语言学概论重难点解析
语言学概论(考试重点归纳)
语言学概论目录第一章语言和语言学 (3)第二章语言的物质载体——语音 (6)第三章语言的建筑材料——语汇 (10)第四章语言的结构规则——语法 (13)第五章语言的表达内容——语义 (19)第六章语言的运用特点——语用 (22)第七章语言的书写符号——文字 (25)第八章语言的发展和演变 (27)第九章语言的获得和学习 (30)第十章语言与文学写作 (32)第十一章语言与民族文化 (34)第十二章语言与科学技术 (36)第一章语言和语言学第一节认识人类的语言一、语言的性质和类型P491.只有人类才有语言P49(1)内容更多(2)用处更大:①交际功能②标志功能③记录功能④思维功能⑤认知功能(3)能够创造2.语言和民族、国家的关系P51(简答)“语言”最初是与“民族”直接相连的,至今也是最直观和最容易识别的民族标志,同时也是国家的标志,但是只有全面了解从古到今的“语言”、“民族”之间,“民族”和“国家”之间错综复杂的关系,才能对“语言、民族、国家”三者之间做出更加符合客观事实的结论。
3.语言的特点和类型P52(单选)(1)从历时的角度看:语言的谱系分,也叫“语言亲属关系分类。
根据各种语言在语音、语汇、语法等方面是否有共同的来源和相似性大小对语言进行分类,就是语言的谱系分类。
语言的谱系分类是个层级系统,从大到小:“语系、语族、语支、语言、方言、次方言。
”(2)从共时角度看:语言的形态分类也叫语言的结构类型分类。
二、语言的表现形式P541.语言和言语P54言语:说话的动作和说出来或写出来的成品。
语言:说话所使用的工具,是在背后支配着人们怎么说话和听话的规则。
言语属于个人现象语言属于社会现象,是全社会约定俗成的产物。
言语是语言的表现形式,语言是抽象的,言语是具象的。
(单选)2.本体和外围P55本体知识:语言系统内部的各要素;语音、词语、语法、语义、语用。
外围知识:语言与思维、语言与文化、语言与其它技能、语言运用等。
语言学概论重点总结
语言学概论重点总结一、名词解释(4*6=24)1、孤立语:孤立语又称词根语,其特点是缺乏形态变化,语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示,汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。
例如,“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语,“他”是宾语,主要取决于词序。
又如,“买菜”是述宾结构,“买的菜”是偏正结构,主要取决于虚词。
汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化,一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语,词性都不曾发生变化。
除了汉语外,属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。
2、屈折语:屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。
屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。
内部屈折指通过词的语音交替(改变部分语音)来构成不同的语法形式,表示不同的语法意义;如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义,以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。
外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。
例如英语的book(书,单数)在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书,复数)。
屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义,例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态,如works.同样的语法意义,在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示,如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔),-e(noπe田地)。
屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧,如果去掉构型词缀,词根往往就不能成词,如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。
印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等,一般都属于屈折语,其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。
3、音位:是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位,是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。
音位本身并不含有任何意义。
音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。
如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的,但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。
因此,音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用,而没有表达意义的作用。
语言学概论讲解要点
第一讲要点:1.语言学是研究语言的科学。
语言学的任务是研究语言的功能、结构及其历史发展,揭示语言的本质以及语言的存在和发展规律。
2.语言学作为一门独立的科学建立于十九世纪上半叶。
第二讲要点:1.从功能的角度看,语言是交际工具。
2.语言是思维的工具,语言是思想的直接现实。
3.语言的社会功能也决定它是全民的交际工具,语言具有全民性即无阶级性。
第三讲要点:1.作为符号的语言单位具有两个方面:表现方面和内容方面。
语言单位的表现方面指的首先是语音。
语言单位的表现方面具有线性的特点。
人们的言语行为总是表现为连续的语流。
语言符号只能是一个接着一个连在一起出现的,这就是语言符号表现方面的线性特点。
语言单位的内容方面指的是语义。
语言符号里音和义的最初结合是任意的、无理据的。
2.在语言单位的表现方面和内容方面之间,不存在一对一的关系。
3.语言单位具有两个特征:一、它是音义结合的;二、它是现成的。
4.聚合关系指的是在同一结构内可以互相替换的成分之间的纵向关系。
聚合关系是建立在对立原则的基础上的,处于聚合关系中的成分互相替换,可以使同一结构取得不同的含义。
5.组合关系指的是在一定序列中可以前后连接的成分之间的横向关系。
组合关系是建立在线性特点的基础上,线性主要在言语过程中才实际体现出来,而在语言系统中,它表现为某个语言单位的潜在的结合能力。
6.语言系统内部可以分出不同的分支系统,而分支系统内部又可以分出更小的系统。
就这个意义说,语言是各种系统的系统。
第四讲要点:1.音色不同。
不同的发音体、促使发音体振动的不同方式以及不同的共鸣器都能造成不同中的音色。
2.语音作为语言的物质材料,受语言社会本质的制约并与语言的功能和意义相联系而具有社会性,这是语音的主导属性。
语音的社会属性还在于不同的语言和方言都有各自的语音系统,其表现是多方面的:一是各语言的语音构成不同;二是各语言中似乎相同的音素,在发音和音响上往往有差别;三是各语言的语音组合规律不同;四是各语言的语音变化规律也不相同。
语言学概论课程重点分析
Chapter3: Lexicon
• 这章:The formation of word 和 the lexical change 重要。 • 对词素(morphemem)的定义,分类要熟 记。Word 形成的俩种方式复合 (compound)和派生(derivation)也要 熟悉。另外语素变体(Allomorph) 的定义等 也要熟悉。词汇变化(the lexical change) 这部分,介绍了7种词汇演变的方式,只要 记住这7种方式,能给每个方式举个例子就 可以了
2.2 Chapter2: Speech Sounds
• 音系学部分:记住音位phoneme 的定义; 音系学部分:记住音位 的定义; 音位变体( 音位变体(allophones)的定义 互补分布 )的定义; (complementary distribution)的定义。 )的定义。 音位过程(phonological process) 只要熟 音位过程 悉 Nasalization, Dentalization, Velarization, Devoicing 这四个就可以了。 这四个就可以了。 syllables,supersegemental features , etc.
2.2 Chapter2: Speech Sounds
• 首先对Phonetics(语音学)和 phonology(音系学)俩 个概念要区分下。 • 语音学部分:声带(vocal card)的三个位置 (apart, closed together, totally closed),分别 产生清音(voiceless),浊音(voived)和喉塞 voiceless voived 音(glottal stop).这部分最重要的还算辅音和元 音了。辅音要熟记发音部位和发音方法,能熟练 的根据描述,写出对应的语音,或者能描述给出 的辅音。元音的考察方式跟辅音一样。但辅音比 元音更重要!coarticulation对什么是宽式标音 (broad transcription)和窄式标音(narrow transcription) 也应该熟悉。
《语言学概论》教学重,难点及其分解X
《语言学概论》教学重、难点及其分解Ξ柳春燕 罗耀华 郝 琴(华中师范大学文学院语言学系,湖北武汉430079)摘 要: 《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业的主干课程之一,本文结合教学实践,着重对整体结构的把握,对重难点的分解,为成教学生的自学扫清障碍,让他们尽快掌握其中的精要内容。
关键词: 义素分析法;层次分析法;述谓结构;关系义场中图分类号: H0 文献标识码: A 文章编号: 1007-2187(2003)003-0030-05一、教材特点由邢福义、吴振国主编的《语言学概论》既具有一般语言学教材基本理论条分缕析的优点,又吸取了语言研究和语言教学的最新成果。
在使用本教材的过程中,我们发现对于成教学生来说,自学本教材有较大难度,从以下几个方面着手把握这本教材的特点将有助于化难为易。
1.注重语言学知识结构的系统性语言是一个复杂的符号系统,语言符号之间存在着复杂的系统关联。
故要把握语言的本质特征,应重点把握语言的系统性。
语言的系统性是指系统元素之间的联系性。
每个子系统又由更小的子系统构成,语音系统可以分为音段系统;音段系统又可以分为元音系统和辅音系统等。
《语言学概论》高屋建瓴的总论部分初步建立起本学科的框架,我们将其图示为:2.注重“类”与“例”的关系本课程是揭示语言学普遍规律的学科,既涉及语言的共性,同时也涉及语言的个性。
以乔姆斯基的语言观为例,将语法分为普遍语法和个别语法,有公式为:PG =α・U G ,其中PG 指Personalgrammar ,U G 指Universalgrammar ,α是参数。
乔姆斯基将语言分为语言能力(competence )和语言运用(performance ),前者表现为语言知识,是人类共有的普遍语法知识,是以人脑的物质结构为基础的某种属性,是先天具备的人类遗传机制;另一部分是个别的语言知识,是通过后天经验获得的知识。
作为“类”与“例”,涉及语言的结构类型分类,以世界上的所有语言作为关照对象,将其分为:词根语,以汉语、越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等为代表;屈折语,以俄语、德语、阿拉伯语等为代表;粘着语,以土耳其语、哈萨克语、芬兰语、维吾尔语以及蒙古语等为代表;编插语,以各种印第安语、爱斯基摩人的语言、古亚细亚语系的楚克奇语等为代表。
语言学概论重难点
语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defin ing properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed wi th an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can h ardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems donot have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is use d to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demandno answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use o f language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Y angtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant tothe study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexic ology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The des cription of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The des cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the des criptive and the pres criptive approaches?A linguistic study is “des criptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “pres criptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly des criptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs innatural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize gr ammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribu te of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, andlinguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the heare r‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,];(4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow trans cription and what is broad trans cription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet m ade a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” trans criptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or trans cription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]‟s, readily making possible the “narrow trans cription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme ar e called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these wordstogether constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may no t be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring i n different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[…imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.。
《语言学概论》课程第一模块语言的性质重难点剖析
《语言学概论》第一模块语言的性质重点难点剖析本模块内容包括导言、语言的功能及语言是符号系统三个部分。
结合具体教学内容看,各部分重难点分析如下。
“导言”是语言学概论课程的入口,通过学习,要了解语言学的学科性质,重点把握:1.语言学的三大发源地——中国、印度、希腊-罗马,小学是我国古代语文学的统称,由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。
2.语言学发展的简要历史:语文学阶段,没有成为一门独立的学科;19世纪,形成了历史比较语言学,标志着语言学成为一门独立的学科;20世纪初,索绪尔《普通语言学教程》极大地促进了语言研究的深入和发展,为形成系统的现代语言学理论体系奠定了基础。
语言学从此成为一门现代科学。
“语言的功能”部分主要讲述了语言的社会功能和思维功能。
语言的社会功能理解和掌握两个方面的内容——语言的信息传递功能和人际互动功能,信息传递功能是语言的社会功能中最基本的功能。
关于思维功能要着重理解语言和思维的关系,思维离不开语言,必须借助语言材料才能进行。
语言也离不开思维,二者是互相依存,共同发展的。
“语言是符号系统”重点理解和把握:1.语言和说话的关系。
语言和说话既有区别,也有联系。
两者的联系主要体现在:语言存在于说话之中,说话是语言的存在方式;说话也离不开语言;语言的发展变化是从说话开始的。
两者的区别主要在于:语言的有限性和说话的无限性,语言的社会性和说话的个人性。
2.语言符号是由音、义的结合构成的。
“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式,“义”是语言符号的内容,只有音和义相结合才能指称现实现象,构成语言的符号。
也就是说,语言这种符号是通过声音来代表一定的意义的。
每一个语言符号都是由形式和内容两部分构成的统一体。
3.语言符号的任意性和线条性是语言符号的基本特点。
语言符号的任意性指语言的声音形式和意义内容之间的联系是任意的,由社会约定俗成的,没有必然的、本质的联系。
语言符号的线条性指符号的使用只能在时间的线条上绵延,一个符号跟着一个符号依次出现。
语言学概论考试重点难点
语言学概论滕慧群老师期末复习重点详解版导言无问答题记细节题(单选填空判断名词解释)名词解释:理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对,主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象,是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。
应用语言学:广义:泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用,包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。
狭义:专指把语言理论应用于语言教学,(包括本族语教学和外语教学)。
语文学:又叫传统语言学,指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究,这时的语言研究尚未独立,语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在,语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学,从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。
小学:中国传统的语文学,包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
其他:1.普通语言学的奠基人是(索绪尔)和洪堡特。
前者所著的(《普通语言学教程》)在语言学发展史起到了划时代的作用。
2.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派。
它们是(布拉格学派)、(哥本哈根学派)、(美国学派)。
3.(古代印度)、(中国)、(古希腊-罗马)是语言学的三大发源地。
4.现代语言学一百多年发展,经历了三个时期:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学。
5.(ppt填空题:)我国传统语文学包括(文字学)、(音韵学)、(训诂学)等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。
6.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的(欧洲历史比较语言学)不但宣告语言学的真正独立,而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
7.(书后习题:)语言交际过程可以分为编码-发送-传递-接收-解码五个阶段。
8.印度最早的经典所使用的语言是梵语。
9.错:语言学主要是研究古代的口语和书面语。
10.错:语言有自身结构的独立性,与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。
语言学概论重点总结
语言学概论重点总结一、名词解释(4*6=24 )1、孤立语:孤立语又称词根语,其特点是缺乏形态变化,语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示,汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。
例如,“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语,“他”是宾语,主要取决于词序。
又如,“买菜”是述宾结构,“买的菜”是偏正结构,主要取决于虚词。
汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化,一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语,词性都不曾发生变化。
除了汉语外,属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。
2、屈折语:屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。
屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。
内部屈折指通过词的语音交替(改变部分语音)来构成不同的语法形式,表示不同的语法意义;如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义,以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。
外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。
例如英语的book (书,单数)在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书,复数)。
屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义,例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态,如works.同样的语法意义,在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示,如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔),-e (no n e田地)。
屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧,如果去掉构型词缀,词根往往就不能成词,如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。
印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等,一般都属于屈折语,其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。
3、音位:是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位,是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。
音位本身并不含有任何意义。
音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。
如单个的/k/和/ae/或/"是没有什么意义的,但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了 "猫” 的意义。
因此,音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用,而没有表达意义的作用。
语言学概论知识点概括
语言学概论知识点概括关键信息项:1、语言学的定义和研究范围2、语言的本质特征3、语音学知识要点4、语法学重点内容5、语义学关键概念6、语用学核心理论7、语言的发展与演变规律8、语言的类型分类9、语言与社会文化的关系10、语言习得的过程与特点11 语言学的定义和研究范围111 语言学是对语言的科学研究,旨在揭示语言的结构、功能、演变和使用规律。
112 其研究范围包括语音、语法、语义、语用等多个层面,涵盖了语言的形式和意义。
12 语言的本质特征121 语言是一种符号系统,具有任意性、线条性和系统性。
122 语言具有交际功能,是人类最重要的交际工具。
123 语言是人类思维的工具,与思维相互依存、相互促进。
13 语音学知识要点131 语音的物理属性,如音高、音强、音长和音色。
132 元音和辅音的分类及发音特点。
133 语音的组合规则和音位系统。
14 语法学重点内容141 词法和句法的基本概念。
142 语法范畴,如性、数、格、时、体、态等。
143 句子的结构类型和分析方法。
15 语义学关键概念151 词汇意义和语法意义的区别与联系。
152 语义的组合与聚合关系。
153 语义的变化和引申。
16 语用学核心理论161 言语行为理论,包括言内行为、言外行为和言后行为。
162 会话含义和合作原则。
163 语境对语言理解和表达的影响。
17 语言的发展与演变规律171 语言的历史演变过程,包括语音、词汇、语法的变化。
172 语言演变的原因,如社会发展、语言接触等。
173 语言演变的特点,如渐变性、不平衡性等。
18 语言的类型分类181 按照语法结构,可分为孤立语、屈折语、粘着语和复综语。
182 按照语言的亲属关系,可分为语系、语族、语支等。
19 语言与社会文化的关系191 语言是社会文化的载体,反映了社会的变迁和文化的特点。
192 社会文化对语言的使用和发展产生影响。
193 语言的性别差异、地域差异和社会阶层差异。
110 语言习得的过程与特点1101 儿童语言习得的阶段和规律。
语言学概论复习重点整理
语言学概论复习重点整理语言学是研究语言的科学,是人类学科中的重要分支之一。
它探讨语言的构成、发展、使用、习得等方面的问题。
在语言学的学习中,有几个重点需要重点关注和复习,包括语言的定义与特点、语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等。
一、语言的定义与特点语言可以定义为人类交流思想和感情的工具,它具有符号性、产生性、传递性和交际性等特点。
符号性是指语言以音、形、色、势等形式来表达,具有特定的语音、文字等符号。
产生性是指语言是人类天生具备的能力,可以随意创造和组合新的语言表达。
传递性是指语言是为了交流而产生的,可以传递信息和意义。
交际性是指语言是社会交往的工具,是人类社会生活的基础。
二、语音学语音学研究语音的产生、组织、传播和知觉等问题。
语音由音段和音素组成,音段是语言中的基本音单位,而音素则是语音学上对音段的理论抽象。
语音学重点研究了语音的发音和声音的特征,包括元音、辅音、音节结构、音位等内容。
三、语法学语法学研究语言的结构和规则,包括句子的构成、词汇的分类和句子的句法规则等。
语法学可以分为句法学、词法学和语法规则等方面的研究。
句法学研究句子的结构和组成,包括词语的层次、短语的组成和句子的句法规则。
词法学研究词汇的构成和分类,包括名词、动词、形容词等的形态学特点和语义学特征。
四、语义学语义学研究语言的意义和语义关系,研究词汇的意义、句子的意义和语义关系的表达方式等。
语义学包括词汇语义学和句子语义学两个方面的内容。
词汇语义学研究词汇的意义和词汇之间的关系,包括语义原理、词汇关系等。
句子语义学研究句子的意义和句子之间的关系,包括句子的逻辑关系、语义角色等。
五、语用学语用学研究语言使用的实际情况,分析语言使用者之间的交际行为和交际行为产生的效果等。
语用学主要研究语言的使用环境、语言行为的目的、语言行为的影响等方面的问题。
例如,研究语言中的礼貌用语、谈话中的暗示和推理、言语行为的意义和效果等。
六、其他相关内容除了以上几个重点内容外,还有一些其他与语言学相关的内容也值得复习和关注。
《语言学概论》期末复习重点难点
《语言学概论》期末复习重点难点语言学概论第一章语言的本质语言与言语的关系1.言语是指说话这一行为以及说出来的话;语言是指说话时使用的材料和规则。
2.语言是一个封闭的系统,而言语是开放的;语言具有有限性,言语具有无限性。
语言材料和规则都是有限的。
但使用这些词和语法规则能造出多少汉语的句子确实无法计数的。
3.语言属于社会全体成员,言语属于讲话者个人。
不同的人在不同的语境、根据不同的意图讲出的每句话都已经具有了即时即地的色彩。
因此,语言属于个人。
但不同人所使用的语言材料和规则却属于讲这种语言的社会全体成员。
4.语言存在于言语之中,言语是对语言的具体运用;语言规则和材料是一种抽象的体系,人所听到的是具体的言语。
语言符号有哪些符号属性每种属性用一句话说明要点。
1.任意性(根本属性)。
人们选择哪一个具体语音形式和哪一个具体语义内容所结合成一个语言符号是完全任意的,是无可论证的。
2.线条性。
语言符号在使用中必须按时间先后顺次排列出现,人们不可能同事使用或说出多个符号。
3.相对稳定性。
语言不是一成不变的,它还是会发生变化的,只不过这种变化的过程是非常缓慢的,因此具有相对稳定的特点总结(语言的组成要素)两种说法的出发点不同,认识问题的角度不同。
语音、词汇、语法三要素的说法是从组织语言的角度出发的;语音、语义、语法三要素的说法是从分析语言的角度出发的。
两种说法在理论上都有纠结的方面。
1.前一种说法的问题主要在语音与词汇两个因素之间有交叉,因为词的构成的一个方面就是语音;2.后一种说法的问题主要在语法同语义之间有交叉,因为语法内容中包括语法范畴,而语法范畴是由一定语法形式表达的语法意义,比如books中的-s表示复数的语法意义,而语法意义也是语义中的一种。
语言的几层体系的特点(从底层到上层的变化特点)1.语言是由语音、语义、语法三要素组成的系统。
这个系统可以再分为两个层级:帝层和上层。
底层是由一套音位组成的,构成语言的形式系统,不涉及语义。
语言学概论考试重点难点
语言学概论考试重点难点The document was finally revised on 2021语言学概论滕慧群老师期末复习重点详解版导言无问答题记细节题(单选填空判断名词解释)名词解释:理论语言学:普通语言学的一个部分,与应用语言学相对,主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为研究对象,是综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律的语言学科。
应用语言学:广义:泛指语言学理论的各种实际应用,包括语言文字教学、词典编撰、文字制定、文学作品的翻译和语言分析、病理语言学、人工智能、机器翻译等的新语言学科。
狭义:专指把语言理论应用于语言教学,(包括本族语教学和外语教学)。
语文学:又叫传统语言学,指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究,这时的语言研究尚未独立,语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在,语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学,从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。
小学:中国传统的语文学,包括分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学,围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究,因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
其他:1.普通语言学的奠基人是(索绪尔)和洪堡特。
前者所著的(《普通语言学教程》)在语言学发展史起到了划时代的作用。
2.结构主义语言学派可以分为三派。
它们是(布拉格学派)、(哥本哈根学派)、(美国学派)。
3.(古代印度)、(中国)、(古希腊-罗马)是语言学的三大发源地。
4.现代语言学一百多年发展,经历了三个时期:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学。
5.(ppt填空题:)我国传统语文学包括(文字学)、(音韵学)、(训诂学)等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。
6.在19世纪逐步发展和完善起来的(欧洲历史比较语言学)不但宣告语言学的真正独立,而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
7.(书后习题:)语言交际过程可以分为编码-发送-传递-接收-解码五个阶段。
《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点
《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点一、名词解释:历史语言学:主要用历史的方法研究某种语言的短期的和长期的变化规律,如汉语史、英语史。
共时语言学:研究语言在某一时期的相对静止的情况,如现代汉语。
普通语言学:研究对象是人类语言,着重从理论上探讨语言的共同特点和一般规律,也叫一般语言学。
隐性意义:指隐藏在显性意义后面的各种语法关系,通常表现为施事与动作,动作与受事的关系等。
隐性形式:从微观角度看,句法结构的外部形式具有层次性。
这种层次性不能从外表一眼看出来,需要我们从小到大或从大到小地分析。
显性形式:从宏观上看,句法结构外部形式是线条性,我们把它叫显性形式。
语言学:是研究语言的科学。
语言学家研究的只是经过语言学家主观概括和不同程度上理想化和简单化了的语言。
符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。
“符号”必然包括有任何情况下永远不可分割的两个方面,一个方面是物质的实体,另一个方面是约定俗成的意义。
“能指”:是索绪尔给语言符号的物质实体创制的一个专门的术语。
也就是能够指称某种意义的成分。
“所指”:是索绪尔给符号所指的意义内容创制的一个专门术语,也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容。
语音:虽是一种声音,但又与一般的声音有着本质的区别。
它是由人的发音器官发出的,负载着一定的意义,并作为语言符号系统载体的声音。
音素:是从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位。
根据音质的不同,对一串语音不断加以切分,直到不能切分为止,这样得到的语音就是“音素”。
标写语音的书面符号叫做“音标”。
“音位”:就是从社会功能的角度划分出来的语音单位,它是特定语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小的语音单位。
“音质音位”和“非音质音位”:音位从构成材料上看,可以分为音质音位和非音质音位。
以音素为材料,通过音质的差别来起辨义作用的音位叫“音质音位”。
语音中除音质外,音高、音强、音长也能起这种作用,因此也构成音位。
语言学纲要重难点提示
语法一章是整个语言学概论课程的一个学习重点,本章内容很多,而且很多问题是以前所没有接触过,因此学习难度也是比较大的,同时这一章既涉及到很多的分析问题,又涉及到相关外语知识的结合应用,重点多难点也多,可以说不亚于语音一章。
因此,学习语法一章,首先要在思想上引起足够的重视。
我们平时接到的电子信件,询问最多的问题,就是关于语法一章的学习的,网上讨论板中,也是语法部分的问题最为突出,现将有关问题逐一解答,供大家学习参考。
还要说明的是,许多同学问为什么我们有英语课程还要在语言学概论课程里面讲英语知识,我想这是一个误会,我们课程涉及到的英语知识可以说非常少,是讲授一些语言现象必须引例解释的,因为我们的课程的研究对象是人类语言而不是汉语,尽管我们是以汉语为主,但有些现象,是汉语所没有的,比如形态变化问题、单数复数问题、比较级、时态等等,如果没有外语实例,那就无法说清楚,也很空泛,这里就无法回避外语。
当然,我们毕竟不是专门的外语课程,有关英语的内容也只是同我们教学问题有关,并不是全面介绍英语知识,因此大家不必担心。
语言是由语音形式、语义内容、结构关系三个方面构成的统一体,三个方面缺一不可,互相作用,构成了语言。
语音是语言的形式部分,词汇是语言的意义部分,语法是语言单位的关系部分,说的是符号与符号怎样组合的问题。
三个部分在语言中的作用,我们可以这样简单来表述:没有语音形式,语言就无法存在,没有词汇的内容意义,语言就是一个毫无作用的空壳,没有语法,语言就是一盘杂乱而毫无章法的散沙。
例如:生中国新在我们――我们生在新中国明灯的亮天上了――天上的明灯亮了山上草在吃牛儿――牛儿在山上吃草小便不可随处―― 小处不可随便从上面的一些组合的例子可以看出,语法虽然是看不见摸不着的东西,可是它又是实实在在的,客观存在于语言之中的。
一种语言,即使是最原始的语言,也得有一套语法规则系统,指导人们按照已有的规则去组织符号,构成表达思想的句子,否则,像上面所举的例子那样,同样的意思同样的词语,不同的人完全自说自话,别人就根本不可能理解你说的什么内容,语言也就不可能成为人类的交际工具了。
语言学概论第四章教学辅导第一部分重点难点解析.doc
语言学概论第四章教学辅导第一部分重点难点解析第四章:语法语法部分要特别注意分析问题,要学得活,要注意融汇贯通,不要死记硬背。
语法内容比较多,名词概念也多,学习要特别注意。
进一步认识把握组合规则和聚合规则的内涵;学会灵活分析种种语法现象;注意掌握众多的名词概念。
第一节语法和语法单位一、什么是语法语法就是词的构造、变化的规则和用词造句的规则,是语言在其长期发展过程中形成的,这种规则是客观存在于一种语言之中,是语言长期发展过程中形成的,说这种语言的全体成员必须共同遵守。
例如汉族人说“我看书”,“书”一般放在“看”的后面,而日本人说这句话则是“我书看”,即把宾语“书”放在动词“看”的前面,这里语序上的差别,就是语法上的差别,反映了汉语和日语的不同特点。
二、语法规则语法规则主要是指组合规则和聚合规则。
语法的组合规则和聚合规则构成一种语言的语法规则。
语法的组合规则是指语法单位一个接一个组合起来的规则,这种规则是现实的,存在于话语之中,虽然看不见摸不着,但它客观存在,说这种语言的人必须共同遵守,否则就会造成错误的句子,说出谁也听不懂的话来。
例如“太阳、红色的、起来、升”,可以组成“红色的太阳升起来”,不能进行别的组合,否则就违反了组合规则。
语法的聚合规则是指语法单位的归类和变化的规则。
几个语法单位(主要指词),互相在同一位置可以替换,替换后结构类型和功能都没有变化,这样的几个语法单位,就形成了一种聚合关系。
用聚合群中的单位替换同一组合中的某个单位,可以生成许多具体的句子。
聚合为句子的生成提供了无数的可能性,因为聚合规则是潜存在人脑中的,掌握了一定的组合规则后,人们可以利用聚合规则,用同一类别的词语进行替换,造成符合自己需要的句子。
例如学会了“我看书”,其中的“书”在具体的语境中就可以替换为潜存于人脑中的“报纸”、“小说”、“电影”、“电视”、“风景”等等,造出无限对的句子来,满足交际的需要。
三、语法单位凡是能在组合的某一位置上被替换下来的片段都是语法单位。
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语言学概论重难点解析一、语言与言语得区别与联系。
(一)语言与言语得区别1、语言就是表达思想得工具、就是交际得工具,言语则就是使用语言工具得行为与结果。
就这一点而言,它们就是工具与对工具运用得关系。
2、言语就是个人得,语言就是社会得。
言语就是个人得言语行为,以个人得意志为转移,因而言语具有个人因素。
可以说,每个人说话得嗓音、每个音得具体发音、每个人使用得词语与句子结构等方面都有个人得特色,而且每一个人每一次说话都可能就是不同得。
语言就是属于社会得,语言要遵循一个原则:全社会都能顺利地进行交流。
语言就是从言语中归纳出得一套标准、准则得系统,就是音义结合,由词汇、语法构成得一个完整得体系,因而它具有社会因素。
3、语言就是有限得、封闭得,言语就是无限得、开放得。
语言得材料、规则就是有限得,相对稳定得,因而也就是相对封闭得。
如现代汉语有400多个音节,上千个语素,几十万个词,语法规则更加有限。
汉语如此,其她语种无不如此,其音位、词汇、语法规则都就是有限得。
而且变化缓慢,相对稳定。
言语得开放性,则表现为利用有限得材料与规则造出所需要得无限得句子。
从组合关系上讲,其长度可以就是无限长得(从理论上讲)。
(如:学生。
就是学生。
就是中文系得学生。
她就是中文系得学生。
……她就是闽江学院中文系二年级一班得学生。
……)人们可以利用聚合关系来替换语言链条上得各个环节,因而即使在句子得长度相同得情况下,仍然可以造出各种各样得句子来。
(例如:①我们热爱祖国。
②她们喜欢唱歌。
③小张爱好音乐。
……理论上讲可以就是无限得)数量有限得语音形式与语义内容结合成语素。
数量有限得语素构成数量有限得词语。
数量有限得语法规则支配数量有限得词语,造出无穷无尽得句子,这就就是言语得无限性。
语言得有限性,免除了人们不必要得过重得记忆负担;言语得无限性,使人们能够造出各种各样得句子,充分满足交际得需要。
(二)语言与言语得联系语言与言语又有非常密切得联系。
一方面,语言存在于言语之中,言语就是语言存在得形式。
语言就是从言语中概括出来得,没有言语就无所谓语言。
另一方面,语言就是对言语得规范,语言来源于言语而又作用于言语,言语或言语行为必须遵循一定得规则——语言规则。
如果不遵循这些规则,就会造成交际得障碍。
二、如何理解语言就是人类最重要得交际工具人类社会得交际工具很多,除了语言之外,人类还使用其她得交际工具:文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式以及身势、表情等,这些非语言得交际工具,也都在交际中发挥一定得作用,但就是它们在交际中得重要性与灵便性远不能与语言相比。
1、文字就是记录语言得书写符号体系,它打破了语言交际中时间与空间得限制,大大增强了语言得交际功能得发挥,在社会生活中起着重大得作用。
但就是,文字在交际中得重要性远不能与语言相比。
(1)文字就是辅助性得,处于从属地位。
一个社会可以没有文字,但不能没有语言;没有语言,社会就不能生存与发展。
(2)人类语言得历史与人类社会得历史一样漫长,而文字仅有数千年得历史。
今天世界上没有文字得语言比有文字得语言多得多。
因此,文字就是在语言基础上产生得一种最重要得辅助性交际工具。
2、旗语、电报代码、数学符号等交际工具,大多就是在语言与文字得基础上产生得,就是更加后起得交际工具,离开语言与文字,它们就不能独立存在。
这些交际工具都有特殊得服务领域,使用得范围相当狭窄,表达得内容极其有限,而语言得服务领域非常广阔。
所以旗语等只就是适用于某些特殊领域得辅助性交际工具。
3、脸部表情、手得动作乃至整个躯体得姿态都可以参加到交际中来,起到交际工具得作用。
这些体态语有时甚至可以脱离语言完成一定得交际任务。
如汉族人用点头表示“肯定”,用摇头表示“否定”;西方人用摊手耸肩表示“不知道”或“无可奈何”。
在特定得场合,使用体态语方式进行交际,往往会收到比只用语言表达更好得效果。
但就是体态语充其量也只能作为语言交际得一种辅助性交际工具,它无论如何也代替不了语言得交际功能。
因为它没有系统,不能表达复杂得思想,使用频率低,只能在有光线得条件下使用,不准确、不可靠,容易使人误会。
总之,语言就是人类最重要得交际工具。
文字就是建立在语言基础之上得最重要得辅助性交际工具;旗语之类就是建立在语言文字基础之上得辅助性交际工具;身势等伴随动作也就是辅助性得。
三、语言与思维得关系语言就是思维得工具,思维离不开语言,同时语言也离不开思维。
二者如影随形,谁也离不开谁。
1、思维离不开语言。
(1)思维必须在语言材料得基础上进行。
思维要以语言作为工具。
一个正常得人在任何情况下都不可能脱离语言进行思维,换句话说,人没有赤裸裸得思维,也没有赤裸裸得语言。
(2)思维活动得成果需要依靠语言才能得以巩固与存在。
人们认识客观世界,形成概念,这些概念就必须依靠确切得词语把它固定下来、储存起来。
没有语言,没有句子,概念也就无所依托,推理也难以进行,思维恐怕也不存在了。
所以,语言在思维过程中具有很大得作用,既参与形成思想,又参与表达思想。
语言就是思维最有效得工具,人们用语言进行思维,而思维则在语言材料得基础上进行。
如果没有语言,思维活动就不能进行,思维成果也无法表达。
2、语言也离不开思维。
语言作为思维得工具,只有具有思维活动,只有在思维过程中运用才有存在得意义,如果没有思维活动,没有思维活动得结果与认识活动得成果,无所谓交际与思想,语言(作为交际、交流思想得)工具也就失去了存在得价值,没有必要存在了。
所以语言与思维就是相辅相成得,二者各以对方为存在条件。
思维必须在语言材料得基础上进行,哪里有思维活动,哪里就有语言活动。
四、语言与思维得区别抽象思维与语言有密切关系,但二者毕竟就是两种不同得社会现象,不能把语言与思维完全等同起来。
1、语言就是思维得工具,就是物质得,而思维就是使用工具得主体,就是一种精神活动。
因为语言得所有单位——语素、词、词组、句子等,都就是以声音为物质外壳得,思维作为大脑得特质就是观念得,它没有物质性,没有质量、重量、长度等。
2、语言与思维得构成方式不同,且构成形式并非一一对应。
思维得组成成分就是概念、判断与推理,它就是运用概念,按照逻辑规律构成种种不同得判断来进行推理得;语言就是由语音、词汇与语法组成得,语言就是运用词语与语法规则构成种种不同得句子。
在构成形式上,概念要用词语来表达,判断与推理要用句子来表达,但概念与词语、判断与单句、推理与复句并不就是完全一一对应得。
如汉语得虚词“了、着、吗、得”等,不能表达任何具体概念。
即使就是实词也不一定与概念一一对应,例如“头”,就是个多义词,对应了“头颅、领导、方面、前部、顶部”等多个概念;而同义词,如“漂亮、美丽、标致、俊俏、靓丽”,就可能就是多个词对应一个概念。
再如句中得疑问句、祈使句就不表达任何判断。
即使陈述句也不一定就对应判断,比如有时一个相同得句子表达多个判断,如“小李叫她哥哥”就有两个意思(小李把她叫哥哥/小李叫她得哥哥);有时多个不同得句子表达一个判断,如“这些人都会说普通话”与“这些人没有一个不会说普通话”差不多就是同一个意思。
同样有些复句,如“她下了课,就回家了”,并不表示推理;而“我们就是中文系学生,所以要瞧很多文学作品”,虽然表达得就是一个推理,但因为省略了大前提(如“如果就是中文系学生,就要瞧很多文学作品”),所以逻辑关系上并不完整,但在语言表达上得意思却就是很清楚得。
3、语言与思维得生理机制不完全等同。
1861年法国医生布洛卡在解剖失语症病人得头部时发现,人大脑得左半球就是掌管语言与抽象思维得,被称为“优势半球”。
而人脑得右半球则就是掌管形象思维与直观动作思维得。
语言得生理机制在左半球,而思维得生理机制与左右半球都有关。
(4)语言具有民族特点而思维就是全人类共同得。
这就是语言与思维最根本得区别。
思维就是大脑得功能,人类大脑得生理构造都就是一样得,没有民族性,因而大脑得功能——思维能力也没有民族性,全人类一样。
但就是由于思维得方式不同,所有语言具有民族性特点。
如汉语“上午”与“下午”,就是以“中午”作为分界线得,英语得“下午”(afternoon)在构造上反映得思维方式与汉语相同,但“上午”(morning)就不一样,一就是内部构造不同,二就是包括得时间范围也不同。
(又比如美洲得爱斯基摩语中表示“雪”得名词多达十五个,这与爱斯基摩人长期生活在冰天雪地得环境有关,她们对“雪”得区别非常细致,因而表示“雪”得词语也就比其她语言丰富得多。
阿拉伯人表示骆驼得名词多达几十个,说明骆驼在她们得日常生活中占有十分重要得地位,因而才有这样细致得观察,汉民族历史上关于马得词也非常多,有120多个,可见历史上马在汉民族生活中得重要地位。
)正就是因为思维方式得不同,世界上才有如此丰富多彩得语言;正就是因为人类有共同得思维基础,人类语言才可能互相翻译,不同民族得交流才有可能进行。
五、如何理解语言符号得任意性1、语言符号得任意性,即语言符号得音与义得结合就是任意得,它们之间没有什么必然得、本质得联系,也就就是说它们得结合就是不可论证得,完全就是使用语言符号得社会约定俗成得。
2、语言符号任意性得具体表现在以下几个方面:(1)音义得结合就是任意性得,即什么样得语音形式表达什么样得意义内容,什么样得意义内容用什么样得语音形式表现就是任意得。
例如,现在汉语用“rén”这样得声音与“能制造工具并使用工具进行劳动得动物”这样得意义结合起来,成为一个符号,即“人”,代表所有得人。
为什么就是这样得结合,而不就是另外得结合,其中并没有什么道理可讲,只就是汉族社会得一种习惯,并且完全就是约定俗成得。
(2)不同语言有不同得音义联系,如:人、书、太阳、月亮……,汉语得语音形式与英语得语音形式不相同。
(3)不同语言音义联系不对等,即同样得语音形式在不同得语言中可以表示不同得意义。
如long,汉语表示“龙”等意义,英语表示“长”。
(4)第四,同一语言得音义关系也有任意性,如汉语有众多得方言,同样得事物在各个方言也有不同得读音。
不同方言区之间,语言得音义联系也不就是完全一致得。
同一语言中不同方言得语音差别,也说明了音义联系就是具有任意性得。
3、语言符号得强制性符号得任意性特点就是就创制符号时得情形来说得,指最初用什么样得语音形式来表示什么样得意义内容就是任意得。
但就是语言符号一旦进入交际,也就就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来,表示某一特定得现实现象以后,就具有了强制性,谁也不能任意改变它。
否则,就会造成混乱。
如果个人可以任意改变符号,那就互相听不懂了,语言符号也就从根本上丧失了交际工具得作用。
例如在汉语普通话中不把“人”叫做“rén”,而叫做别得名称就是行不通得。
事实上,语言符号一旦作为人类社会一定时期得交际工具,个人就无权任意改变它。