组合信度计算器
spss软件进行信度分析
spss软件进行信度分析问卷的信度分析一、概念：信度是指根据测验工具所得到的结果的一致性或稳定性，反映被测特征真实程度的指标。
一般而言，两次或两个测验的结果愈是一致，则误差愈小，所得的信度愈高，它具有以下特性：1 、信度是指测验所得到结果的一致性或稳定性，而非测问卷的信度分析一、概念：信度是指根据测验工具所得到的结果的一致性或稳定性，反映被测特征真实程度的指标。
一般而言，两次或两个测验的结果愈是一致，则误差愈小，所得的信度愈高，它具有以下特性：1、信度是指测验所得到结果的一致性或稳定性，而非测验或量表本身；2、信度值是指在某一特定类型下的一致性，非泛指一般的一致性，信度系数会因不同时间、不同受试者或不同评分者而出现不同的结果；3、信度是效度的必要条件，非充分条件。
信度低效度一定低，但信度高未必表示效度也高；信度检验完全依赖于统计方法。
信度可分为：内在信度：对一组问题是否测量同一个概念，同时组成量表题项的内在一致性程度如何；常用的检测方法是Cronbach’s alpha系数。
外在信度：对相同的测试者在不同时间测得的结果是否一致，再测信度是外在信度最常用的检验法。
二、信度指标：1．用信度系数来表示信度的大小。
信度系数越大，表明测量的可信程度越大。
究竟信度系数要多少才算有高的信度。
学者DeVellis（1991）认为，0.60～0.65（最好不要）；0.65～0.70（最小可接受值）；0.70～0.80（相当好）；0.80～0.90（非常好）。
由此，一份信度系数好的量表或问卷，最好在0.80以上，0.70至0.80之间还算是可以接受的范围；分量表最好在0.70以上，0.60至0.70之间可以接受。
若分量表的内部一致性系数在0.60以下或者总量表的信度系数在0.80以下，应考虑重新修订量表或增删题项。
2．信度指标多以相关系数来表示：大致可分为三类：稳定系数（跨时间的一致性）、等值系数（跨形式的一致性）和内在一致性系数（跨项目的一致性）。
2-AFP财务计算器运用HP
AFP
2008-1-10金金 NhomakorabeaAFP
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本讲义版权属中国金融教育发展基金会 金融理财标准委员会所有，受法律保护。
财务计算器的使用
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TI BAII PLUS 财务计算器
CASIO FC 200V 财务计算器
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CF函数中一样要以现金流入或流出来决定每期CF的正 负号，第一期通常是初始投资，为负数。
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三.货币时间价值(TVM)的计算
现值、终值的计算 年金计算 名义年利率与有效年利率换算 房贷摊销本息计算 退休规划 教育金规划 不规则现金流计算 日期健的用法 债券计算
输入时，数字在前，变量键或功能键(如PV 键)在后。输出答案时按下待求的变量键( 如FV键)，即可求出答案。
信度分析
信度分析信度分析，也称为可靠性分析，是一种统计方法，用于评估测量工具（例如问卷调查）的稳定性和一致性。
在社会科学研究中，可靠的测量工具对于获取准确和可信的数据至关重要。
信度指测量工具能够在重复测量时产生相似的结果的程度。
因此，信度高的测量工具可以提供更加稳健和可靠的数据。
然而，测量工具的信度并不总是保证，因此需要进行信度分析以确定其实用性。
下面将详细介绍信度分析的类型、计算方法和解释结果的方式。
信度分析类型常见的信度分析类型包括以下几种：1. 测试-重新测试信度（Test-Retest reliability）测试-重新测试信度意味着用同样的测量工具在两个不同时间点上进行测量，并比较它们之间的差异。
这种方法使用了相同样本或样本子集，并在两个时间点分别收集数据。
然后，研究人员可以使用相关系数等必要的统计计算得出结果。
如果两次测量结果非常相似，则该测量工具具有很高的测试-重新测试信度。
2. 平行测量信度（Parallel-forms reliability）平行测量信度是通过比较两个测量工具的相关系数来评估它们之间的一致性。
为了保证平行测量信度，研究人员必须确保使用的测量工具在目标属性和项目排列以及难度等方面是相同的。
这种方法常常被用于实验室研究中，因为它旨在消除测试效应的影响。
3. 内部一致性信度（Internal consistency reliability）内部一致性信度评估测量工具各项之间的内部关联性。
在遵循同一主题范围的多个问题组成的问卷调查中，该方法通常用于检测所有问题是否相互一致。
对于每个问题组，内部一致性可以通过计算各项之间的Cronbach's α来获得。
4. 交叉验证信度（Inter-rater or inter-observer reliability）当两个或更多的观察者或测试人员使用相同的测量工具对相同的样本进行观察或测试时，交叉验证信度就会发挥作用。
在医学诊断、教育评估等领域中，交叉验证信度常常用于评估测量工具的准确度。
估计信度的方法
第二节 估计信度的方法前面已经提出了信度的概念，但只是一个理论上的构想，实际测量过程中，无法对真分数和误差分数进行测量，在实际应用中，通常以同一样本得到的两组资料的相关，作为测量一致性的指标。
估计信度有不同的方法，常用的估计的方法有再测信度、复本信度、等值稳定性系数、内部一致性系数、评分者信度等。
一、再测信度（Test-Retest Reliability ）再测信度，也叫重测信度，也叫稳定性系数。
用同一个测验，对同一组被试前后施测两次，对两次测验分数求相关，其相关系数就叫再测信度。
其计算公式（皮尔逊积差相关公式的变式）为：212121S S X X N X Xr xx -=∑ （公式5－6） 式中X 1、X 2为同一被试的两次测验分数，1X 、2X 为全体被试两次测验的平均数，S1、S2为两次测验的标准差（样组标准差，参见金瑜的书P183），N 为被试人数。
再测法的模式是：施测 适当时距 再施测例2：假设有一份主观幸福感调查表，先后两次施测于10名学生，时间间隔为半年，结果如表所示，求该测验的重测信度。
（为了便于理解和计算，本章估计信度的例子都是小样组，实际应用时应采用大样组。
）表5－1 某幸福感调查表的两次测试结果测验被试1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10X1 16 15 13 13 11 10 10 9 8 7 X2 16 16 14 12 11 9 11 8 6 7 解：用计算器算出S 1=2.82，S 2＝3.38，20.111=X ，00.112=X ，∑=132421X X 把以上数据代入公式5－6，可得97.038.382.200.1120.11101324=⨯⨯-=xx r 此题可用计算机社会科学统计软件做，求皮尔逊积差相关。
在测验手册上报告的再测信度，一般要注明被试样本的性质、大小，以及间隔多长时间等，以便使使用者了解样本及时间因素对测验稳定性的影响。
计算再测信度必须注意几个问题：（1）所测量的特性必须是稳定的。
通过Mplus计算几种常用的测验信度
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信度效度难度区分度计算公式
信度效度难度区分度计算公式1.重测信度：使用同样的测试工具测试同一个群体两次，计算两次测试结果之间的相关性。
公式：重测信度= 2r / 1+r其中，r为两次测试结果的相关系数。
2. 内部一致性信度：用来衡量测试工具内部各项之间的相似性，常用的是Cronbach's alpha系数。
公式：Cronbach's alpha系数= (k / (k-1)) x (1- (∑s/sT)) 其中，k为题目数，s为各题目得分方差，sT为整个试卷得分方差。
二、效度计算公式：1. 相关效度：用来衡量测试工具与其他测量工具或指标之间的相关性。
公式：相关系数r= （∑XY）/ √(∑X) x √(∑Y)其中，X为测试工具得分，Y为其他测量工具或指标得分。
2. 鉴别效度：用于确认测试工具是否能够区分不同水平的群体。
公式：鉴别指数D= (X1-X2) / SDp其中，X1为高水平群体的平均得分，X2为低水平群体的平均得分，SDp为测试工具得分标准差。
三、难度计算公式：1. 题目难度：用来衡量题目的难易程度，一般使用正确率或难度系数来表示。
公式：难度系数P= 正确人数/ 总人数2. 试卷难度：用来衡量整个测试工具的难度。
公式：试卷难度系数= ∑难度系数/ 题目数四、区分度计算公式：1. 题目区分度：用来衡量题目对不同水平群体的区分能力。
公式：题目区分度指数= (高分组正确率-低分组正确率)/ (1-低分组正确率)2. 试卷区分度：用来衡量整个测试工具对不同水平群体的区分能力。
公式：试卷区分度指数= ∑题目区分度指数/ 题目数以上是常见的信度、效度、难度和区分度计算公式，可以根据具体情况选择使用。
SPSS测量问卷信效度分析
SPSS测量问卷信效度分析在社会科学研究中，问卷是一种常用的数据收集工具。
然而，为了确保问卷所收集到的数据准确、可靠且有效，我们需要进行信效度分析。
SPSS 作为一款功能强大的统计分析软件，为我们提供了便捷的方法来评估问卷的质量。
首先，让我们来理解一下什么是信度和效度。
信度简单来说，就是指测量结果的稳定性和一致性。
如果我们用同一把尺子去测量同一个物体，每次测量的结果都应该差不多，这就说明尺子具有良好的信度。
在问卷中，如果同一个被调查者在不同时间或不同情境下回答相同的问题，结果应该相似；或者不同的调查者对相同问题的回答应该具有一致性。
效度则是指测量工具能够准确测量出我们想要测量的概念或特质的程度。
例如，我们想要测量一个人的数学能力，如果我们的问卷全是关于语文知识的，那就无法有效地测量出数学能力，说明问卷没有效度。
那么，SPSS 中如何进行信度分析呢？常见的方法有重测信度、复本信度、内部一致性信度等。
重测信度是在不同时间对同一组被试进行测量，然后计算两次测量结果的相关性。
比如，我们在两周后让同一批被调查者再次回答相同的问卷，然后用 SPSS 计算两次结果的相关系数。
复本信度则是使用两个平行的问卷（即内容相似但题目不同）对同一组被试进行测量，同样计算相关系数。
内部一致性信度是最常用的方法之一，其中包括克朗巴哈系数（Cronbach's alpha）。
假设我们的问卷中有多个题目用于测量同一个概念，比如测量消费者满意度，有 5 个相关的问题。
通过计算这些题目的得分之间的一致性，来判断问卷的内部一致性信度。
在 SPSS 中，我们可以通过选择“分析” “刻度” “可靠性分析”来进行操作。
接下来，我们谈谈效度分析。
效度分为内容效度、结构效度和效标效度。
内容效度主要依靠专家的判断，确保问卷中的题目涵盖了我们想要测量的内容。
结构效度通常通过探索性因子分析和验证性因子分析来评估。
探索性因子分析可以帮助我们找出问卷中潜在的结构或因子。
Testking Lpi 201 117-201 Advanced Linux v2.1
117 - 201Important NotePlease Read CarefullyStudy TipsThis product will provide you questions and answers along with detailed explanations carefully compiled and written by our experts. Try to understand the concepts behind the questions instead of cramming the questions. Go through the entire document at least twice so that you make sure that you are not missing anything.Latest VersionWe are constantly reviewing our products. New material is added and old material is revised. Free updates are available for 90 days after the purchase. You should check for an update 3-4 days before the scheduled exam date.Here is the procedure to get the latest version:1.Go to 2.Click on Login (upper right corner)3.Enter e-mail and password4.The latest versions of all purchased products are downloadable from here. Just click the links.Note: If you have network connectivity problems it could be better to right-click on the link andchoose Save target as. 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So don’t distribute this PDF file.QUESTION NO: 1Which two utilities can you use to set up a job to run at a specified time?A.at and crondB.atrun and crontabC.at and crontabD.atd and crondAnswer: CExplanation: The ‘at’ command is used to execute commands at a specified time and optional date.A cron job is a program or script scheduled at a specified time. The ‘crontab’ program is used to create user cron jobs.Reference:/linux/cmd/a/at.html/linux/cmd/c/crontab.htmlIncorrect Answers.A:The Cron daemon (crond) is the program that runs the cron job at the specified time. It is not used to set up a cron job.B:Atrun is used to run jobs scheduled by the ‘at’ program. It is not used to set up a job to run at a specified time.D:Atd is the ‘at’ deamon. Similar to the cron daemon, it is the program that runs the jobs scheduled with the ‘at’ command.QUESTION NO: 2After creating a backup of the users home directories called backup.cpio you are asked to restore a file called memo.ben. What command should you type?Answer: cpio –iF backup.cpio memo.benExplanation: The ‘cpio’ command is used to create backups or restore files from a backup. The –i option is to extract something. The F option is to specify a file. Here we are extracting memo.ben from a file named backup.cpio.Reference:/linux/cmd/c/cpio.htmlQUESTION NO: 3You wish to restore the file memo.ben which was backed up in the tarfile MyBackup.tar. What command should you type?Answer: tar xf MyBackup.tar memo.benExplanation: Tarfiles are created using the ‘tar’ utility. Therefore, you should use the ‘tar’ utility to extract the files. The x option is to extract and the f option is to specify a filename to extract from.Reference:/linux/cmd/t/tar.htmlQUESTION NO: 4When is the most important time to restore a file from your backup?A.On a regular scheduled basis to verify that the data is available.B.When the system crashes.C.When a user inadvertently loses a file.D.When your boss asks to see how restoring a file works.Answer: AExplanation: According to ‘best practice’, you should regularly restore files to verify that your backup procedures are working. It’s no good backing up files regularly if you are unable to restore files when needed.Incorrect Answers:B:When the system crashes, you may need to restore your whole system. However, this shouldn’t be the only time you restore files.C:When a user loses a file, it will need to be restored. However, you should prepare for this eventuality by regularly testing your backup/restore process to ensure you are able to restore a file when needed.D:When your boss asks to see how restoring a file works, you want it to work when you show him. This is why you should test your backup/restore processes.QUESTION NO: 5Which one of the following factors does not play a role in choosing the type of backup media to use?A.How frequently a file changes.B.How long you need to retain the backup.C.How much data needs to be backed up.D.How frequently the backed up data needs to be accessed.Answer: AExplanation: Your choice of backup media will depend on its capacity, its shelf life and the time it takes to access the data. The frequency of file changes is irrelevant.Incorrect Answers:B:Different backup media can be kept for varying periods of time. You should find out from the manufacturers how long a backup media can be kept without losing its data.C:Obviously, your choice of backup media will depend on the amount of data to be backed up. For example, a CD-ROM can hold around 700MB of data while tapes can hold up to hundreds of gigabytes of data.D:Your choice of backup media will also depend on the time it takes to retrieve data from the media.Reading data from a CD-ROM or DVD is much quicker than reading data from a tape.QUESTION NO: 6You attempt to log out but receive an error message that you cannot. When you issue the jobs command, you see a process that is running in the background. How can you fix thus so that you can logout?A.Issue the kill command with the PID of each running command of the pipeline as an argument.B.Issue the kill command with the job number as an argument.C.Issue the kill command with the PID of the last command as an argument.D.Issue the kill command without any arguments.Answer: CExplanation: The kill command is used to send a signal to kill one or more process IDs. You must own the process or be a privileged user, otherwise the kill command will be ignored.Reference:/linux/cmd/k/kill.htmlIncorrect AnswersA:You need to end the background process. You know its process ID; therefore you should issue the process ID with the kill command to kill the appropriate process.B:You cannot use the job number with the kill command. You should use the process ID or process name. D:The kill command won’t work if it doesn’t know what process you want it to kill.QUESTION NO: 7The top utility can be used to change the priority of a running process? Another utility that can also be used to change priority is_______?Answer: niceExplanation: The ‘nice’ command enables you to run a command with a different priority. Nice –n<adjustment> command, increments the priority of ‘command’ by <adjustment>. You can increase the priority of a command my specifying a negative adjustment. For example, ‘nice –n-5 command’ will run ‘command’ with the priority increased by 5.Reference:/linux/cmd/n/nice.htmlQUESTION NO: 8You need to search the entire directory structure to locate a specific file. How could you do this and still be able to run other commands while the find command is still searching for you file?A.find / -name filename &B.find / -name filenameC.bg find / -name filenameD.&find / -name filename &Answer: AExplanation: The find command is used to locate files. / is the root directory, so searching from / will search the entire directory tree. The –name <filename> enables you to search for a file named <filename>. The ampersand character (&) is used to return control of the shell returning you to the command prompt, without have to wait for the command to execute.Reference:/linux/cmd/f/find.htmlIncorrect AnswersB:With no ampersand (&) following the command, you will not be able to run other commands until the find command has completed its search.C:The bg command is used to run a suspended job in the background if job control is enabled. However, the program or command would have to started and then suspended for this to work.D:The ampersand (&) must follow the command, not precede it.QUESTION NO: 9In order to display the last five commands you have entered using the history command, you would type _______.Answer: history 5Explanation: The history command is used to display the previously entered commands. If you typed history with no arguments, you would likely get a long scrolling list of commands. By typing a number after ‘history’, you will display only the last <number> of commands.Reference:/docs/manuals/linux/RHL-7.3-Manual/getting-started-guide/s1-q-and-a-history-tips.htmlQUESTION NO: 10You telnet into several of your servers simultaneously. During the day, you sometimes get confused as to which telnet session is connected to which server.Which of the following commands in your .profile would make it obvious to which server you are attached?A.PS1=’\h: \w>’B.PS1=’\s: \W>’C.PS1=’\!: \t>’D.PS1=’\a: \n>’Answer: AExplanation: The PS1 environment variable controls the prompt on the command line, and can be used by users to tell what system they are on, the directory they are currently in, the current date and more depending on how this variable is configured. The \h option is used to specify the hostname and the \w option will give the full path of the current working directory.Reference:/os/linux/tips/tipsps1.htmlIncorrect Answers:B:The \s option is used to display the shell name. This won’t give any indication of which machine you are connected to.C:The \ option is used to display the history number of the current command. This won’t give any indication of which machine you are connected to.D:The \a option is used to display a new line. This won’t give any indication of which machine you are connected to.QUESTION NO: 11You have to type your name and title frequently throughout the day and would like to decrease the number of key strokes you use to type this. Which one of your configuration files would you edit to bind this information to one of the function keys?Answer: .inputrcExplanation: The inputrc file is used to map keystrokes to text or commands. You can use this file to make a function key display your name and title. Other common uses include mapping a function key to lock your computer or run a command.Reference:/view/cvs/postlfs/inputrc.htmlQUESTION NO: 12When typing at the command line, the default editor is the ________ library.Answer: readlineExplanation: The default command line editor is the Readline library. As with most text editor programs, it allows certain keystrokes to aid in the writing/editing of a command. For example, there are keystroke combinations that allow you to jump to the beginning or end of the line, or to jump to the start or end of a previous word.Reference:/dept/old/texinfo/bash/rlman.htmlQUESTION NO: 13What can you type at a command line to determine which shell you are using?Answer: echo $SHELLExplanation: The ‘echo’ command is used to echo a string to standard output. $shell is an environment variable that reflects the current shell in use. Therefore, the ‘echo $shell’ command will display the name and path of the shell you are using.Reference:/projects/echo/how-to/node30.htmlQUESTION NO: 14You have recently decided to convert from using a monolithic kernel to using a modular kernel. You have made the appropriate changes in your kernel configuration. Next you wish to compile your new kernel and modules and copy the modules to their proper location. What would you type to do this?A.make modules modules_installB.make bzImage modules modules_installC.make mrproper modules modules_installD.make dep clean modules modules_installE.make dep clean bzImage modules modules_installAnswer: EExplanation: This command consists of multiple make commands on the same line:The first part of the command, make dep, actually takes your configuration and builds the corresponding dependency tree. This process determines what gets compiled and what doesn't.The next step, make clean, erase all previous traces of a compilation so as to avoid any mistakes in which version of a feature gets tied into the kernel.The next step, make bzImage does the full compilation of the kernel.The next two steps, make modules and make modules_install will compile the modules and copy them to their appropriate location.Reference:/community/articles/security/v1.3-xml/chap7sec84.htmlIncorrect AnswersA:This command will compile the modules, but not the kernel.B: You need the make dep command to build the dependency tree.C:Make mrproper is similar to make clean except that it doesn’t delete any binaries. However, there is no kernel image specified in this command.D:There is no kernel image specified in this command.QUESTION NO: 15To allow a user to mount a CD and read from it, which entry should be put into /etc/fstab?A./dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 noauto,user,ro 0 0B./dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 noauto,uid=user,gid=group,ro 0 0C./dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 noauto,User,ro 0 0D./dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 noauto,usermap,ro 0 0E./dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 noauto,owners,ro 0 0Answer: AExplanation: This entry in the fstab file allows any user to mount the CD-ROM (/dev/cdrom) in the/mnt/cdrom directory. Iso9660 is the file system for the CD-ROM. Noauto means that the CD-ROM won’t be automatically mounted when the system boots. The first ‘0’ means that the CD-ROM shouldn’t be backed up and the second ‘0’ means that the CD-ROM file system shouldn’t be checked for errors when the machine boots.Reference: Roderick W. Smith. Sybex Linux + Study Guide: Page 400/1.Incorrect Answers:B: The syntax of this entry is incorrect.C:The ‘user’ field should be lowercase.D:Usermap is an invalid entry for the user field.E:Owners is an invalid entry for the user field.QUESTION NO: 16What is the usable disk space of a RAID 5 array of five 18 GB drives with one drive dedicated as a spare?A.18GBB.34GBC.54GBD.72GBE.90GBAnswer: CExplanation: The question states that you have 5 18GB drives, but one is dedicated as a spare. Therefore, you have the use of 4 drives which equals 72GB. When using RAID 5, parity data is written across the disks, using the equivalent of one disk’s space (18GB). Therefore, the total useable space is 72 – 18 =54GB.Reference:/us/infobrf/raidfin.htmlIncorrect AnswersA:The total usable space is 54GB, not 18GB.B:The total usable space is 54GB, not 34GB.D: The equivalent of one drive is used for parity. Therefore, the total useable space is 72 – 18 = 54GB, not 72GB.E: One drive is spare and the equivalent of one drive is used for parity. Therefore, the total useable space is 72 – 18 = 54GB, not 90GB.QUESTION NO: 17You have to mount the /data filesystem from an NFS server (srv 1) that does not support locking. Which of the following mount commands should you use?A.mount –a –t nfsB.mount –o locking=off srv1:/data /mnt/dataC.mount –o nolocking srv1:/data /mnt/dataD.mount –o nolock srv1:/data /mnt/dataE.mount –o nolock/data@srv1 /mnt/dataAnswer: DExplanation: If you are mounting a volume that does not support locking, you need to use the nolock option with the mount command. The nolock option tells the system to not use the NFS locking protocol. Reference::8457/cgi-bin/info2html?(.gz)opts%2520Option Incorrect AnswersA:This answer has the wrong command options.B:‘Locking=off’ is the wrong option. It should be ‘nolock’.C:‘Nolocking’ is the wrong option. It should be ‘nolock’.E:/data@srv1 is the wrong syntax. It should be <servername>:/<foldername>.QUESTION NO: 18To list the filesystem available from the NFS server ‘castor’, the command” ____________ -e castor” can be used.Answer: showmountExplanation: The showmount is used to display information about NFS filesystems. The –e option is used to specify an exported filesystem.Reference:/linux/cmd/s/showmount.htmlQUESTION NO: 19You want to check what shares are offered by a Windows system. Which of the following commands could you use to perform this task?A.mmblookupB.showsharesC.smbclientD.smbstatusE.listsharesAnswer: CExplanation: The smbclient command with the -L can be used to display the shares on a Windows system. The syntax is smbclient –L //<servername>.Reference:/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=8897Incorrect AnswersA:Mmblookup is the incorrect command to display shares on a Windows system.B:Showshares is the incorrect command to display shares on a Windows system.D:Smbstatus is the incorrect command to display shares on a Windows system.E:Listshares is the incorrect command to display shares on a Windows system.QUESTION NO: 20What file in the /proc file system will show you the parameters passed to your kernel at boot time?A./proc/apmB./proc/statC./proc/kmsgD./proc/sys/kernel/sysrqE./proc/cmdlineAnswer: EExplanation: The /proc/cmdline file contains parameters passed to the kernel at system boot time. Reference:/emblin/embhowto.htmIncorrect AnswersA:The kernel parameters are in the /proc/cmdline file, not the /proc/apm file.B:The kernel parameters are in the /proc/cmdline file, not the /proc/stat file.C:The kernel parameters are in the /proc/cmdline file, not the /proc/kmesg file.D:The kernel parameters are in the /proc/cmdline file, not the /proc/sys/kernel/sysrq file.QUESTION NO: 21When an ext2 partition is formatted, a fixed percentage of the blocks on the disk are reserved for use by the root user. After the filesystem has been created this percentage can be modified using which utility?A.tune2fsB.mke2fsC.e2fsckD.mountE.hdparmAnswer: AExplanation: The tune2fs utility can be used to modify the reserved blocks. For example, the tune2fs – u <username> command can be used to allow a user to use the reserved blocks.Reference:/linux/cmd/t/tune2fs.htmlIncorrect Answers:B:You need the tune2fs utility, not mke2fs.C:E2fsck is used to check a disk for bad blocks. It is not used for reserved blocks.D:The mount command is used to mount a filesystem. It is not used for reserved blocks.E:Hdparm is used for tuning a hard disk for performance. It is not used for reserved blocks. QUESTION NO: 22You are asked to provide access through your FTP server to a network share available from an NT server running on your local network- For this purpose, you will need ______ support in the kernel and to mount the NT share using the smbmount command line utility:Answer: smbfsExplanation: Windows NT uses SMB (Server Message Blocks) for network communications. In order to be able to use the smbmount command to mount a Windows NT share, your kernel must have smbfs (server message block file system) support.Reference:.au/~jn/linux/smbfs/QUESTION NO: 23On an ext2 filesystem, a running daemon has created a large logfile that is beginning to fill the disk. After deleting the file with an “rm-f” command as root, “df” shows that the space is still in use even though the file is not shown using “ls”. To reclaim this space you must:A.Restart the daemon.B.Unmount and remount the filesystem.e sync.D.Recreate the file.E.Run fsck.Answer: AExplanation: If you have a daemon which writes a log file and keeps that file open for writing then removing the file will not free up the disk space. The filesystem still sees the program as having a reference to it. Therefore the filesystem will not free up that disk space. The only way to free the space is to restart the daemonReference:/pipermail/bug-fileutils/2001-February/001495.htmlIncorrect Answers:B:Unmounting and remounting the filesystem is unnecessary and may not free the space.C:Sync is used to write the buffers to disk. It will not free the space.D:Recreating the file will not free the space because the daemon has a reference to the old file.E:Fsck is a file system checking tool. It won’t free the space because it won’t recognize it as corrupted. QUESTION NO: 24While checking the logfiles on your log server, you notice that all client machines are showing up by IP address rather than by hostname, although DNS is configured and running. How would you ensure that host entries show by name rather than by IP?A.Restart named and then syslogd on the log server.B.Add the central logging server to all inbound logging hosts’ /etc/hosts.C.Recompile syslogd to add remote logging support.D.Restart syslogd on the inbound logging clients to force DNS resolution.E.Add all inbound logging hosts to /etc/hosts on the log server, then restart syslogd.Answer: EExplanation: I don’t know why the DNS resolution isn’t working for the syslog daemon. It could be that there are lots of log entries and that the DNS requests are timing out. Therefore, adding the inbound logging hosts to /etc/hosts on the log server will enable local hostname resolution, thus negating the need to use DNS.Incorrect AnswersA:The question states that DNS is configured and running and therefore does not need to be restarted.B:This won’t work. The clients are able to contact the logging server. Adding the central logging server to all inbound logging hosts’ /etc/hosts files won’t affect how the logging server records the log entries. C:Remote logging support is already enabled because the IP addresses are being logged.D:DNS resolution needs to be forced on the server, not the clients.QUESTION NO: 25You are trying to boot a system and change the root password, which you do not know. What do you type at he LILO prompt?A.linux /etc/passwdB.linux norootpassC.linux disable passwordsD.linux init=/bin/bashE.linux passwd=0Answer: DExplanation: If you forget the root password, you can boot init into the shell and change the password using the following commands:boot: Linux init=/bin/shbash# mount –o remount / -rwbash# passwd rootReference: Michael J. Tobler. New Riders, Inside Linux: Page 466.Incorrect AnswersA: linux /etc/passwd is not a valid boot prompt command.B:linux norootpass is not a valid boot prompt command.C:linux disable passwords is not a valid boot prompt command.E:linux passwd=0 is not a valid boot prompt command.QUESTION NO: 26You need to use grep to search for specific log entries. Given the following three log entries, which grep command will match only one line? Assume that every pattern matches at least one line.Jun 16 01:46:18 hostname pumpd[10]: PUMP: got an offerJun 17 21:52:28 hostname kernel: SCSI subsystem driver Revision: 1.00Jul 20 11:09:01 hostname /USR/SBIN/CRON[1800]: (mail) CMD runqA.grep “hostname\ [^\]*\[A-Z]*:”B.grep “Ju[I-Z]\[0-9].*:.1”C.grep “hostname,*[pumpd]*[10]”D.grep “[0-9]:[1-8]*\ host.*\(.*\)”E.grep “US*[^]]*]*:”Answer: D.QUESTION NO: 27How can you determine who has scheduled at jobs?A.at –lB.at –qC.at –dD.atwhoAnswer: AExplanation: The at –l command is the same as the atq command. It will list the user's pending jobs, unless the user is a privileged user; in which case, everybody's jobs are listedReference:/linux/cmd/a/at.htmlIncorrect AnswersB:The –q option is used to place the job in a specified queue. It does not display who has scheduled jobs. C:The –d option is used to delete a specified job. It does not display who has scheduled jobs.D:This is an invalid command.QUESTION NO: 28You want to create a compressed backup of the users home directories. What utility should you use? Answer: tarExplanation: The tar utility is used to archive multiple files into one ‘tarball’. The –z option invokes another utility called gzip and instructs it to compress the files before tar archives them.Reference:/linux/cmd/t/tar.htmlQUESTION NO: 29You are covering for another system administrator and one of the users asks you to restore a file for him. You locate the correct tarfile by checking the backup log but you do not know how the directory structure was stored. What command can you use to determine this?A.tar fx tarfile dirnameB.tar tvf tarfile filenameC.tar ctf tarfileD.tar tvf tarfileAnswer: DExplanation: You can list the contents of a ‘tarball’ with the tar tvf tarfile command. The t option is used to list the files and directories. The v option runs the command in verbose mode. The f option allows you to specify the name of the tarball (a tarball is a common name for an archive created with the tar utility) with the f <filename> option.Reference:/linux/cmd/t/tar.htmlIncorrect AnswersA:The syntax of this command is wrong. The x must come before the f. This also does not list the contents of the file.B:This command would list the path to ‘filename’. Although this would be required information to restorea file, the question states that you want to view the directory structure.C:The c option is used to create a tarball which isn’t required in this question.QUESTION NO: 30The easiest, most basic form of backing up a file is to _____ it to another location.Answer: copyExplanation: The easiest way to backup a file is to copy it to another location. Having a backup copy of a file is always recommended.QUESTION NO: 31When planning your backup strategy you need to consider how often you will perform a backup, how much time the backup takes and what media you will use.What other factor must you consider when planning your backup strategy?Answer: what to backupExplanation: The first thing to consider when planning a backup strategy is what you are going to back up. Then you can think about the amount of data this will be. This will affect your other decisions such as what media to use etc.QUESTION NO: 32What key combination can you press to suspend a running job and place it in the background? Answer: ctrl-zExplanation: You can suspend a currently running job by using the Ctrl + z keystroke. This will stop the job, but it won’t end it. The job will be available to be resumed. Note: you can only stop jobs that were started in your current shell.Reference:/library/weekly/aa072301b.htmQUESTION NO: 33Using command substitution, how would you display the value of the present working directory?A.echo $(pwd)B.echo pwdC.$pwdD.pwd | echoAnswer: AExplanation: The echo command can be used to display the contents of variables. The present working directory is held in the pwd variable. Echo $(pwd) will display the contents of the pwd variable. Other commands that would work are echo $ PWD and echo “$PWD”.Reference:/solaris/ksh-beforeyoustart.htmlIncorrect Answers:B:Echo pwd would display the text ‘pwd’.C:$pwd doesn’t do anything although $PWD would work.D:pwd | echo doesn’t do anything.QUESTION NO: 34Every time you attempt to delete a file using the rm utility, the operating system prompts you for confirmation. You know that this is not the customary behavior for the rm command. What is wrong?A.rm has been aliased as rm –iB.The version of rm installed on your system is incorrect.C.This is the normal behavior of the newest version of rm.D.There is an incorrect link on your system.Answer: AExplanation: The –i option with the rm command runs the command in ‘interactive’ mode. This will cause rm to prompt you for the deletion of a file.Reference:/linux/cmd/r/rm.htmlIncorrect AnswersB:The fact that rm is prompting for a confirmation indicates that the version of rm is compatible with your system.C:This is not the normal behaviour for rm although it will prompt you if you are attempting to delete a write protected file.D:The rm command is running the rm program so there is not an incorrect link.QUESTION NO: 35In your present working directory, you have the files.marylettermemo1MyTelephoneandAddressBookWhat is the fewest number of keys you can type to open the file MyTelephoneandAddressBook with vi?A.6B.28C.25D.4Answer: AExplanation: Tab completion is where you can type the first few letters of a command or filename then press tab to automatically complete the command or filename. You need to type enough letters so that there is only one command or filename starting with those letters. In this question you could type v then i then space then m then y then tab. This equals six keystrokes. There is only one filename starting with ‘my’ so this file will be opened.Reference:/misc/guide/linux_guide/node28.html。
量表的信度与效度分析计算
B 当两个评分者（或编码员）判断同一现象时， 评价结果是否一致？
方法：计算两个评分者评分之间的相关；或计算两个 编码员编码结果一致的比例，用于评价信度
3、等价性分析 • 前一种应用A比较少见（构造等价的量表非 常困难）
• 后一种应用B比较常见，也称为 评分者内在信度
(inter-rater reliability)
三、信度评价
从三个方面来分析测量的信度
• 稳定性 (stability)
• 内在一致性 (internal consistency) • 等价性 (equivalency)
1、稳定性分析 也叫做测验--再测验法 目的： 考察对于同样的问答题（或测试） 对同一组被访者或受测试者 前后两次测量的结果是否基本一致
台湾的“兰屿民众传播行为与现代化程度之研究”, 用离岛经验作为测量雅美族人现代化程度的效标
有、无离岛经验的雅美族人之间 现代化程度有明显差异的量表 才有可能是高效度的量表
要剔除那些没有显著差异的低效度的题项
3、结构效度
• 评价量表测量的结果是否与理论假设或框架相关
称能测出结构的量表为具有高的结构效度的量表
1、内容பைடு நூலகம்度
例如， 1993 年卜卫等在厦门受众调查问卷中（见 “媒介· 人· 现代化”），设计了一个四级李克动 机量表，以测试厦门受众的媒介使用动机。表中的 受众媒介动机量表就是剔除了不合格题项后的量表， 表中的各个题项的得分与总分都是显著相关的（概 值P≤0.001），说明量表内的各个题项之间具有较 好的同质性。
编码者间信度 = 2m / (m1 + m2)
3、等价性分析--编码者间信度的计算公式
霍斯提(Holsti)公式
优点：计算简单、易于操作 缺点：信度的大小可能与编码时所用的类别的数目有关
CUDA_Occupancy_Calculator
Multiprocessor Warp Occupancy
2.0 49152
(Help)
256 16 4096
(Help)
48 40 32 24 16 8 0
3.) GPU Occupancy Data is displayed here and in the graphs: Active Threads per Multiprocessor Active Warps per Multiprocessor Active Thread Blocks per Multiprocessor Occupancy of each Multiprocessor
2.0 32 48 1536 8 32768 64 warp 49152 128 0 1024
8 4096 4096
48 40 32 24 16 8 0 0
Blocks 6 8 12 RED
2.3
Threads 256 32 64 96 128 160 192 224 256 288 320 352 384 416 448 480 512 544 576 608 640 672 704 736 768 800 832 864 896 928 960 992 1024 1056 1088
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
2784 2816 2848 2880 2912 2944 2976 3008 3040 3072
Click Here for detailed instructions on how to use this occupancy calculator.
《SPSS信度分析》课件
THANKS
感谢观看
优点是简单易行，适用于短时间内评估问卷的一致性；缺点是需要等待一段时间才能获得结果，且可能受到被试 记忆的影响。
折半信度法
折半信度法
将问卷分成两部分，然后计算两部分得分的相关系数作为信度系数。这种方法适用于问卷长度较长的 情况。
计算公式
信度系数 = 2 * (相关系数) / (1 + 相关系数)
04
样本代表性
样本需要具有代表性，能够反映目标总体的情 况。
样本均衡性
样本中各类别的比例需要与目标总体相似，以提高分析的可靠性。
不同类型问卷的信度分析方法选择
封闭式问卷
采用Cronbach's Alpha系数或重测信度法 进行信度分析。
开放式问卷
采用内容分析法或专家评审法进行信度分析 。
混合式问卷
根据问卷中不同部分的特点，选择适合的信 度分析方法。
信度分析的分类
信度系数法
通过计算信度系数（如Cronbach's Alpha系数、 重测信度法等）来评估测量工具的一致性程度。
因子分析法
通过因子分析来检验测量工具的结构效度，从而 间接评估其信度。
内容效度法
通过专家评审或受试者反馈来评估测量工具的内 容效度，从而间接评估其信度。
02
SPSS信度分析的步骤
VS
通过信度分析，可以检测客户满意度 调查中各个测量指标的一致性，从而 为企业提供更加准确的市场反馈。
人力资源管理中的员工满意度调查
员工满意度调查是人力资源管理中评估员工工作体验、了解员工需求的重要手段，信度分析有助于提高调查的可靠性。
信度分析可以检测员工满意度调查中各个测量指标的一致性，帮助企业了解员工的工作满意度、激励措施等方面的实际情况 ，从而制定更加有效的管理策略。
(完整版)如何计算信度和效度
1、选择10人采用“评测信度”问卷对其进行调查
2、数据录入Excel
3、录入时注意：答案为“是”记为“1”分，“否”记为“2”分
4、将每个人问卷总分算出来
5、录入格式
研究对象
第一次测试
第二次测试
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分数
9
分数
分数
10
分数
分数
6.两次测试间隔一周
7.如不录入数据，计算可以不通过软件
8.计算公式
X:第一次测试得分
Y:第二次测试得分
n=10
r:相关系数
>0.7问卷有效
二、内容效度
1.选择5名熟悉便秘及便秘护理相关知识专家，评价问卷内容。修改后再次评价。
2.应用效度测评问卷
3.计算平均效度
测量的信度与效度
第一节 测量的信度 第二节 测量的效度
第一节 信度（reliability）
一、什么是信度 定义：指的是测量结果的稳定性程度（或叫可靠性）。也指 同一被试在不同时间内用同一测验（或用另一套相等的测验） 重复测量，所得结果的一致程度。 1、理论定义：传统的信度理论认为，每一个测验的实得分 数（X）总是由真实分数（T）和误差（E），两个部份构成 的，公式为： X=T+E 讨论一组测验分数的特性时，可用方差导标具体分数，公式： （测验实得分数的方差）S x2＝ （测验真分数的方差）ST2＋ （测验误差的方差）SE2
4、注意的问题：
（1）如遇到有牵连的项目或一组解决同一 问题的项目时，这些项目应放在同一半， 否则将会高估信度的值。 （2）当试卷中存在选题或试卷为速度测验 时，不宜采用分半法。
作业：
1、用某量表测验14名学生,得分记为X.为了考察测量结 果的可靠性,于16天后用原量表对这14名学生再测一次, 得人记为Y,如表中所示,问测验结果是否可靠?
（四）比较不同测验分数的差异：测量标 准误和测验信度在评价两个不同测验的分 数是否有明显差异时也非常重要。这种比 较包括两个人不同分数的差别和同一被试 在两个测验上的差别。
例题：某被试在韦氏成人智力测验中言语智商为 102，操作智商为108。已知两个分数都是以100 为平均数，15为标准差的标准分数。假设言语测 验和操作测验的分半信度分别为0.97和0.93。问 其操作智商是否显著高于言语智商呢？ 首先计算出差异分数的标准误： 在统计上，经常要求两个分数的差异程度达到 0.05的显著水平，才能承认不是 误差的影响。因此，将差异标准误（4.74）乘以 1.96，结果为9.29，这表明个体在韦氏测验两半 得分的差异高于大约10分，才能达到0.05显著水 平。上述被试的分数差异（108-102＝6）是不显 著的。
问卷信度 计算方法
问卷信度计算方法
问卷信度的计算方法主要有以下几种：
1. 重测信度法：用同一问卷在不同时间对同一群体进行测试，根据两次测试结果的一致性程度来计算信度。
2. 复本信度法：用同一问卷的复本对同一群体进行测试，根据两个版本结果的一致性程度来计算信度。
3. 内部一致性信度法：通过计算问卷内部各题目之间的相关性或一致性来评估信度。
常用的内部一致性信度系数包括克朗巴赫α系数和折半信度。
以上是问卷信度的计算方法，可以根据实际情况选择适合的方法进行计算。
pcse估计方法
pcse估计方法
PCE( Peterson Consistency Estimate) 是一种常用的信度估计方法，用于衡量一个测验的稳定性或一致性。
它通过计算同一组被试在不同时间或条件下所作的测验之间的相关性来评估测验的信度。
具体来说，PCE 的计算需要满足以下几个条件:
1. 同一组被试在不同时间或条件下所作的测验应该是相同的，即测验应该经过常模建设等过程以保证同一组被试在不同时间或条
件下所作的测验之间的可比性;
2. 两次测量的间隔时间应该适当，太近的间隔时间可能导致被试状态或环境的变化，从而影响测量结果的稳定性;
3. 两次测量之间的差异应该是可解释的，即被试在不同时间或条件下所作的测验之间的差异应该是由被试的状态或环境变化所导
致的，而不是其他原因，例如考试焦虑等。
PCE 的计算公式为:
PCE = (r1 - r2) / (√(r1^2 + r2^2) - (r1 - r2) √(r1^2 + r2^2))
其中，r1 和 r2 分别为同一组被试在第一次和第二次测验上所得的分数之间的皮尔逊积差相关系数，√表示求平方根。
PCE 值越大，表示测验的稳定性或一致性越好。
不过，PCE 只适用于同一组被试在不同时间或条件下所作的测验之间的比较，不能用于不同组被试之间的比较或跨时间的比较。
同时，PCE 的计算需要满足上述条件，如果条件不满足，可能会影响 PCE 的估计结果。
估计信度的方法
第二节 估计信度的方法前面已经提出了信度的概念，但只是一个理论上的构想，实际测量过程中，无法对真分数和误差分数进行测量，在实际应用中，通常以同一样本得到的两组资料的相关，作为测量一致性的指标。
估计信度有不同的方法，常用的估计的方法有再测信度、复本信度、等值稳定性系数、内部一致性系数、评分者信度等。
一、再测信度（Test-Retest Reliability ）再测信度，也叫重测信度，也叫稳定性系数。
用同一个测验，对同一组被试前后施测两次，对两次测验分数求相关，其相关系数就叫再测信度。
其计算公式（皮尔逊积差相关公式的变式）为：212121S S X X N X Xr xx -=∑ （公式5－6） 式中X 1、X 2为同一被试的两次测验分数，1X 、2X 为全体被试两次测验的平均数，S1、S2为两次测验的标准差（样组标准差，参见金瑜的书P183），N 为被试人数。
再测法的模式是：施测 适当时距 再施测例2：假设有一份主观幸福感调查表，先后两次施测于10名学生，时间间隔为半年，结果如表所示，求该测验的重测信度。
（为了便于理解和计算，本章估计信度的例子都是小样组，实际应用时应采用大样组。
）表5－1 某幸福感调查表的两次测试结果测验被试1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10X1 16 15 13 13 11 10 10 9 8 7 X2 16 16 14 12 11 9 11 8 6 7 解：用计算器算出S 1=2.82，S 2＝3.38，20.111=X ，00.112=X ，∑=132421X X 把以上数据代入公式5－6，可得97.038.382.200.1120.11101324=⨯⨯-=xx r 此题可用计算机社会科学统计软件做，求皮尔逊积差相关。
在测验手册上报告的再测信度，一般要注明被试样本的性质、大小，以及间隔多长时间等，以便使使用者了解样本及时间因素对测验稳定性的影响。
计算再测信度必须注意几个问题：（1）所测量的特性必须是稳定的。
信度计算公式
信度计算公式信度计算公式是研究者们必须理解的一个重要概念。
在统计学，数学，和管理科学中，信度是一个测量结果准确性和可靠性的概念。
它被用于衡量一个预测或模型的可靠性，以及这种预测或模型是否有效地预测现实环境中的影响。
它也可用于衡量一个现象的可重复性。
定义信度被定义为一个测量结果的准确性的统计概念。
这个概念包括一个事件发生的概率，这个概率在不同情况下可能会有所不同。
在统计学中，信度用于衡量测量工具的准确性，包括调查表，测验，问卷，定量分析等等。
计算公式信度计算公式可以用来衡量一个测量工具的准确性。
计算公式由两个部分组成：一是信度的完全度，二是信度的一致性。
完全度用一个简单的公式来描述：完全度 =测正确的次数/总的预测次数一致性的计算公式为：一致性 =复测量结果的稳定性/总的测量次数一致性可以帮助我们测量测量工具的可靠性。
应用信度计算公式被广泛应用于多种场景，比如医学诊断，心理学评估，经济预测等等。
在医学诊断领域，信度计算可以帮助确定某种诊断技术是否能够准确预测出某种疾病。
通过计算预测正确的概率和重复测量结果的稳定性，可以得出一定的结论，有助于理解诊断技术的可靠性。
在心理学评估方面，信度计算公式也被广泛应用。
心理学家经常使用测验和问卷来评估一个人的性格，情绪等状态。
通过用一定的信度计算公式来衡量一个测量工具的可靠性，可以获得更可信的评估结果。
在经济预测方面，信度计算也被大量使用。
经济预测是一项十分复杂的工作，需要对各种因素加以全面分析和掌握，从而得出结论。
在预测结果准确性的判断上，信度计算是一项十分重要的工作，它可以帮助经济学家和投资者对预测结果的可靠性有一个更清晰的认识。
总结综上所述，信度计算公式是一个非常重要的概念，它被广泛应用于多个领域，如医学诊断，心理学评估，经济预测等。
信度计算公式由完全度和一致性组成，可以帮助我们衡量一个测量工具的可靠性以及预测结果的准确性。
克里本多夫信度系数
克里本多夫信度系数
克里本多夫信度系数（Cronbach's alpha）是一种用于衡量测量工具内部一致性的统计指标。
它通常用于问卷调查、心理学测试等领域，用于评估测量工具中各项之间的相关性和一致性。
克里本多夫信度系数的取值范围为0到1之间，较高的值表明测量工具的各项之间存在较高的一致性。
一般来说，大于0.7的克里本多夫信度系数被认为是可接受的，大于0.8则被视为很好的一致性。
通过计算测量工具内部各项之间的相关性，克里本多夫信度系数可以帮助研究者评估测量工具的信度，即该工具是否能够稳定地反映所要测量的概念或特质。