of English grammar teaching in ChinaIn a long history of foreign language teaching in China, because of the introduction of Grammar-translation Method, grammar teaching dominated languageclassrooms. Such a phenomenon lasted till the late 1960s. During this period, grammar teaching became the core of foreign language teaching, and the teaching of other knowledge or skills were weakened. Since 1970s, teachers and scholars have noticed the disadvantages of the Grammar-translation Method and begun to carry out a reform. Although grammar teaching is not as important as before, the teaching of grammar still remains quite popular. In the 1980s, with the deepening of reform and opening up to the outside world, exchanges with foreign countries increased greatly and the role of communication in language became obvious. At the same time, foreign language teaching theories and methodologies kept pouring into China. Functional and communicative approaches were then introduced and began to be accepted by both teachers and students. As a result, some teachers and students look down upon grammar and feel it boring to teach or learn grammar.1.2 Problems in the current English grammar teaching in ChinaAs an important part of the foreign language teaching, grammar teaching has existed two common problems for a long time. One is the unsatisfactory effect. In the traditional pedagogical class, it seems that the teacher has explained the grammar rules clearly, and students have understood the rules distinctly, and they can do all exercises; however, they cannot prevent from making many mistakes when they are talking or writing. The phenomenon that English learners cannot put what they have learned in class into their real life, is called “inert knowledge”. The other problem is that, a lot of students feel dull when they learn grammar rules. Few students sustain their enthusiasm for learning when the lesson focuses on the parts of grammar points. Indeed, when students are asked to do grammar exercise, there is often an audible response of displeasure.2. T ask-based Language T eaching2.1 Definition and features of task-based teaching approach2.1.1 Definition of task-based teaching approachTasked based language teaching is widely applied in the teaching of English inChina. TBLT is, in fact, a further development of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which is quite renowned before the turn up of TBLT. They share the accordant belief, as language should be learned as close as possible to how it is used in rea l life. This methodology aims at providing learners with a simulated real-world language environment and facilitating learners to do tasks required in target language. Compared to CLT, TBLT keeps its eyes on the importance to combine form-focused teaching with communication-focused teaching.It is a teaching method that puts tasks in the center of the methodological focus. It considers the learning process as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to the curricular goals. The aim of task-based learning is to make language classroom approximate to the target language environment, and to develop students' ability to communicate with others.Nunan defines it as a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interpreting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. This definition shows that it differs from traditional pedagogy in the focusing point. (Nunan, 1989) Forster considers TBLT as a methodology in which teachers give students tasks to complete instead of teaching them language items, and provide them with a natural language learning environment to achieve better outcomes. (Forster, 1999)2.1.2 Features of task-based teaching approachAbout the features of task-based language teaching, Nunan gives a summary as follows:(1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language ;(2) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation;(3)The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but also onthe learning process itself;(4) An enhancement of the learners' own personal experiences as important contributingelements to classroom learning;(5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside theclassroom. (1991: 259)2.2 The framework of the task-based teaching approachPerhaps the most extensively worked out framework is that of Willis，who proposed it in her masterpiece: A Framework for Task-based Learning. In this framework，she divides the procedures of task-based language teaching into three stages (see Table 1)Ta ble 1 Willis’ model for task-based teaching approachPre-task Introduction to topics and tasksTask-cycle TaskPlanningReportLanguage focus AnalysisPractice(Willis, 1996)2.2.1 Pre-taskThe teacher introduces the topic and gives students clear instructions on what they will have to do at the task stage and might help the students to recall some language points that may be useful for the task. The pre-task stage can also often include playing a recording of others doing the task. This gives the students a clear model of what will be expected of them. The students can take notes and spend time preparing for the task.2.2.2 Task cycleThis stage consists of three elements: task, planning and report. (1) Students complete a task in pairs or groups using the language resources that they have as the teacher monitors and offers encouragement. (2) Students prepare a short oral or written report to tell the class what happened during their task. They then practice what they are going to say in their groups. Meanwhile the teacher is available for the students to ask for advice to clear up any language questions they may have. (3)Students then report back to the class orally or read the written report. The teacher decides whose turn to present their reports and may give the students some quick feedback on the content. At this stage the teacher may also play a recording of others doing the same task for the students to compare.2.2.3 Language focusIn the first two stages, students put their emphasis on the meaning of their language; while in the third stage, they focus their attention on the form. This stage includes two steps: language analysis and language practice.(1) Language analysisThe teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the recording for the students to analyze. They may ask students to notice interesting features within this text. The teacher can also highlight the language that the students used during the report phase for analysis. The students identify and think about particular features of language form and language use.(2) Language practiceFinally, the teacher selects language areas to practice based upon the needs of the students and what emerged from the task and report phases. The students then do practice activities to increase their confidence and take a note of useful language points. Through doing various tasks, the students learn to use and memorize the useful words, phrases, structures and grammar rules so as to consolidate their mastery of the language form.2.3 The differences between exercises and tasksLitterwood (1981) once divided class activities into two categories: pre-communicative activities and communicative activities. The pre-communicative can be further divided to structural activities and quasi-communicative activities. (85) The pre-communicative activity is actually what we call “exercise”, which focuses on form and aims at the grasp of language structure. During pre-communicative activities, there exists no information gap and students have no desire to communicate.On the contrary, task, which emphasizes on meaning instead of form, fluencyinstead of accuracy, is an attempt to link classroom language learning with social communication by creating authentic texts. During the task, students learn to communicate through interaction in the target language and they play the main role in class.According to Litterwood (1981), the differences between exercises and tasks can be summed up as the following table (see Table 2)Table 2 Differences between Excise and TaskExercise TaskFocus Form Meaning Communicative desire No Y esLanguage control Strictly FreelyClass center Teacher-centered Students-centeredAppraisal Correctness of form Completion of task 3. The Application of T ask-based T eaching in English Grammar3.1 The necessity for the application of TBLT in grammar teachingAt present most teachers adopt the traditional teaching method in the grammar class. They spend a lot of time explaining grammar points，analyzing long and boring sentences and explaining less useful but difficult words．This method focuses on form, and the process of presentation, practice and production is deadly dull, full of drills and drudgery．It is so boring that it can not arouse students’interests，so it is not an effective way to teach grammar．It is out of fashion now．Task-based language teaching approach can be viewed as within the framework of communicative teaching and the study of task-based language teaching stems largely from communicative language teaching (Nunan 1999). It puts tasks at the center of the methodological focus and considers the learning process as a set of communicative tasks directly linked to the curricular goals．It emphasizes the development of students’ communicative ability and communication takes place through using the grammatical system of the language．It combines the teaching oflanguage forms with teaching of language skills．Therefore，it may have significance or may be effective in grammar teaching．3.2 The strategies to carry on task-based grammar teaching3.2.1 Functional strategyFunctional strategy offers students more chances to communicate with the language they have mastered by creating an authentic text. It includes the following methods:(1) Creating situationsCreating situations means inventing authentic contexts that are related to the target language. It is easier for students to comprehend the target language under these authentic texts. There are large numbers of methods for teacher to create situations available, such as using material objects, body languages, multi-media as well as nonverbal means, etc. Properly using these methods will make grammar teaching more vivid and interesting.When reviewing the “passive voice”, in order to present the key points intuitively, teachers can set up a speculative task for students by creating a conversational situation talking about “Tree Planting Day” . Then the teacher asks students to guess “What will we review tod ay?”.(The dialogue can be made as follows)T: T wo days later it is a special day ,it’s … .S: Tree-Planting Day.T: Good. Trees are usually planted on the day. Would you like to plant some trees?S: Very much.T: Really? You see, sixty trees have been bought from a farm, so let’s plant them in our school. (老师，我不懂这边怎么改才好呢？)After this conversation, students will notice many passive sentences exist in the dialogue, so that they can easily get aware of the key points. Creating situations helps students engage in the class quickly and focus their attention fully on the teaching content.Another method, presenting teaching aims by pictures, is effective for teachers to create situations. In summarizing the structure of “passive voice”, pictures can serve as an aid to concretize the abstract grammar, which will reduce the difficulty of grammar teaching and achieve a better teaching effect. At the beginning, the teacher shows students the picture of a sweater and then asks them: “What are the sweaters made of? What are they used for?” Students will quickly answer: “The sweaters are made of wool or silk ; and they are used for keeping warm.” Then the teacher writes down students’ answers on the blackboard, so that student s can get a deeper impression on the structure. After that, the teacher presents pictures of a knife, a stamp, a pen etc. for students to practice the structure in the target language.(2) Using Communicative activitiesA communicative activity is one which brings language to life by providing a real basis for speaking,and the interactive exchange of ideas, opinions, and feelings with another person. Using Communicative activities is aimed at consolidating and enlarging students’ knowledge about the target language and developing their thinking abilities as well as establishing their language skills. It is a necessity for teachers to activate boring grammar rules into interesting meaningful activities, which may help promote students’ cognitive structure .Firstly, group discussion, which ensures every student plays a role and gives full play to students’ subjective initiative. Group discussion provides every student a chance of practicing the target language. What’s more, it helps students establish a sense of collective cooperation . Through interaction, students not only strengthen the grammar knowledge but also improve their language competence.In the review of different structures of “passive voice”, the teacher gives students a task ---to Design Rules for Watching the Olympic Games. Students are divided into several groups. Each group member enjoys the right to state his opinions spontaneously upon the topic and then each group chooses one as a representative to report their result. At last, the teacher makes a conclusion based on their statements. The following is an example.a) Nobody is allowed into the stadium without a ticket;b) Children are not allowed to make noise or they will be taken away from the stadium;c) Animals must be forbidden to enter the stadium;d) Rubbish shouldn’t be thr own away in the stadium;e) No smoking is permitted. If you are discovered, you will be fined.Secondly, teachers can adopt meaningful games to expound boring grammar rules. Ingenious, difficult games may lead to an unexpected influence on teaching effectiveness. When practicing the infinitive structure (to do), the teacher can design a game called “Relay Race”, for example ,one student makes up an interrogative sentence according to the listed verbs on the blackboard , and asks the one behind him to answer the question, and then one by one. Such as:S1: What do you want to do this Sunday?S2: I want to go shopping. What do you decide to do this summer?S3: I decide to travel to Beijing. What do you hope to be in the future?S4: I hope to be a doctor. What did you learn to do last summer?S5: I learned to swim last summer.During these open and meaningful activities, students can not only practice their listening and speaking ability but also improve their thinking ability and quick-reaction capability. At the same time, they can better understand and consolidate the grammar structure automatically through the games.3.2.2 Cognitive strategyCognitive strategy means that the teacher adopts a series of ways to illustrate the language points. That is to say, the teacher teaches dead rules by interesting tasks.On the basis of the comprehending of grammar rules, students can use these dead rules to do some creative activities. A typical cognitive strategy is "analytical and inductive method". Analytical and inductive method refers to that the teacher presents the concrete grammar step by step and tries to induce students to observe, analyze, and then find out the inner grammatical rules instead o f explaining the grammar rules directly to students.If the teacher wants to explain, “have somebody do something” “havesomething done” , he should attract students’ attention to that pattern.T: Lily, please open the door.T: What did I ask Lily to do?S: Y ou asked her to open the door.T: Y es, I had her open the door, I had the door open.In this way, students can understand how the grammar was used in a real situation. After students have comprehended the target language , the teacher can give them more examples to practice and students can discuss with their partners.The analytical and inductive method induce students to fully understand and internalize language rules, and also help them build up a clear and concrete sche me of English grammar system.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Task-based Grammar Teaching4.1 Advantages of the task-based teaching grammar approachCompared with the traditional grammar classroom, the teaching activities designed according to the theory of task-based approach have many advantages.(1)These activities can arouse students' interests in learning grammar. During the whole process, students feel very excited, and they can remember the structure more clearly and easily. For them, grammar is no longer a difficult and boring thing. Group work makes the tasks more interesting and much easier. At the same time, the application of tasks enables students to think of much more creative ideas and they are eager to express their opinions on the topics.(2)What's more, such activities offer a plenty of opportunities and create language environments for students to speak English. That is to say, they have more chances to open their mouths, which in turn will improve their speaking and their communicative abilities virtually. Through the process of completing the task-based activities, students could get much meaningful language input and what they have learnt in the classroom could help them solve problems in real life.Above all, the task-based teaching approach is the product of the process syllabus. It puts forward the idea of a shift of emphasis from "what is to be learnt" to"how it be learnt".4.2 Disadvantages of the task-based grammar teaching approachIn most middle schools in China, especially in rural areas, the task-based grammar teaching approach shows a face of marked disadvantages.Firstly, the center of TBLT is the task. However, from students’ perspective, the accomplishment of task required the participants to have considerable language bases. Thus it has been argued that TBLT may not be the best way to develop basic language skills in the lowest ability levels. In the mean time pressure of time will force learners to make use of language that can be readily accessed rather than to attempt to create language in real time. There may be a minimal concern with accuracy and no incentive for learners to extend their existing language system. Since the task-based grammar teaching approach gives students more freedom to wield their rights in class, such as freely expressing their ideas, discussing the topic with their partners and so on; and during the task phase, teachers can not disturb students' activities. These individual activities conducted by students are difficult to be supervised and controlled effectively by the teacher. For example, in the group work, it's easy to see students talk with each other in their mother tongue instead of the target language; and they seldom get a clear concept of the teaching aims.Secondly, from the teachers’perspective task-based language teaching requires a high level of creativity and initiative on the part of the teacher. If the teachers are limited to more traditional roles or do not have time and resources to implement task-based teaching; this type of teaching may be impossible. Task-based learning requires resources beyond the textbooks and related materials usually found in language classrooms. Meanwhile the evaluation of task-based learning can be difficult. The nature of task-based learning prevents it from being measurable by some of the more restricted and traditional tests (Krahne 1987). There is naturally more concern for use of lexis and lexical chunks than for grammar and grammatical accuracy (Willis 1996). So TBLT has some dangers if implemented carelessly. Learners will put great emphasis on communicating meanings, but not necessarilyworry about the exact form that they use.Thirdly, the large size of English classes in middle school is a big problem for the implementation of TBLT when there are group tasks to be done and when the evaluations of the product need to be done. Most classes in Chinese middle schools have more than 50 students, the task designed by the teacher often cannot be fully completed by students in the specified time. Each student gets little chance to speak if the group is large because tasks are usually time-limited. In addition, not all the students can get the amendment from the teachers. Otherwise when there are two many people in a group some of the members will choose to be silent, which will not guarantee the effectiveness of the task-based grammar teaching approach.ConclusionAs we all know, at present China is undertaking an overall reform in curriculum and syllabus design. The application of task-based approach is in agreement with the essence of the reform. Task-based teaching approach belongs to a kind of communicative approach with the learners as the center of the classroom and the teacher playing a facilitative role. The classroom of task-based teaching approach is healthy for students to give their personal opinions and participate in the activities, such as role-plays and pair-works. Therefore it’s possible to say that task-based teaching approach is an effective, practical and innovative teaching method and this method is feasible when used in grammar teaching.However, TBLT inevitably has its disadvantages. It is hard to guarantee its effectiveness and it brings heavy burden to English teachers. Measures to deal with these shortages are as follows: the problem of large classes can be solved if teachers arrange students into groups in class properly; teachers should themselves have an overall development both in language and in teaching skills; With these measures, TBLT can be more suitable for the English grammar teaching in middle schools.Works Cited:[1] Bygate, M. “Adjusting the focus: teacher roles in task-based learning of grammar”: Grammarand the Language Teacher. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall.[2] Celce-murica, M. “Making informed decisions about the role of grammar in languageteaching ”.TESOL Newsletter,19.1(1985):4-5.[3] Hinkel, E and S.Fotos, New Perspectives on Grammar Teaching in Second LanguageClassrooms Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001.[4] Jane, Willis. “Aims and Explorations into Tasks and Task-based Teaching” :TeachersExploring Tasks in English Language Teaching. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2009.[5] Litterwood,W. Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, 1981.[6] Nunna, D. Designing tasks for communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress,1989.[7] Nunna, D. Language teaching methodology. Hemel Hemstead: Prentice Hal1,1991.[8] Nunna, D. Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Heinle& heinle,1999.[9] Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Processing. Hong Kong: Oxford UniversityPress,1998.[10] Stern,P. “A Framework for the Implementation of Task-based Instruction”AppliedLinguistics,17.1,(1996) .[11]陈仕清.英语新课程理论与实践[Z].上海：上海教育出版社，2006.[9]丁文.任务型教学法在初中英语课堂上的运用[J].中小学英语教学与研究，2002，（7）.[12]罗毅和蔡慧萍.英语课堂教学策略与研究方法[Z].武汉：华中科技大学出版社，2011.[13]王蔷.英语教师行动研究——从理论到实践[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002.[14] 魏永红. 任务型外语教学研究[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004.AcknowledgementsIt’s due to many people’s assistance that I am able to finish my thesis within such a short time, and here I want to express my gratitude to them. First of all, I should extend to instructor Wang Nina, my supervisor, am thankfulness for his invaluable support and unflinching encouragement. His detailed comments and insightful suggestions have been inspiring me for the accomplishment of this paper. Without his help I would not have been able to finish this paper.My appreciations and gratitude should also go to all the teachers and faculty members of school of foreign languages for their hard work and excellent lectures. During these three years, I have benefited greatly from their lectures and support. Their selfless and endless assistances are vital for my research work.。
On the Application of Task-based Approach for the Teaching of Business English
On the Application of Task-based Approach for theTeaching of Business Englishabstract: this paper mainly studies the teaching approaches in a way of combing task-based theory with classroom teaching practice for business english course taught in the intermediate vocational school.key words: task-based approach, business writing, teaching modelintroductiontasked-based language teaching approach has been generally accepted and widely applied since 1980’s when it was first put forward. however, it has not been so much a case in english language teaching in our country. even the teaching research relating to english writing course has hardly been heard. in fact, task-based teaching approach merges the general conceptions of language application into a classroom teaching model that embodies concrete practical significance. hence, the approach can undoubtedly be used to guide the english teaching activities, which, unfortunately, are hindered often by limited teaching resources and by teachers’self abilities that are deficient. as a result, even few researchers show their interest in it.business english writing, whose purpose is to train the students’ ability of written information text output, is taught for the students with business english major in our school as one of the core courses, which shoulders a huge teaching responsibility. in view of the above, it is very significant and necessary to discuss and explore so as to improve our classroom teaching approach in business english writing course taught in the intermediate vocational school in order that a classroom teaching model, which is effective, easily operated and spread, could be finally established.2. the basic methods and procedures of task-based approacha task-based lesson uses a task as its main component. in designing this kind of lesson, the stages or phasesof thelesson — pre-task phase, during-task phase, andpost-task phase — must be carefully considered. thepre-task phase is concerned with the activities the teachers and learners can undertake before they start with the task; the second, on the task itself; and the third, on the procedures by which the taskperformancecan be followed up. of these three, only the second is obligatory. but while it may be so, the other phases — the pre- and post-tasks — may be crucial in ensuring that theperformanceof thetask iseffective for language development.the pre-task phase may be used to motivate the students to actively participate in the task and/or to make them understand the importance of participating in the task, hence, raising the likelihood of them actively participating in the during-task phase. a teacher can do the pre-task phase by doing any one of these four ways: (1) by supporting learners in performing a task similar to the task they are to perform in the during-task phaseof thelesson; (2) by asking students to observe a model perform the task; (3) by engaging learners in non-task activities that will prepare them for the task; and (4) by conducting a strategic planningof themain task together with the students.for the during-task phase, the teacher has two options: those relating to how the task is to be undertaken (task-performance options) and those that involve the teacher and students in on-line decision-making about how to perform the task (process options). for the task-performanceoptions, the teacher may have to decide whether or not he/she should set a time limit, whether or not he/she should allow students access to the input data, and whether or not he/she should incorporate some surprise element into the task.giving students unlimited time seems to encourage accuracy; whereas,setting a time limit seems to encourage fluency. allowing input data often depends on the designof thetask. and finally, incorporating surprise element into a task does not seem to have any effect on the fluency, complexity or accuracyof thelearners’ language.the post-task phase allows for three options: having the students do a repeatperformance, reflection on the task, or focus on forms. requiring students to repeat a task allows them to improve theirperformance, in terms of fluency, complexity, and proposition use, among others. asking the students to reflect on the task — how they did it and what they decided or discovered — via oral or written report may contribute to the developmentof thestudents’ planning, monitoring, andevaluating skills. finally, focusing on forms at the post-task phase may counter the likelihood of students developing fluency at the expense of accuracy.3. teaching business english in task-based approachtake the topic “inquiry and offer” in business english teaching as an example to illustrate as follows the application of task-based approach.pre-task: introduction of related background knowledge.one week before the class the contents and teaching aims are to be introduced to the class, which are divided into four groups. then all the students are required to do a research work in a libraryor online about the relating background knowledge to be taught.during-task: at the beginning of the class, a group is chosen at random to do a presentation by using multi-media and show the whole class the background knowledge concerning the unit. after that the teacher puts in some additional explanations and introduces the common phrases and expressions often used during the process of inquiry and offer. then the students are asked to play the roles: two groups for importers and the other two groups for exporters, with a manager in charge of each group. to begin the task buyers go to the exporters’ stores to do inquiry, while exporters are to introduce their products and to give offers. at last, the two sides reach an agreement and the buyers make an order on the spot. the teacher should ask that students of all the groups try to use as often as possible the phrases and expressions mentioned by the teacher before the task. during the task, the teacher should observe all the groups carefully because sometimes the task may be hard to continue due to somestudents’ poor english. if this happens, the teacher may join and lead the group and keep the task going and finish it. at this time the teacher should try to guide the students to understand that the purpose of a language is to communicate, therefore students should focus more on the meanings of the language not only the formspost-task: after finishing the task, the teacher makes comments about the students’ activities during the whole process. the teacher may review the phrases and expressions, letting the students focus more on the forms of the language after getting a comparatively firm idea about their meanings. at this stage, the teacher asks each student of all the groups to revise the materials which are prepared before class and to hand in a detailed written report next time. through the report the teacher could further learn whether the pre-set teaching goals are reached or not.4. some considerations for the application of task-based approachtask-based approach certainly possesses its advantages and disadvantages. it is advantageous to the student because it is more student-centered, allows for more meaningful communication, and often provides for practicalextra-linguistic skill building. although the teacher may present language in the pre-task, the students are ultimately free to use what grammar constructs and vocabulary they want. this allows them to use all the language they know and are learning, rather than just the ‘target language’ of the lesson. furthermore, as the tasks are likely to be familiar to the students, students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in their language learning.however, there have been criticisms that task-based learning is not appropriate as the foundation of a class for beginning students. the major disadvantage for beginning students is that the focus of task-based language learning is on output, when beginning language learners often go through asilent periodrequiring massive amounts ofcomprehensible input. others claim that students are only exposed to certain forms of language, and are being neglected of others, such as discussion or debate. teachers may want to keep these in mind when designing a task-based learning lesson plan.when task-based teaching is used to teach business english, some considerations of other aspects have to be taken intoaccount, for instance:a. the teacher should carefully select a task. and the task should be the task that can maneuver out students’ enthusiasm and the task that students can do it perfectly well. the task should be closely related to practical business activities which easily bring about students’ interest and desire for participation.b. the teacher should design and choose a task with the right difficulty to suit different students. tasks with different degree of difficulty should be considered in designing at different teaching stages. even different tasks could be designed in just one lesson to suit students with different language foundation so that the enthusiasm of most students could be attended.c. in the process of during-task, the teacher should carefully observe the students’ behaviors and offer them help if necessary. for example, the teacher may join a group and give assistance when the students’ english are comparatively poor. and when some students spend too much time speaking while other students can hardly get any chance to speak, the teacher might intervene in and make some proper adjustment.d. the teacher should introduce incentives. the students’performance at during-task stage should be quantified and reflected in the final score. after a task is completed, the teacher should praise every student in a right way in making comments, the praise should focus on the students who are not so active in the whole process. under the teacher’s positive excitation, these students would take a more active attitude in the participation of future tasks and the teacher, in return, could receive a more desirable teaching effect in business english.e. the factor whether or not the teacher possesses the knowledge about the specificbusiness english topic would influences the teaching effect and should not be ignored when task-based approach is applied in the teaching of business english. to take on task-based approach, a teacher should master sufficient knowledge in business and design tasks that are very close to the real business environment and enable students to improve their abilities of applying business english. and the teacher should also offer solutions to all the specific problems the students would come across in carrying out the task. therefore, a teacher in business english course should work hard to become a teacher good both at english and business.5．conclusiontask-based approach is new type of teaching approach demanding students to apply the language knowledge they are familiar with to the task, focusing on developing students’ability of applying language skills. traditional teaching approach is a approach with a teacher mainly instilling contents into students and with students being forced to accept. this kind of teacher- centered teaching approach is not likely to insult in satisfactory teaching effect. however, task-based teaching approach reinforces students’ learning process, purposeful communications and meaningful expression, encouraging students to get close to a nearly true task. it is an approach though the process of which students can obtain a good sense of language and train the ability of the practical application of business english.this student-centered teaching approach possesses its unique superiority and is today worth applying and spreading in the teaching of business english course which aims to train senior practical talents. it doesn’t mean, of course, that traditional teaching approach is useless and nothing at all. therefore, how to make use its advantages when task-basedteaching approach is applied depends on teachers’ continuous reflections and appropriate adjustments in the process of application in order to achieve the best effects fortask-based teaching approach.bibliographymeddings, l and thornbury, s (2009) teaching unplugged: dogme in english language teaching. peaslake: delta.nunan，d.task-based language teaching .cambridge university press，2004.frost, richard. “a task-based approach.” british council teaching english，2004ellis，r.task-based language learning and teaching .oxford university press，2003.harmer, jeremy. the practice of english language teaching. 3rd edition. pearson education ltd., 2001willis j.a framework for task-based learning .london：longman，1996.prabhu，n.s.second language pedagogy .oxford university press，1987.。
The task 任务教学法 中英文对照
The task-based approach 任务教学法作为交际法的一种发展形态，任务型教学法本质上仍旧属于交际法的范畴。
其教学理念主要体现在如下几个方面(Ellis R. 2003 Task-based language Learning and Teaching. Oxford：Oxford University Press)：(1)教学的根本目标是完成诸项语言任务。
(2)强调语言学习是一个从意义到形式、从功能到表达的过程，反对听说法对某种句型的反复机械操练。
(3)鼓励学习者创造性地运用语言进行交际。
(4)完成语言任务的过程中，表达的流畅性重于表达的准确性。
As a new form of development of communicative approach, task-based teaching method is still essentially belongs to the category of the communicative approach. Its Teaching idea mainly embodied in the following several aspects (Ellis, r. 2003 Task --based language Learning and would. Oxford: Oxford University Press) :(1) the teaching of fundamental goal is to complete the language task.(2) the emphasis on language learning is a from meaning to form, from the function to express the process, method of opposition to hear some sentence patterns of repeated mechanical drill.(3) encourage learners to communicate creatively use the language.(4) to complete the task of language in the process, the accuracy of the expression of fluency is more important than.任务型教学法具有如下几个鲜明的特质：(一)任务型课堂教学中的任务是一种现实性的交际活动。
Application of Task-based Language Teaching to Eng
2018年19期总第407期高等教育研究ENGLISH ON CAMPUSApplication of Task-based Language Teaching to English Extensive Reading文/史琪【Abstract 】As a basic course for college English major students, the English extensive reading course undertakes many important assignments. However, nowadays, there exist some problems in the English extensive reading class.In order to bring students’ active participation into full play, the task-based language teaching approach is adoptedto the English extensive reading course. This paper will discuss the definition of tasks and TBL T and a syllabus based on TBL T is offered to better display the teaching process.【Key words】Task-based Language Teaching; English extensive reading; syllabus【作者简介】史琪(1993- )，女，河北石家庄人，西安外国语大学研究生，2017级外国语言学及应用语言学专业。
1. IntroductionDefinition of tasks and TBL TTask-based Language Teaching is an approach that students reach the learning goals in the process of fulfilling a series of tasks. TBL T advocates that the notion “task” is a central unit of planning and teaching. Many scholars have defined it as follows: Crookes defines a task as “a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.” (Crookes, 1986).According to Richards and Rodgers, task-based language teaching (TBLT) refers to the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching. (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). It is an approach that students are given many functional tasks which mainly focus on the meaning exchange and the use of language in the real-world. (Van den Branden, 2006).2. A Syllabus based on Task-based Language Teaching Course objectives:This course is designed to help students master many kinds of useful reading skills. Besides, students are supposed to learn independently, promote their communicative ability after the large amount of input on different topics, and expand their horizon. Teaching materials:Textbook: 王守仁, & 赵文书. (1996). 新编英语泛读教程, (第1册). 上海外语教育出版社.Handouts, Group PowerPoint and Multiple Media Implementation:This course is designed for undergraduates in the sophomore year in college majoring in English. Each class is composed of three different parts, which include pre-reading part, while-reading part, and post-reading part.In order to demonstrate the detailed teaching procedure, we set the passage “Culture Shock: Making a cultural change” in English Extensive Reading textbook as an example to clarify the procedure clearly.Pre-reading part (20minutes)Teacher triggering part:The teacher presents a picture with some people from different countries in the PowerPoint and raises some warming-up questions.Students’ answering part: Some students share their personal experiences and understanding on this issue. Teachers’ supplement part: The teacher explains the definition of “culture” and “culture shock” with some examples.Task-given part:Students are required to guess the word meaning in the word pretest, summarize the main idea of this passage, figure out what are the four distinctive phases of “culture shock” in the passage, the organization pattern of paragraph 1, the topic and main idea of paragraph 5.While-reading part (40 minutes) Students’ individual reading Students’ discussion part Teachers’ aid partStudents’ answering part Students’ comment part: Other groups can compare findings, comment or add extra points. Teachers’ assessment part:The teacher evaluates the tasks done by students in task-given part.3. ConclusionThe application of task-based language teaching to English extensive reading is beneficial to students. Students promote reading ability and communicative ability by accomplishing various tasks. Although there exist many challenges, there is no doubt that TBLT is an effective and useful teaching approach. Educators and teachers should spare no efforts to make innovations in teaching so that students can learn the most from the class. References:[1]Branden,K.V.D.(2006). Task-based language education: from theo-ry to practice. Cambridge University Press.33。
The Application of Task-Based Approach in English
US-China Foreign Language, May 2022, Vol. 20, No. 5, 182-185doi:10.17265/1539-8080/2022.05.002The Application of Task-Based Approach inEnglish Writing CourseTANG LiUniversity of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, ChinaWriting competence is one of the basic skills of language acquisition. The teaching of writing skill has beenattached great importance to in college English education in China. For decades, people have made efforts toimprove the teaching effects through various means, one of which is that of task-based approach. This paperattempts to explore the design of a writing lesson through a case study in terms of task-based approach, thusproviding an alternative to the conventional teaching method in writing course.Keywords: English writing, teaching, task-based approachIntroductionWriting, as part of the output of second language acquisition, accounts for a vital part in college English All Rights Reserved.language education in China. It manifests students’ capability in dimensions including vocabulary, syntax,discourse, and more importantly the shaping of thoughts appropriately.For decades, teachers and researchers have been exploring various methods to conduct effective writing teaching by emphasizing that writing competence is an object for study or manipulation. Therefore, the class isteacher-centered, with lecturing, writing practice, commenting, and revising as the major steps.Instead of the above mentioned conventional teaching methods for writing course, the task-based approach provides a more practical perspective to ensure the teaching effect and the transformation of students’ writingcompetence.In the following part, the methodology of task-based approach will be introduced to conduct a writing lesson in college English education as a case study.Task and Task-Based ApproachAccording to Bygate, Skehan, and Swain (2001), a task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain and object. Similarly, Richards, Platt, and Weber (1985) defineda task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language, i.e., asa response. The task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion ofthe task. The use of a variety of different kinds of task in language is said to make teaching morecommunicative.Acknowledgements: This paper is part of Key Course Project: English Writing, Shanghai Municipal Education Commission(2021).TANG Li, M.A., lecturer, College of Foreign Languages, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai,China.THE APPLICATION OF TASK-BASED APPROACH IN ENGLISH WRITING COURSE 183 Rod Ellis (2013) gave a list of criterial features of a task as follows:(1) a task is a work plan; (2) a task involves a primary focus on meaning; (3) a task involves real-world processes oflanguage use; (4) a task can involve any of the four language skills; (5) a task engages cognitive processes; and (6) a taskhas a clearly defined communicative outcome. (pp. 9-10)He further proposes three principal phases of lesson design: pre-task, during-task, and post-task phases.In the following chapter, a case study is analyzed in terms of the above mentioned phases as an attempt to exemplify how task-based approach is applied in English writing course.A Case StudyThe four language skills include reading, writing, listening, and speaking. In English writing, it is commonly accepted that there are four basic styles of writing: description, narration, exposition, and argumentation. In thefollowing part, a lesson on argumentative writing will be selected as a case to show how task-based approach isapplied.Pre-Task PhaseThe aim of pre-task phase is to help the learner conduct the task in a way that will encourage acquisition.It is meant to motivate learners. Lee (2000) valued in explaining the purpose and utility of the task.In the case of an argumentative writing lesson, the pre-task phase includes the following two parts: the oral presentation part and the writing part.The teacher begins the course by assigning students a task: to write a letter to a certain newspaper to give All Rights Reserved.the opinion on whether Yuanming Yuan (Round Bright Garden) should be rebuilt or not.In order to perform the task effectively, brain storming is conducted. The first step of brain storming is about “how much do you know about Yuanming Yuan?”In the second step of brainstorming, the students write down all the key words that they can think of and expand the key words into specific glossary in various aspects. After that, information sharing will be presentedfirst in groups and then to the whole class.In all the information presented, the teacher selects the historic part and generalizes them in a more logical sequence.A video concerning Yuanming Yuan’s history is played. After the watching, the students will compare theinformation derived from the brainstorming with the message in the video.Finally, the students are asked to do more research work in the library or online to prepare themselves for the next phase in terms of knowledge as well as language.During-Task PhaseArgumentation is the writing that aims to persuade. Therefore, in the during-task phase, the focus is on how to propose the position, how to support the argument, and how to refute the counterargument to convincethose with opposing views. In fact, the written argumentation is equivalent to oral debate in nature. It is aconstructive way to put the task first in the oral form: a debate.The candidates for pros and cons are selected from the pairs formed in the pre-task brainstorming, each of whom presents his/her idea in three minutes.A vote is cast to decide the final members of pros and cons. The rest of the class are all judges except onemember performing the role of the chairperson.THE APPLICATION OF TASK-BASED APPROACH IN ENGLISH WRITING COURSE 184The oral debate is conducted in class, which process is videoed. The judges make the final decision by announcing the winner.The video is replayed for the generalization of the whole debate by highlighting the crucial evidence and sound logic as well as suggesting improvement. The highlighted part will be kept as first-hand samples for thefollowing writing task.In the composition-writing procedure, the students are required to share the debate’s experience in supporting argument and refuting counterargument, both of which will be reinforced by the teacher. Theteacher assigns the writing task, i.e., all the students are supposed accomplish an argumentative essay as required: Please develop your writing into an argumentative essay on the topic:Should Yuanming Yuan Be Restored?You need to state clearly your thesis.Both supporting your own argument and refuting the opposing argument are required.After the submission of the writing assignment, the teacher revises the compositions and makes comments on them. The following basic argumentative organization is suggested:IntroductionA. Introduce the topicB. State thesis statementRefutingA. Acknowledge the differing viewpointAll Rights Reserved.B. Provide evidence for counterargumentC. Refute the counterargumentSupportingA. Sub-idea 1 and supporting evidenceB. Sub-idea 2 and supporting evidenceConclusionIt would be an end to the writing course if it were conducted in the conventional way. However, in the task-based approach, the goal is yet to achieve in that language is only the tool for communication ends. Thus,in the present case, a real-life task of the writing lesson still needs to continue.After the revision of the compositions, the students are required to write a letter to a certain newspaper to express their views on whether the garden should be restored. In the perspective of second language acquisition,the writing shifts from argumentative writing to practical writing.In the letter-writing procedure, the format of a business letter and email is introduced including the heading, the inside address, the salutation, the body, and the complimentary close.Each student writes a letter concerning the same topic of the argumentative essay.In the revision part of the letter, peer review is conducted in groups, and further conducted in the whole class, from which two letters with both opposing views from pros and cons are recommended as tworepresentative letters from the whole class sent to the newspaper.Post-Task PhaseWills (1996) recommended asking students to present a report on how they did the task and on what theyTHE APPLICATION OF TASK-BASED APPROACH IN ENGLISH WRITING COURSE 185decided or discovered. The importance on the reflection from the part of the students is stressed.In the present case of argumentative/letter writing, the students are asked to finish the following tasks of producing a summary both chronologically and thematically in groups. The summary is shared in the wholeclass. Then the teacher addresses the problems in the reports and synthesizes all the group-reports.If the letter is replied by the newspaper, the email will be shared in class. The format of correspondence is reinforced through letter reading.If the letter is not replied till the end of the lesson, the students will be asked to reply the letter by performing the role of the editor.Conclusion“The overall purpose of task-based methodology is to create opportunities for language learning and skill development through collabor ative knowledge building” (Ellis, 2013, p. 276). In the case study of the paper,the task is explicitly assigned and an adequate orientation to performing the task is conducted to guide thestudents into the real-life practice in the pre-task phase. In the during-task phase, a series of procedures aredesigned in the light of communicative purpose of language. It is not isolated piece of work; instead, itencourages the students to “do something” with language in real world. In the post-task phase, the effect of thetask is taken into full consideration by feedback and reflection. The three phases of the case illustratetask-based approach is effective in promoting students’ independence and autonomy in second languageacquisition.All Rights Reserved.ReferencesBygate, M., Skehan, P., & Swain, M. (Eds.). (2001). Researching pedagogic tasks, second language learning, teaching and testing. Harlow: Longman.Ellis, R. (2013). Task-based language learning and teaching. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.Lee, J. (2000). Tasks and communicating in language classrooms. Boston: McGraw-Hill.Richards, J., Platt, J., & Weber, H. (1985). Longman dictionary of applied linguistics. London: Longman.Wills, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Harlow: Longman.。
The Effective Application of the Task-based Language Teaching Approach in English Reading
- 30-校园英语 / 高等教育研究The Effective Application of the Task-based LanguageTeaching Approach in English Reading Class——Take Unit 1 Anne’s Best Friend for Example大理大学教育科学学院/朱双丽【Abstract 】Task-based language teaching always stress the importance to combine formfocus teaching with communication teaching. TBLT as one possible solution to bridge the gap between English reading class and real-life language use.【Key words 】TBLT; language teaching; reading1. IntroductionTask-based Language Teaching is a further development of Communicative Language Teaching. TBLT is based on the analysis of students needs. There are opportunities for learners to focus both on language and learning process.It uses authentic materials in learning situation.2.The Implication of Task Design in “Anne ’s Best Friend ”2.1 Prediction TaskTeacher should active the background knowledge and introduce the new materials in the first task.Activity 1: present a video of World War II of Jewish people ’s life to let students see when and what happened to them. Later show some pictures in the PPT that could help students understand the background of the story deeply;Activity 2: ask students the following questions ;(1) Why do you need friends? Make a list of reasons why friends are important to you;(2) Does a friend always have to be a person? What else can be your friend?2.2 Problem Solving TaskStudents take part in language organization and selection with the help of the group, teacher. In this stage students are required to scan the passage.Activity 1: students work in group to discuss the following questions:(1) How do Anne feel?(2) What do you think of Anne?In addition to these activities, there are some patterns and expressions that teachers need explaining to students. And then do some exercise for a language point such as substitution exercise and transform sentences.Activity 2: choose one of the sentence structures to make a sentence or a new story. After they have finish task, students can share story to other groups or discuss with their partner.2.3 Creative TaskThe creative task is designed for post-task phase. Teacherdesign some tasks that could help students reflect the process of the story.Activity 1: Make a list at least five words. Share your list with another pair. Choose five good adjectives from the two lists.Activity 2: four students a group to discuss the situation: suppose you have hide yourself for three months, you will be offered the necessary food, water and clothes, your group can take five things with you. What will you take? Why? How will you spend three months? At last, teacher need to make assessment of students ’ behavior.3. Effectiveness of Using TBLT in Anne ’s Best Friend 3.1 Stimulation of Students ’ Motivation.Authentic situation maybe more vivid than explanation. At the beginning of the lesson, teachers use videos or pictures to arise students ’ interest. Then they design a lot of questions and activities to let students participate. By increasing students ’ motivation, teachers feel interested in TBLT lessons.3.2 The Rational Use of Teaching MaterialBecause all the classroom learning was form-focused, focusing mainly on mastering and memorizing the words, sentences, and grammar, there are few opportunities for students to be exposed to authentic input. Firstly, teacher uses video and pictures to help students understand background knowledge. Secondly, teacher combines the text to design some practical tasks.Thirdly, teachers refer exercise of the text to design some questions and activities.3.3 Communicative CompetenceStudents learn the language through participating and completing communicative and purposeful task. The problem is that most of students are good at grammar and none of them speak English. In this lesson students practice language points through task and teacher arranges task and students work in groups. This pattern boldly encourages students to say English as much as possible.References:[1]Wang,J.The Design and Reflection of Task-based Reading Teaching in Senior High School[J].Jour.[2]Wang Qiang.A Course in English Language Teaching[M].High Education Press,2006:26-37.作者简介: 朱双丽, 女, 汉族, 大理大学2016级在读研究生，研究方向：小学教育。
task-based teaching method
Task-based Teaching MethodIntroductionTask-based teaching method is an educational approach that requires studentsto complete tasks in order to learn. This approach is based on the idea that students learn best when they are actively engaged in the learning process.The tasks are designed to help students develop their skills, knowledge and understanding of a subject. This approach has been used in many educational settings, including primary and secondary schools, universities, and even inthe workplace.What is Task-Based Teaching Method?Task-based teaching method is an approach to instruction in which students are required to complete tasks to learn. It is based on the idea that studentslearn best when they are actively engaged in the learning process. This approach is often used in combination with other teaching methods, such as lectures and discussions. The tasks are designed to help students developtheir skills, knowledge and understanding of a subject.Advantages of Task-Based Teaching MethodThere are several advantages to using the task-based teaching method. First,it encourages active learning and engagement. By completing tasks, studentsare able to gain a deeper understanding of the material. Second, it allows for personalization of the learning experience. Students can work at their ownpace and on tasks that are tailored to their individual learning needs. Third, it helps to promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Finally, it allows for greater collaboration between students, as they work together to complete tasks.Disadvantages of Task-Based Teaching MethodAs with any teaching method, there are some potential disadvantages to usingthe task-based approach. First, it can be difficult to assess student progress, since the tasks are often open-ended. Second, it can be time-consuming todesign tasks that are appropriate for the subject matter. Third, it may be difficult to ensure that all students are participating in the tasks. Finally, it can be difficult for teachers to provide the necessary support and guidance to students who are struggling with the tasks.Examples of Task-Based Teaching MethodTask-based teaching method can be used in a variety of settings. In a primary school classroom, a teacher might assign a task such as creating a poster about a particular topic. In a university setting, a professor might assign a task such as writing a research paper on a particular subject. In the workplace, a supervisor might assign a task such as creating a presentation about a new product or service.ConclusionIn conclusion, task-based teaching method is an effective approach to instruction that encourages active learning and engagement. It allows for personalization of the learning experience and helps to promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills. While there are some potential disadvantages to using the task-based approach, it can be a useful tool for teachers to use in their classrooms.。
The Application of Task-based Instruction in Chinese EFL Classroom
The Application of Task-Based Instruction in Chinese EFL ClassroomZhiqin ZhangTaiyuan Normal University, China•Abstract•Introduction•Definitions of Task and the Nature of Task-Based Instruction•Some Characteristics of English Teaching in China•Justification for Traditional English Teaching Methods•The Teaching of Grammar•TBI in Chinese Context•Conclusion•ReferencesAbstractThis paper examines the educational concept of task and discusses its relevance to Task-Based Instruction (TBI). The paper argues that communicatively-oriented TBI may not be appropriate to the Chinese EFL discourse, considering Chinese characteristics of EFL teaching context. The paper expounds the importance and necessity of traditional formal teaching in terms of grammar, vocabulary and translation respectively, but also points out its demerits. In the final part, the discussion, based on the TBI framework of Littlewood, describes the TBI as the integration of communicative activities into the teaching of formal features and recommends the ways to apply TBI in the Chinese context.IntroductionSince 1980s when task-based instruction (TBI) has been called for in language teaching (Prabhu, 1987, Nunan 1989, Long and Crookes 1991), TBI has attracted to itself positive reception. Willis (1996) commented that “TBI is attractive…”. Nunan, in his updated edition, “Task-Based Language Teaching”, asserted that TBI has now “moved to the centre ground” (2004, Pxiii). “The task-based approach has achieved something of the status of a new orthodoxy: teachers in a wide range of settings are being told by curriculum leaders that this is how they should teach, and publishers almost everywhere are describing their new textbooks as task-based” as Littlewood noted. However, TBI is not without critiques. Skehan admits that to date, TBI offers no viable framework for the pedagogic planning of communal language-classroom activity. Swan argues: “…I don’t believe that TBI can fulfil its claims” and raises questions on the hypothesis underpinning TBI. Even the strong TBI proponent, Nunan warns of the distance between rhetoric and reality on the subject. Still some researchers and educational innovators have been trying adapting it to the specific context, (Long 1988, Fotos 1998, Samuda 2001) and providing the framework for its implementation. (Skehan 1996). In general, Sheen (2002) points out that “the debate revolves around the degree to which teachers need to direct learner’s attention to understanding grammar whilst retaining a focus on the need to communicate”. But in China, instruction of grammatical features is still common. The point is how much learners’ attention is directed tocommunication. Then questions arise: is TBI applicable to Chinese EFL classroom? Should the formal teaching be abandoned? To answer these questions, at the outset, it is helpful to examine issues relating to the definitions of tasks and task-based instruction.Definitions of Task and the Nature of Task-Based InstructionResearchers are divided as to the range and definition of the ‘task’. Williams and Burden (1997:168) define a task as “any activity that learners engage in to further the process of learning a language”. Breen (1987:23) included in his concept of task a range of learning activities “from the simple and brief exercise type to more complex and lengthy activities such as group problem-solving or simulations anddecision-making”. Estaire and Zanon (1994: 13-20) distinguish two main categories of task:‘communication tasks’, in which the learner’s attention is focused on meaning rather than form, and‘enabling tasks’, in which the main focus is on linguistic aspects such as grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions and discourse, and the like. Different from the above definitions, which include the exercises of grammatical features, Stern (1992: 195-196) emphasizes tasks as ‘realistic language use’, ‘communicative exercises…provide opportunities for relatively realistic language use, focusing on the learner’ s attention on a task, problem, activity, or topic, and not on a particular language point’. Skehan holds that a task is taken to be an activity in which meaning is primary, there is sort of relationship to the real world, task completion has some priority, and the assessment of task performance is made in terms of task outcome.Those who completely exclude activities of formal features from the category of task are Willis and Ellis. According to Willis (1996: 23), “tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome”. Ellis terms any activity in which the learners have no communicative purpose as ‘exercise’. Now this communicative definition represents ‘a broad consensus among researchers and educators’ (Ellis 2000:195). Because of its prevalent communicative definition, TBI can be conceived as a development within the communicative approach. It takes on the following characteristics: (adapted from M. Swan: 377)•Instructed language learning should primarily involve ‘natural’ or ‘naturalistic’ language use, based on activities concerned with meaning rather than language.•Instruction should favour learner-centredness rather than teacher control.•Communicative tasks are a particularly appropriate vehicle for such an approach.•Traditional approaches are ineffective and undesirable, especially where they involve proactive formal instruction and practice decoupled from communicative work.Many questions and counterarguments have been raised in relation to these principles. Fotos (1998), on the basis of his years of experience of teaching English in Japan, recognizes TBI, the research of which is mainly ESL- based, is unsuitable for EFL context. Williams (1995) also points out the inability of communicative ESL teaching alone to promote high levels of accuracy in learners. Swan (2005) argues that it is not clear how TBI can fully meet the requirements of the vast majority of English learners, who need a large amount of input and have not much out-of-class exposure. In fact, teachers are holding on to the traditional teaching methods, sceptical of the value of state-of-the-art methods, just because they are sufficiently aware of the constraints inherent in their situation. The methods to them are clearly inappropriate to their working circumstances.To address the situation, Littlewood(2004) suggests that, regarding the definition of task, we accept the everyday, non-specialist definition of task given in the 1989 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, ‘a piece of work imposed, exacted, or undertaken as a duty or the like’, or ‘a portion of study imposed by a teacher’ , in this way, our attention is directed to particular key dimensions of tasks relevant to language teaching, such as different degrees of task involvement and different degrees of focus on meaning and to the complementary roles of form-focused and meaning-focused tasks in our methodology. He puts forward two dimensions crucial to understanding tasks. The first dimension is the continuum from focus on forms to focus on meaning and the second is the degree of learner-involvement that a task elicits (Littlewood: 2004).Involvement taskHigh task involvementLow focus on meaning (High focus on form)Low task involvementLow focus on meaning (High focus on form) High task involvementHigh focus on meaning (High focus on form)Low task involvementHigh focus on meaning (Low focus on form)Focus on form ←←→→focus on meaningTwo dimensions in task-based foreign language learningIn the figure, Littlewood combines the two dimensions into one framework for characterizing the nature of tasks. The horizontal axis represents, from left to right, the continuum from focus on form to focus on meaning. The vertical axis represents increasing degrees of involvement in a task. Thus whether the task content is form-focused language exercise such as grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation ormeaning-focused activities such as role-play, discussion or problem-solving, the students may contribute a high degree of involvement (top left and top right). On the other hand, if the language exercises or discussions are not appropriate or uninteresting, students may not get involved (bottom left and bottom right). In this framework students’ engagement is emphasized. It seems that the boundary between form and meaning is clear-cut here, because even if the task content is grammar structure, it is achieved through students’ meaningful communicative activities. By engaging in the tasks, the students are not only aware of how the target structure is used in context, they also focus their attention on meaning. TBI in the perspective of the framework designed by Littlewood is more applicable to Chinese EFL context, that is, an integration of communicative activities with formal instruction and the engagement of students in the itemized language focus tasks. To justify my argument, in the following sections first I give a brief introduction of Chinese EFL situation and then highlight the importance of the instruction of grammatical features and finally recommend how to apply TBI in Chinese context.Some Characteristics of English Teaching in ChinaCentralised Test-Driven Teaching Education SystemIn China from primary school to university, the teaching of EFL is test-driven. At high school level, teaching is aimed at preparing students for university entrance examinations. At college level, students learn English to pass EPT-4 and-6 (two nation-wide college English proficiency tests) and ultimately the graduate entrance examination. The learners’ primary goal is to master specific vocabulary items, translation skills, and grammatical structures and improve listening and reading comprehension. Thus grammar instruction dominates the ELT curriculum. Hu (2003) conducted a questionnaire-based study involving 439 secondary school graduates from 25 provinces and municipalities of China and found clear regional differences in the adoption of communicative language teaching (CLT). The findings show that “although some CLT features were more or less present in classrooms in the more developed regions (i.e. large cities and coastal provinces), they were largely absent from classrooms in the disadvantaged rural areas” (Hu: 2005). Hu also mentioned that even in the former, traditional instructional practices predominated or at least existed side by side with CLT activities. He highlighted the point that “70% of the secondary school students nationwide study in the vast rural areas”. Apart from examination pressures on classroom instruction, a variety of contextual factors exert a powerful impact on classroom teaching and make it impossible and inappropriate to adopt communicatively-oriented TBI in EFL classrooms. Among them the most remarkable are teachers’ lack of communicative competence in English and of knowledge of English-speaking cultures.Language Teachers’ CompetenceIn a case study conducted in 2002 of 47 teachers in a northern city of China, Cheng and Wang found that majority of these teachers started to learn English after the critical period: the age that, according to Krashen, plays a crucial role in the proficiency a learner can achieve. As to their educational qualifications, most of them have a three-year course certificate from teachers’ colleges and only a minority have a bachelor’s degree and one of them holds a master’s. As Cheng et al reported in 2003, many in-service teachers of English in China at the junior high school do not have a bachelor degree with the national average being 55% with bachelors at this level of teaching and 80% at senior high schools, and 74.5% of them use grammar-translation method when they learn English. Of these teachers surveyed, more than half express their concern about their own language proficiency and skills in English. This is a typical group of high school teachers in Chinese context with limited English language proficiency and teaching methodologies. They are the major teaching force in Chinese high schools. In addition to the above characteristics, large size classes and poor-exposure to language also contribute to the necessity of the application of traditional methods. They are not without their merits.Justification for Traditional English Teaching MethodsTraditional methods are commonly used to accommodate a linguistic syllabus, stressing the instruction of grammatical features and employing grammar translation method in a procedure of presentation, practice and production (PPP). To those Chinese students who have no prior knowledge of English, the primary task is their elementary command of the language, therefore, the language instruction course must establish an appropriate knowledge and skills base for the learner, i.e. the first two steps of PPP in the classroom. According to Swan (2005:387), three problems are meant to be solved:•Selection and presentation: The most important linguistic elements for learners’ purposes must be identified and made available for learning.•Establishment of a knowledge base: The forms and use of new language items must be fixed in learners’ long-term memory.•Development of recall and deployment: New material, once learnt, must become efficiently retrievable for comprehension or production. Where language use involves not only recall butalso computation (for example applying a morphological or syntactic rule, matching agrammatical form to a meaning or situation), learners must acquire the ability to perform theoperations required with reasonable accuracy in real time.Johnson also maintains that language learning is at least partly a matter of acquiring skills: ‘a view of language as skill is persuasive, insightful, and useful for language teachers’ (1996:38) and emphasizes that instructed acquisition may reasonably include the presentation and practice of such discrete elements of behaviour as syntactic, phonological, morphological and the like which constitute ‘sub-skills’ in the context of ‘skills syllabus’. Long reviewed the research comparing instructed with uninstructed language learning and identified advantages for instruction in terms of the learner’s rate of learning and level of achievement. According to my experience and knowledge gained through years’ teaching of English in a Chinese university and exchanges with my colleagues, teachers’ role as sources of linguistic information cannot be denied and instruction of formal features should not be deleted from the curriculum. In the following discussion, I would argue for the teaching of grammar, vocabulary and translation respectively.The Teaching of GrammarFirst I would like to take a sentence from Persuasion (Austen: 2003)as an example to demonstrate the necessity of knowledge of grammar in comprehending and appreciating the classic English literary works.“ Precisely such had the paragraph originally stood from the printer’s hands; but Sir Walter had improved it by adding, for the information of himself and his family, there words, after the date of Mary’sbirth—‘married, Dec.16, 1810Charles, son and heir of Charles Musgrove, Esq. of Uppercross, in the county of Somerset,’—and by inserting most accurately the day of the month on which he had lost his wife. “(Chapter 1, p9)This is a one-sentence paragraph on the first page of the first chapter. It is very likely that those foreign students who have not had a good command of English grammar have difficulty in comprehending the sentence. Here are three main grammatical points constituting the barriers. Only when they have learned the rules of ‘inversion’, can they make sense of the former part by restoring it to ‘the paragraph had originally stood precisely such from the printer’s hands’. In the latter part, there are two adverbials of manner introduced by ‘by’ to describe how ‘Sir Walter had improved it’, one being ‘by adding…’, the other being ‘by inserting…’, which are coordinated by ‘and’ and separated by two other adverbials. The third grammatical point the students should be aware of is the logical object of ‘adding’. Only when they learn the rule that transitive verbs must take an object, can they realize they need to locate ‘these words’ as the object.This sample of grammatically complex sentences is a common occurrence in our students’ reading textbooks. Unless they have gained a good foundation in English grammar, it is hard to grasp themeaning. As Swan (1985:75) put it, “Language is not only a set of formal systems, but it is a set of system and it is perverse not to focus on questions of form when this is desirable”. Experienced teachers have realized that some grammatical points are difficult to learn and need to be studied in isolation. Thus, they tend to ask their students to practise difficult structures until they master them. Through this development of explicit knowledge about grammar structures, students’ consciousness of the structures is raised so that “they can notice it in subsequent communicative input” (Fotos: 1993).In cognitive psychology it is commonly acknowledged that the distinction between two types of linguistic knowledge is made: an examplar-based system and a rule-based system. The former contains both discrete lexical items and ready-made formulaic chunks of language, which can be easily and quickly accessed during fluent language performance, while the latter consists of abstract representations of the underlying patterns of the language. They require more processing and thus are best suited for more controlled, less fluent language performance. Learners call for this kind of knowledge when they have to creatively construct utterances to express meaning precisely or in sociolinguistically appropriate ways (Ellis: 2000). To learners who are not exposed to the target language environment, numerous sentences are not predicted by the syllabus. They can only construct sentences out of lexical and grammatical building blocks in accordance with the various grammatical rules. Thus, instruction of grammatical rules is essential to the attainment of the advanced language level.Vocabulary-buildingWe often compare speaking and writing to building a house and words to bricks to highlight the importance of vocabulary. Even if students are taught to express approval, make requests, establish rapport, warn, apologize, and the like, they still cannot accomplish all these tasks without the necessary words. The fact is students already know how to perform these communicative functions in their native tongue and what they need to learn is how to do these things in English. They have to learn the words and expressions which are used to refer to the things in the world. Even if students are given chances to open and close conversations, to interact naturally, to interrupt and challenge, ask for help, the knowledge of the linguistic conventions for all these communication is a precondition, which is owed to the input from the dominating teachers, the teachers cannot elicit what is not there. Researchers such as de la Fuente (2006), Ellis and He(1999), Ellis et al., (1994) and Loschky (1994) have underscored the importance of L2 vocabulary acquisition. The way they teach L2 vocabulary is to engage the students in the language-learning activities.The Importance of TranslationThe mother tongue plays an important role in learning a foreign language. Interlanguage contains errors caused by interference from the mother tongue but it cannot be denied that the association between the mother tongue items and foreign language items contributes to the mastery of the foreign language. Its advantages overweigh the disadvantages. Behan and Turnbull(1997, from Swain and Lapkin, 2000) compared the oral presentations of the groups of students who used the first language more in their preparations with those of the groups of students who used less and found the former groups did better than the latter, so they concluded that “L1 use can both support and enhance L2 development, functioning simultaneously as an effective tool for dealing with cognitively demanding content”. (p.41). Swain and Lapkin made a detailed analysis of the use of the first language while the two groups ofstudents were fulfilling two tasks, and made a conclusion that “judicious use of L1 can indeed support L2 learning and use. To insist that no use be made of the L1 in carrying out tasks that are both linguistically and cognitively complex is to deny the use of an important cognitive tool”(PP.268-269). In my teaching experience, I find that translation of some items is even an easier way to students for their grasp and use of the items. For example, in an English text, we came across the word ‘rhinoceros’, I first gave the English definition, ‘a large heavy thick-skinned animal of Africa or Asia, with either one or two horns on its nose’, the students still felt confused, for none of them had ever seen such an animal in real life except several had known it from the picture books, just an English definition is not enough to create an image in their mind. Only when I gave them the Chinese equivalent of the word ‘shuiniu’, they realized what it refers to and had a picture of it. This recourse to the mother tongue makes it possible for us not to learn a new language from scratch.Compared with the traditional methods, communicatively-oriented TBI puts greater emphasis on output, only the last step of PPP, not supplying analysed new language material in the form of word-lists and examples of grammatical regularities and has less time available per class hour for new-language input, so it cannot fully meet the requirements of those learners who are learning a new language and need much more input. When I argue for the traditional methods, I do not mean to say it has no demerits. In fact now the drawbacks of this approach have been deeply felt, since learners, despite years of study, are still unable to communicate in English. Many learners invariably express a dislike for the lecture-style class structure, which preclude student participation. To remedy this weakness, the governmental department in charge of education is undergoing remarkable reforms in terms of curricula and syllabus. A great many textbooks emphasizing communication are introduced from abroad or compiled by educators. But questions need to be asked: how to improve the teaching approach? How to adapt the TBI framework advocated by Littlewood to Chinese context?TBI in Chinese ContextBefore I elaborate on the application of TBI, I’d like to clarify a point. The approach of integration of communicative activities into grammatical instruction is not new. In 1988, Long has recommended a syllabus, which he termed ‘focus on form’, meaning to combine communicative language use with instruction on grammar forms in context, a format which is “particularly characteristic of task-based language instruction” ( Fotos: 1998). Here I don’t use the term to avoid confusion, because in other articles or books on TBI (such as Littlewood: 1998, Ellis: 2000), ‘form’ refers to language features, as opposed to ‘meaning’. In Chinese context, as the systematic teaching of new linguistic material is the primary goal, priority should be given to teacher’s instruction instead of communication or interaction between peers, just as Swan (2005: 390) points out that “If one was seeking an efficient way of improving one’s elementary command of a foreign language, sustained conversation and linguistic speculation with other elementary learners would scarcely be one’s first choice”. On this point, Lightbown (1991:208 from Bruton: 2002) has this say, “On the other hand, since the students are in classes which are strictly homogeneous for native language, they tend to get masses of non-native input which will tend to confirm their own interlanguage hypotheses”. “The questionable effects of this peer interaction on interlanguage representations” can be proved by my observation of students’ reactions when class time is at their disposal to discuss about some topics. Some students always keep silent, for the reason that “we don’t know what to say, how to express ourselves.” Other students may get involved in the discussion, but they are not satisfied because “our words and sentences are too limited, what we say are always restricted tothose things”. Their common response to open-ended pair work or group work is “once or twice one term is enough, if more, it is waste of time”. This does not mean there are no other activities or tasks involved in class. Students can be engaged in the ‘pre-communicative language practice’ (Littlewood: 2004) which is a point on the continuum from focus on form to focus on meaning. The practice primarily focuses on formal features, but is also meaning-orientedItemized language focused tasksThe task is preceded by explicit formal instruction, i.e. the teacher first presents language. Then the students practise it to assimilate by doing a series of tasks. The tasks are intended to make the linguistic features salient to students by raising their awareness of the forms. The students fulfil the tasks in pair through communicative activities, in this way; the students are engaged in the interaction. The tasks take the forms of question-answer exchanges, prompted interaction and written language interaction, depending on the kinds of linguistic features.a. Question-answer exchangesFor example, when the students learn the color words, they can ask each other questions such as “What color is your hair?” and the like. After I finish explaining the grammatical feature, ‘cleft sentence’, I set the students a series of tasks. Partner A poses the question “Who usually cooks in your family?” Partner B replies, “It is my mum who usually cooks.”, and vice versa.b. Prompted interactionFor example, as regards the conversion of direct speech into indirect speech, when Partner A says “My dad works as a doctor”, Partner B responds by saying, “He said his dad works as a doctor.” Then B goes on saying, “My dad works in a factory” and Partner C follows suit.c. Written language interactionWhen I finish a text, usually an interesting story, I set the students the task of rewriting the story, and then retelling it between the deskmates. The task takes two steps, first the students finish it independently so that they have time to prepare, and then do it in pairs.These three forms are the main ones I use in my class to engage my students in the interactive tasks. The teacher has to judge which form is more appropriate to what task. Although the task content centres on grammatical features, the students use the target language in a communicative context. This kind of pair work can overcome the disadvantage of large-size class. With the formal instruction before the task and prompts given during the task, the students will not feel frustrated. In the course of such activities, students’ attention is attracted to both formal features and their meanings and they have a high involvement in terms of the second dimension of TBI.According to Fotos’(1998: 307) “task performance can significantly increase learner awareness of the target structure and improve accuracy in its use, as well as providing opportunities for meaning-focused comprehension and production of the target language. Furthermore, such tasks release more traditionally oriented non-native speaker teachers from the requirement to lead communicative activities in the target language.”As learners’ competence improves, the instruction can move along the continuum to ‘communicative language practice’, ‘structured communication’ and ‘authentic communication’, but at the same time students’ involvement must be taken into consideration. It is not always the case that the more。
Application of Task-based Language Teaching to Eng
2018年29期总第417期高等教育研究ENGLISH ON CAMPUSApplication of Task-based Language Teaching to English Intensive Reading文/张艳【Abstract】Several approaches to second language teaching have been proposed since the 19th century, among which Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) has been widely used in English language teaching recently. Thus, this paper aims to integrate TBLT and intensive reading for postgraduate students who are non-English majors with the hope of promoting learning. This paper takes one of the texts of their English textbook as an example to design a class.【Key words】Task-based Language Teaching; Intensive Reading Course【作者简介】张艳，女，陕西咸阳人，西安外国语大学英文学院在读研究生，2017级外国语言学及应用语言学专业。
1. IntroductionTBLT is a type of teaching methodology. It is a further development of Communicative Language Teaching. TBLT regards that students’ learning of language should be related to real life. It is the language actually used in daily life. It emphasizes on form-focused and communication-focused teaching. In TBL T, students learn to communicate by means of performing tasks. In the process of performing tasks, they link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.2. Definition of TBL TTBLT is an approach to language education in which students are given functional tasks that invite them to focus primarily on meaning exchange and to use language for real-world, non-linguistic purposes. In TBLT, tasks are the main point of this teaching methodology. Tasks are considered as potential building blocks in learning a second language. And tasks are vehicles to support second language learning in terms of eliciting language production, interaction, meaning negotiation, processing of input and concentrate on form.3. Advantages of TBL TFirstly, TBLT is a meaning-centered methodology. That is to say, it can help to develop students’ communicative competence by focusing on the meaning. Secondly, In TBLT, the pre-task part is so helpful in reading comprehension that the teacher can activate students’ background knowledge and the related schemata by engaging them in completing tasks. Thirdly, TBLT can make a positive contribution to students’ success of second language learning.4. A Syllabus Based on TBL T4.1 Class objectivesThis class is aimed to help post-graduate students to learn an intensive reading text. Students are taught to use reading strategies in this class with expectation of making progress in the following detailed aspects: 1) Words, phrases and words collocation recognition and usage. 2) Reading strategies and skills. 3) Enhance students ability of writing a summary. 4.2 Required materialsTextbook book: An English Course for Advanced Learners. By Chenjing, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.4.3 Teaching Procedures1) Warming-up. Showing students the title of the text - Expressing One’s Individuality on PPT. Let students predict the contents of the text with skimming or scanning the text.2) Explanation. Teacher picks up some words within the text that may puzzle them and explains the meaning, usage and collocation of them respectively.3) Classification. Dividing Ss into four groups and each group chooses one part of the passage to study.4) Requirements and questions. Asking them to fulfill the requirements and questions proposed by the teacher after their reading finished.5) Students make a presentation on their summaries and their own understanding of this text. Teacher evaluates their summaries and statements group by group.6) Students communicate with each other within their group on correcting and integrating their summaries. 7) Detailed study and sentence-by-sentence translation of this text.8) Review. Once the text is finished, a review is required by answering comprehension questions and a reading comprehension text of the similar difficulty level.5. ConclusionIn this class, TBLT is well-used in the process of studying the text. Purposeful classroom and learning activities and tasks are essential components of TBL T. It is important to know that a method is effectual only when it is appropriate to the teaching context. The best thing to do is to develop one’s teaching methods based on the context where one teaches and integrates the merits of different methodologies to serve the purpose of one’s teaching objectives and the needs of one’s students. The teaching methodology should be seen as a flexible one and an inspiration of one’s own teaching method. For different methodology serves a different purpose. In order to achieve these goals, different teaching and learning methodologies should be explored in terms of different learning requirements. References：[1]Chen Jing,An English Course for Advanced Learners.Froeign Language Teaching and Research Press.39。
Task –Based Teaching Approach in English Reading Teaching of Junior High School
Task-based Teaching Approachin English Reading Teaching of Junior High SchoolAbstract:English reading teaching of Junior high school is a very important part in English teaching. To develop students’ ability of reading comprehension is the main object of the English teaching for junior high school in our country. But the traditional English reading teaching approach really setback the improving of students’reading ability, and make the reading a weak part for most of the students. Task–based teaching approach has become one of the focuses of English reading teaching in recent years. Task–based approach is a kind of classroom activity regarding learning goals as guiding, viewing the learners as the center of studying. In addition, task –based teaching approach plays an important role in improving the students ’learning ability, cultivating the students ’interes t in learning and cultivating the students’ comprehensive quality.It is divided into three chapters in this paper. The first part is the theory of Task–based language teaching which mainly introduces the definition of Task-based teaching approach, the basic elements and Principles of task –based language teaching. Chapter two introduces the theory of reading. It mainly introduces the definition of reading and reading model. The third part is the focus point of the article. It discusses the concrete implementation of task-based approach in the English reading teaching, including ways of teaching designing and reading activities.Key words:Junior high school English; teaching task-based language teaching; English reading任务型教学法在初中英语阅读教学中的运用提要:初中英语阅读教学是英语教学中一个非常重要的组成部分，培养学生的阅读理解能力是我国初中阶段英语教学的重要目标，也是测试的重点。
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本科生毕业论文设计XXXXXX题目：任务型教学法在初中语法教学中的应用作者姓名指导教师所在学院专业（系）班级（届）完成日期2013年5月8日The Application of Task-Based Approach in English Grammar Teaching in Junior High SchoolsBYA Thesis Submitted to Department of EnglishLanguage and Literature in PartialFulfillment of theRequirement for the Degree of B.A in EnglishAt XXX UniversityMay 8th, 2013XXXX大学本科毕业论文（设计）任务书编号：论文（设计）题目：任务型教学法在初中英语语法教学中的应用学院：外国语学院专业：英语教育班级： 2007级英语教育2班学生姓名： XXX学号： XXXXXX 指导教师： XXX 职称：副教授1、论文（设计）研究目标及主要任务通过比较传统英语语法教学法和任务型教学法突出将任务型教学法应用于英语语法教学的优越性，必要性和科学性。
然后详细介绍应用任务型教学于初中英语语法的相关理论知识。
2、论文（设计）的主要内容本论文共包括五章，第一章简单介绍初中英语写作研究现状，存在的问题以及进行此论题的必要性。
第二章，第三章和第四章为论文的主体部分，其中第二章阐述任务型教学法的基本理论知识。
第三章比较传统语法教学法与任务型语法教学。
第四章详细介绍任务型语法教学的过程，教师学生的角色和能力要求。
第五章总结本论文指出本论文的局限性以及为未来研究提出建议。
3、论文（设计）的基础条件及研究路线任务型教学法形成于 20世纪80年代，广大学者、教育家对其进行了理论研究。
目前已形成比较完善成熟的理论知识，并被广泛应用于语法教学实践中。
本论文主要研究任务型教学法在初中英语语法教学中的应用。
4、主要参考文献Corony Edwards and Jane Willis.2009.Teachers Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching.Beijing:Higher Education Press.David Nunan,2007.Practical English Language Teaching:Grammar.Beijing:Higher Education Press.Nunan, D.1989. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press.Willis, J. 1996. A Framework for Task-based Learning London: Longman指导教师：年月日教研室主任：年月日注：一式三份，学院（系）、指导教师、学生各一份XXXX大学本科生毕业论文（设计）开题报告书XXXX大学本科生毕业论文（设计）评议书XXXX大学本科生毕业论文（设计）文献综述AbstractWith the increasing of the international communication, people pay more attention to the cultivation of the communicative ability in English language learning. Therefore, grammar, as the most important means in communication is laid more and more emphasis on. In order to improve students’ grammar ability, the National New English Curriculum Syllabus advocates that applying task-based approach should be adopted in English classes. This approach has become popular since the mid-1980 in grammar teaching. However, some teachers still adopt the traditional teaching methods and some teachers know little about the specific theories of Task-based approach. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is to prove that the application of Task-based approach is necessary and scientific in English language teaching and learning. Through comparing the traditional grammar teaching methods and Task-based approach, the paper proves the advantage of Task-based approach. And it summarizes the principles of designing tasks, the teaching procedure and the roles and abilities of teachers and students in Task-based approach according to the present Task-based theories. In the end, the paper encourages teachers to apply Task-based approach into English grammar teaching in junior high schools.Key Words: Task-based Approach English grammar teaching Junior high school摘要随着国际交流的日益频繁，人们日益注重交际能力的培养。
因此在交际中发挥着重要作用的语法也越来越受到重视。
为提高语法能力，《初中英语新课程标准》提倡将19世纪80年代中期兴起的任务型教学法应用于语法教学。
然而,有些老师依旧采用传统英语教学法，而有些老师虽对任务型教学法的名称耳熟能详，但对其任务设计、具体操作等具体理论知之甚少，导致教学效果收效甚微。
本文旨在论证应用任务型教学法的必要性和科学性以及阐述其相关理论。
本文通过对传统英语语法教学法和任务型教学法进行比较，突出了任务型教学法的优越性，并通过对现有理论的研究，对任务设计原则、课堂基本教学步骤、师生在课堂教学中扮演的角色以及应具备的能力进行了总结。
最后鼓励教师将任务型教学法灵活应用于初中语法教学。
关键字:任务型教学法英语语法初中Table of contentsAbstract in English (ⅲ)Abstract in Chinese (ⅳ)Chapter1. Introduction (1)Chapter2. Theoretical Researches on Task-based Approach (5)2.1 Definition of TBA (5)2.1.1 Definitions of Task (5)2.1.2 Components of a Task (6)2.1.3 Types of Tasks (7)2.1.4 Components of the TBA Framework (7)2.2 Principles of Designing Tasks (8)2.2.1. The Authenticity of Principles (9)2.2.2. The Form-function of Principles (9)2.2.3. The Task-Dependency and the Task-Chain Principle (10)2.2.4. The Principle of Learning by Doing (11)Chapter3. Comparison of English Grammar Teaching Between TraditionalA p p r o a c h a n d T B A (12)3.1 Difference in Teaching Objectives (12)3.2 Difference in Teaching Organizat ional Form (13)3.3 Difference in Teaching Context (14)3.4 Difference in Evaluation (14)Chapter4. Application of TBA in English Grammar Teaching in Junior High Schools (16)4.1 Teachers and Students in TBA (16)4.1.1The Roles of the Teacher and Students in TBA (16)4.1.1.1The Role of the Teacher in TBA (16)4.1.1.2The Role of Students in TBA (18)4.1.2 Teachers’ and Students’ Abilities in TBA (19)4.1.2.1. Teachers’ Abilities in TBA (20)4.1.2.2. Students’ Abilities in TBA (21)4.2 The Process of TBA in En glish Grammar Application (22)Chapter5. Conclusion (25)Bibliography (28)Chapter 1 IntroductionEnglish is one of the most widespread and important language in international communication. Since China joined into WTO, English has become more and more popular and important in China. The more important English is the more attention people pay to English learning and teaching. Among English learning and teaching, the productive and receptive abilities take important position, for they are the two basic aspects to evaluate English learning and teaching. The productive abilities are further divided into speaking ability and writing ability. Then English grammar, as basis of the speaking ability and writing ability, plays the most important role in communicating with other countries. However, it is well known that grammar is the hardest to learn and teach, so it is the most tough and necessary task for language teachers to teach English grammar, especially in junior school which requires students to have the English speaking ability and writing ability for communication. It is also vital for teachers to explore and apply a suitable and effective teaching method into grammar teaching in junior high school.There are many kinds of grammar theories and pedagogies proposed by famous scholars, among which three teaching approaches have been commonly applied in grammar class in junior high school in recent years. The three traditional teaching approaches are prescriptive and descriptive approach, transformational-generative approach and functional approach. They would be introduced in details in the following.Firstly, in 1982, some grammarians distinguish between prescriptive grammars and descriptive grammars. A prescriptive grammarian specifies what is right and what is wrong. A descriptive grammarian tries to avoid making judgments about correctness, and concentrates on describing and explaining the way people actually use language. Descriptive linguists who research grammar are concerned with describing how the language is used rather than prescribing how it should be used. However, many problems stem from the fact that traditional grammatical descriptions and terms were inherited from the grammars of classical languages such as Greek and Latin, and did not really suit the analysis of English. Traditional grammar also fails todistinguish between the way a word is formed and how it functions with a sentence.Secondly, in Chomsky’s Universal Grammar in 1996, Chomsky developed the transformational-generative grammar. For Chomsky, a grammar is an abstract set of rules for specifying grammaticality. It is therefore concerned with investigating the internal structure of the human mind rather than with communication. Chomsky argued that grammar was independent of meaning. While transformational-generative grammar has had a major influence on linguistic research, it has had relatively little impact on the teaching of grammar. In fact, Chomsky specifically denied any relevance of his approach in pedagogy.Thirdly, in Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language in 2001, Larsen-Freeman puts that the functional grammar makes a certain kind of grammar. Those who subscribe to functional grammar, reject this separation of form and meaning. The aim of these grammarians is to show how form, meaning, and use are interrelated. To achieve this aim, we need to ask how a given sentence or utterance is formed, what it means, and when/why it is used. Its core idea is the communication purpose. They suggest that some functional grammar is difficult to see that the focus of the message changes and make teaching lack of flexibility.In summary, the three approaches all have shortcomings. In this case, it is urgent and necessary to apply a more suitable and effective approach to English grammar teaching for English teachers and students.Since the mid-1980s when the Task-based approach (TBA) was done and was carried out in the classroom in India, the approach has been popular with teachers and educators. Task-Based approach is a method of instruction under Communicative Approach, which stresses taking various tasks as the center of the language teaching. According to Littlewoods (1992), Task-Based approach stresses student-centered, team working, communicating and acquisition of language. Therefore, the author believes that Task-Based approach overcomes the shortcomings of the three traditional grammar teaching approaches and tries to compare their difference.The National New English Curriculum Syllabus(2001) which advocates developing students’ integrated abilities equally requires junior high school studentsto achieve the following grammar requirements: firstly, students are able to write and say a coherent and well-organized short article and narrate things or express their ideas and attitude in correctly English grammar. Secondly, students are able to summarize a text in correctly grammar. Thirdly, students are able to write short articles or reports according to the directions in correctly grammar. Fourthly, students are able to express ideas smoothly and write standard articles in correctly grammar.In addition, the National New English Curriculum Syllabus (2001) advocates the application of TBA, and some teachers do apply TBA into classroom teaching. However, there are still seldom students who can meet the grammar requirements. Some students in junior high school complain that they have fewer opportunities to express and discuss their ideas. There are two main reasons for this phenomenon. One reason is that some teachers still apply traditional grammar teaching methods into classroom teaching. The other reason is that teachers who adopt TBA don’t apply it correctly. They are lack of the specific knowledge of TBA, for instance, the process of the classroom under TBA. Therefore, the purpose of the thesis is to give a clear illustration about the TBA theories.The thesis contains five parts in all. In the first chapter, it introduces the necessity of the study and the background information which contains the main problems and traditional teaching approaches in teaching junior high school English grammar. In the second chapter, there are two parts. In the first part, it presents the theory about Task-based approach. And in the second part, it introduces the important principles of designing tasks in detail, including the principle of authenticity, the form-function principle, the task-dependency and task-chain principle and the principle of learning by doing. In the third chapter, it compares the differences between the traditional English grammar teaching approaches and the Task-based approach, which includes the difference in teaching objectives, teaching organizational form, teaching context, and teaching evaluation. In the forth chapter, there are two parts. Firstly, it presents theories about teachers and students in Task-based approach, including the roles and abilities of teachers and students. Secondly, it introduces the common grammar teaching procedure under the guide ofTBA. In the fifth chapter, make a conclusion of the thesis and give some suggestion for future studies.Chapter 2 Theoretical Researches on Task-based Approach2.1 Definition of TBATBA is a method under Communicative Approach which emphasizes taking various tasks as the center of the language teaching.2.1.1 Definitions of TaskIn the classroom under TBA, students are first to consider how to finish the task rather than learning some language forms. Therefore ‘task’ is the key term in T BA. That is to say, the understanding of the definition of ‘task’ affects the understanding of TBA. Since 1980s, a lot of scholars have given a definition for task in linguistic field, such as Long, (1985),Richard, (1986), Nunan, (1989), Willis, (1996), Brown (2001), Ellis,(2003) and Littlewoods,（2002）and so on. However, owing to the difference of academic background, research purposes and methods, different scholars and researchers have different definitions for ‘task’. Even the same scholar has different definitions in different periods. There are a great number of definitions on ‘task’, but it needn’t to list all of them out. Some respective definitions would be listed in the following:Long(1985)suggests that task is to do something for themselves or for others with paying or without paying, such as drawing pictures, building houses and playing balls.Richards (1986) defines that task is an activity or action which learners carry out on the basis of understanding language, for instance, drawing a map according to the instructions. The task requires teachers to give specific criterions which are used to judge weather students achieve the goal successfully.Prabbu (1987) gives a definition that a task is an activity or action in which learners achieve a certain conclusion or product after thinking and analyzing the provided information. During the process of completing the task, the learner can control and adjust their thinking.Willis (1996) defines that a task is an activity in which learners communicate inthe target language with the purpose of achieving an outcome.Brown suggests that “a task usually refers to a specialized form of technique or series of techniques closely allied with communicative curricula, and as such must minimally have communicati ve goals.”(Brown, 2001:129)From the above definitions, it can be summarized that they are really different in some aspects, but there still are some things in common. Firstly, task is an activity or a job people do in their daily life. Secondly, students lay more emphasis on language meaning in tasks. Thirdly, through completing tasks students can improve their communicative ability. Finally, the evaluation of tasks is in terms of outcomes.2.1.2 Components of a TaskJust as making definitions for tasks, many scholars have made efforts to identify the elements of a task. Among the scholars, Nunan (1989) hold the view that a task in TBA is made up by five components.1. Goals: The goal of TBA is to develop students’ communicative ability, including discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence.2. Input: Input refers to the material which learners deal with in or out of the classroom. Input resources include newspaper, magazines, novels, films, songs, student works and so on.3. Activity: Activities refer to tasks in which learners do with the input materials. But activities are not exercises.4. Teacher/student role: It refers to the part that students and teachers play in the classroom under the guide of TBA. Usually, teachers are facilitators, organizers and monitors and sometimes are the partner of students. Students are the center of TBA. They are participants and communicators of the tasks which are to send and receive information in group work and pair work.5. Setting: Setting refers to the classroom instruction context designed for the tasks. Teachers also should consider that weather the tasks are carried out in or out of the classroom, partly or wholly. Nunan (1989) suggests that the setting should be realand natural so that students can perform as if they are using language in real world.2.1.3Types of TasksWillis (1996) classifies tasks into six main types. They are listing, ordering and scoring, comparing, problem-solving, sharing personal experiences and creative tasks. Different types of tasks include different activities and outcomes, for example, in listing tasks, the activities are brainstorming and fact-finding and so on. And the outcomes are a completed list or a drafted mind map in listing. While in the creative tasks, the activities are combination of listing, ordering and sorting, out-of–class research, comparing and problem solving and so on. And the outcome is end product appreciated by a wider audience than students who produced it. In addition, Different types of task should be designed for students of different English levels, for instance, listing is suitable for beginners while creative tasks are fit to students with a higher level of English.2.1.4Components of the TBA FrameworkJane Willis (1996) broke TBA into three sections which are the pre-task, the task cycle, and the language focus.Pre-task: In this stage, teachers introduce the topic and tasks to students and try to stimulate students’ interest for the topic. At the same time, teachers should highlight the useful or difficult words and phrases so that students can understand the task introduction clearly.Task cycle: It can be further divided into three steps: task, planning and report.In task step, students try their best to complete the tasks under the monitoring of the teacher. In the planning step, students make preparation in pairs or groups for the report which would present the procedure and conclusion of their tasks in oral or written form. In the reporting step, some groups are chosen to report how well they complete their tasks or all groups exchange their written reports and make comments on their outcomes. During this step, teachers perform as an evaluator to judge students’ performance.Language focus: During this section, students drill the language form which has been used in the tasks. At the same time, teachers should provide some consolidation exercises so that students can master the pronunciation, form, and usage of the target language, especially the hard or serviceable words and phrases.2.2Principles of Designing Task“Task–based Approach offers the opportunity for “natural” learning inside the classroom. It emphasizes meaning over form but can also cater for learning form.”(Rod Ellis, 2003) That is to say, TBA offers authentic or close to authentic situations for students in which they can acquire the target language naturally. Therefore when teachers are thinking and designing the tasks or activities, it is vital to consider the characteristics of the learning process and the TBA teaching. According to David Nunan (1991), the language teaching under the guide of TBA has five characteristics. They are:1.Emphasizing on the cultivation of the communicative ability in the targetlanguage.2.Introducing the authentic materials into the learning situation.3.Focusing on the meaning as well as the language forms.4.Treating the learners’ personal experience as an important part of theclassroom learning.5.Learning language not only in the classroom but also outside of theclassroom.During the process of designing tasks, teachers also should consider how the learners put the tasks into practice and what kind of tasks and input data students need to dispose. In a word, teachers also need take the characteristics of the learning process into consideration.Kumaravadivelu (1993) suggests that “when teachers are designing learning tasks, they have to consider and follow some psycholinguistic principles.” The language learning process has the following characteristics:“1.It is subconscious;2. It is developmental;3. It involves decision-making;4. It is primarily incidental;5. It is meaning-focused;6. It involves negotiation;7. It is not linear;8. It is additive ;”( Kumaravadivelu, 1993:81)Depending on the characteristics of the learning process and the language teaching under the guide of TBA, there are four basic principles of designing tasks that teachers have to follow. They are the principle of authenticity, the form-function principle, the task-dependency and the task-chain principle and the principle of learning by doing.2.2.1 The Principle of AuthenticityAccording to the characteristics listed above, one main feature of the Task-based language teaching is to provide real or close to real materials for students to carry out tasks. That is to say, the authenticity is the essence of the Task-based language teaching. The principle of authenticity refers to that the materials, situations and activities arranged for the tasks are derived from real life or close to real life. Of course, the authenticity just is a relative concept, for the classroom context can not be the ideal and real language application environment. It just requires teachers who are thinking and planning the tasks to arrange materials as real as possible. In this case, students can receive authentic language information as much as possible. As a result, they can effectively apply the language forms which are learned in the classroom into their daily life, which is good to realize the acquisition of the target language.2.2.2 The Form-function PrincipleThe traditional writing teaching methods which have been listed in the background of the first chapter stress the importance of language knowledge or the language forms. That means they are out of the real situations and apart from thelanguage function. Under the guide of these traditional writing teaching methods, students can master different language forms and writing skills, but they can not use the right forms to express their ideas or realize language functions which include interpersonal function, informative function, emotive function, phatic communication, performative function, recreational function and metalingual function. Task-based language teaching emphasizes not only the language forms but also the language meaning. It requires students complete the tasks in a communicative way. In this way, students realize and understand the function of these language forms. In a word, TBA overcomes the shortcomings of the traditional grammar teaching methods and advocates the combination of language form and functions. In addition, according to the law of language acquisition, students cultivate their communicative ability consciously or unconsciously at the time of practicing language forms. Therefore the form-function principle refers to put teaching focus on both language forms and language functions. To summary, teachers should design these tasks which can ensure students to master language forms quickly and the language functions clearly so that students can communicate successfully in the real situations.2.2.3The Task-Dependency and Task-Chain PrincipleThe tasks designed for students should reflect the law of language acquisition. That is to say, the tasks shouldn’t be liner or unordered, but be chain and hierarchy. According to Nunan (2001), the task-dependency and task-chain principle refers to that the tasks should be in-depth gradually, i.e., from easy to difficult and from simple to complex gradually and that the latter task should based on the former one, i.e., the tasks depend on each other. In a word, the tasks should be interlocking and in ladder-type pattern. For example, the tasks designed for language skills should follow the following order: First, students practice the skills of listening and reading. Second, they practice the skills of speaking and writing.In addition, teachers should take students’ learn process into consideration, which has been discussed in the beginning of this section. It requires that teachers should arrange tasks according to the law of c ognition and students’ level of English.The tasks can not be too easy or too difficult. If the tasks are too simple, students would feel boring for it is lack of challenges. While if the tasks are too complex, students would question their abilities and lose self-confidence. Therefore depending on students’ cognitive ability, language competence and communicative competence, the design of the tasks should follow the task-dependency and task-chain principle, so that students can obtain corresponding knowledge and skills after finishing each level of tasks.To summary, the tasks designed according to the task-dependency and task-chain principle are beneficial for students to master language knowledge as well as language skills. At the same time, they can stim ulate students’ interest for English.2.2.4The Principle of Learning by DoingNunan (2001) proposes that “…learners must learn not only…, but also to develop the ability to use the language to get things done” (Nunan, 2001:25). Besides, the characteristics of the Task-based teaching and learning process which have been listed in the beginning of the chapter decide that the design of the tasks should follow the principle of learning by doing. What’s more, the purpose of the language teaching is to cultivate the ability of using English to do things. In fact, on one hand, “Learning” is the purpose of “doing”. On the other hand, “doing” can promote “learning”. During the learning process, students learn and practice language through completing some tasks. In the tasks, students communicate with their partners in some specific language forms in order to achieve some goals. As a result, students master the usage of the target language through experiencing the real or close to real situations. At the same time, the pr inciple of learning by doing can arouse students’ enthusiasm for English. Therefore when they design tasks, teachers should follow this principle and make sure that tasks are easy to put into practice.Each of these principles is not isolated but connected. They consist of an organic integration. When teachers design tasks, they should follow each principle appropriately so that students’cognitive ability, language competence and communicative competence can be promoted and developed harmoniously.Chapter 3 Comparison of English Grammar Teaching Between TraditionalApproach and TBAGrammar is an effective means to realize the purposes of informing, persuading, expressing or entertaining. It is also a socio-culture act which reflects the author’s social values and cultural beliefs. The good speaking ability and writing ability depend on language grammar which is structured coherently in an appropriate style and is appealing and convincing to the ideal communicator. However grammar is difficult for students no matter in the mother tongue or in a foreign language. In order to change this situation, scholars have made great efforts to explore grammar teaching theories which have been listed in the above chapters. In this chapter, the author would compare the differences between TBA and the traditional grammar teaching methods which mainly include prescriptive and descriptive approach, transformational-generative approach and functional approach.3.1 Difference in Teaching ObjectivesThe prescriptive grammar which specifies what is right and what is a wrong and descriptive grammar which attaches importance to avoid making judgments about correctness, and concentrates on describing and explaining the way people actually use language. The transformational-generative approach sees language as a psychological phenomenon. It seeks to describe language in terms of the mental rules that enable us to generate grammatically correct sentences. And the functional approach focuses on the social nature of language. It shows how the communicative purposes and functions of language are reflected in grammar. However, TBA stresses not only language form but also meaning. The final goal of TBA is the cultivation of integrated language abilities, such as communicative ability, creative ability, and cooperative ability. It requires that students master the basic language skills-speaking, listening, reading and writing, and can speak and write complex English correctly and fluently. It also requires students can use the right target language to communicate in。