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linguistic名词解释

linguistic名词解释嘿，朋友！咱们今儿来聊聊“linguistic”这个词儿。

您知道啥是“linguistic”不？这词儿啊，在英文里是“语言的；语言学的”意思。

比如说，咱平常跟人交流，说的话、写的字，这都是linguistic的范畴。

就像您跟朋友聊天，讲述一天的经历，那您说的每一个字、每一个句子，都是语言的表现，都能归到linguistic里头。

再举个例子，不同国家有不同的语言，中文、英文、法文等等，研究这些语言的特点、结构、发展变化，这就是linguistic的事儿啦。

这就好比不同的花朵，有各自独特的颜色、形状和香气，而linguistic就是去探索每种语言的独特之美。

想象一下，语言就像一座大花园，里面各种各样的花儿争奇斗艳。

而linguistic呢，就是那个细心的园丁，仔细观察每一朵花的生长，了解它们的习性，琢磨怎么让这座花园更加绚丽多彩。

咱学一门外语的时候，那些语法规则、词汇用法，不也是linguistic 的一部分吗？您不觉得就像在解谜，每一个语法点都是一个小谜题，每一个新单词都是一块拼图，而linguistic就是帮咱们找到解谜和拼图的方法。

还有啊，不同地区的方言，那也是linguistic的研究对象。

比如有的地方把“鞋子”叫“hai子”，有的地方把“聊天”叫“唠嗑”，这多有意思！这就像是各地的特色小吃，虽然味道不同，但都让人回味无穷，linguistic就是要把这些独特的味道都品尝出来。

linguistic还关注语言的演变呢！想想看，古代的文言文和现代的白话文，差别多大呀！这就跟人从小到大的变化似的，从稚嫩走向成熟。

linguistic就是记录和研究这个成长过程的。

您说，要是没有linguistic，咱们怎么能更好地理解语言的奥秘，怎么能让交流更加顺畅、更加有趣呢？所以啊，linguistic可不是个简单的词儿，它背后藏着一个丰富多彩的世界，等着咱们去探索、去发现！总之，linguistic就是关于语言的种种，从日常交流到学术研究，从方言特色到语言演变，它都涵盖其中。

语言学Linguistics

LinguisticsThree words you must know before learning:Language ['læŋgwidʒ] 语言Linguistics [liŋ'gwistiks] 语言学Linguist ['liŋgwist] 语言学家What is the relation between linguistics and the courses we have learned in the previous two years?listening, speaking, reading , writing they are language skills ;linguistics, including literature…language knowledge 知其然,知其所以然Course objectives: 1.mastery of basic linguistic terms concepts and theories.2.T o arouse your interest in language and language phenomenon.3.Let you know the branches of linguistics. 4.preparation for further study and research about language.Chapter One An Introduction to language and Linguistics1. The Definition of Language语言的定义：(1)语言是一种社会现象……语言区别于其他社会现象的专门的特点是它是作为人们交际的工具、作为人们交流思想的工具来为社会服务的; (2) 它是作为人们的思维工具来为社会服务的。

……就语言自身而言,它是由语音和语义结合而成、由词汇和语法所构成的符号系统。

Linguistics语言学归纳

Linguistics1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….)phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1)Prescriptive & descriptivePrescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)2)Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3)Langue & parole 语言&言语Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.4)Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication.Design features of language:1)arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds.2)Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.3)Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of languageenables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4)Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制5)Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）2.Functions of language:1)Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2)Expressive function: supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences, prejudices and values.3)Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.3.Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb. Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua) Phrase elements : specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses. Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1)Coinage:创新词Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato2)Clipped words: 缩略词Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger 3)Blending: 紧缩法Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunch camcorder-camera+recorder 4)Acronyms: 首字母缩略词CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technologyEU VIP B2B CPI5)Back-formation: 逆构词法To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate6)Function shiftn.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreatadj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7)BorrowingBonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balconyBalloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8)Derivation 派生词Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restateanti-pollution unfair realize happiness9)Compounds 复合词Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-licenseUndertake without landlady handover whitewash8.Register 语域Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说Language filters people’s perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.10. Language AcquisitionTheories of child language acquisition:1)The behavioristImitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammaticalstructures of the language.2)The innatistLanguage Acquisition device(LAD)ChomskyIt proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.Universal Grammar (UG)3)The interactionistIt holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric LennebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—aspecific and limited time period for language acquisition.Two versions:Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.11. Second Language AcquisitionPositive transfer正迁移facilitateNegative transfer 负迁移interfere or hinderInterlanguage 中介语It was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.Fossilization 石化现象It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Acquisition 习得It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learning学习It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.。

linguistics语言学

Creativity/productivity
Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. com.: birds, bees,crabs, spiders communicate To combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences Language is potential to create endless sentences. The crystal elephants are dancing in the blue sun.
It is said that children become fluent speaker of their native language by the age of five. Mothers and other care-takers do not provide anything like a teacher’s work in a formal classroom situation. Another fact is the degenerate nature of the input data. In other words, the input is degenerate data, but the output is a perfect language system.
Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues the child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialties, but also with knowledge of the nature of the world, and specifically with knowledge of the nature of language. According to this view, children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal.

新编简明英语语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

Linguistics

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

English Linguistics

Aristotle‟s camp

Behaviorism or empiricism (行为主义经验主义） Our brain was blank when we were born. Language is a social, empirical entity. Language is learned from practice. All the varieties of language should be regarded as equal.
Exercises

1. ___ held that there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. 2. __ argued that knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language. 3. In ancient China, a famous philosopher named____ reasoned that a name was accepted through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention. 4. According to __, knowledge of L is the result of the interaction of UG and later experience.

新编简明英语语言学教程整理

定义Linguistics ：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.General Linguistics ：The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.language ：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design Features ：It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. The scope of linguistics：The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics.（社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）1.宽式音标Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.2.窄式音标Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3.清音V oicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.4.浊音V oicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5.元音V owelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6.辅音ConsonantsThe sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7.音位PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology, it‘s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.8.音位变体AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.9.音素phoneA phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it‘s a speech sound we use when speakinga language.10.最小对立对Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.11.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.12.互补分布complementary distribution P35Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.14.爆破音stopsWhen a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]1.词素MorphemeThe basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.2.自由词素Free MorphemeFree morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.3.黏着词素Bound morphemesBound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.4.词根RootRoot is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.5.词缀AffixThe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.6.曲折词缀inflectional affixesThe manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.7.派生词缀Derivational affixesThe manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.8.词干StemA stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.9.形态学规则Morphological rulesThey are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.10.前缀PrefixPrefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‗be-‗ and ‗en(m)-‗11.后缀SuffixSuffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.1.句子sentenceA structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.2.语言运用Linguistic competenceThe system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker.3.谓语PredicateThe part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.4.定式子句Finite ClauseA clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone.5.从属子句Embedded Clause (E C)In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C .6.主要子句Matrix ClauseIn a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.7.层次结构Hierarchical structureThe sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.8.语法关系Grammatical relationsThe structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence.9.句法类型Syntactic categoryA word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.10.表层结构S-structureA level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.11.深层结构D-structureA level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.12.普遍语法General grammarA system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language.13.移动α规则Move αA general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.14.句法移位Syntactic movementSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position.15.转换原则Transformation rulesSyntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.16.X标杆理论X-bar theoryA general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X”→（Spec）X(Compl).1.命名论The naming theoryThe naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.2.意念论The conceptualist viewIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt‘s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4.行为主义论BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the‖ situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.5.意义SenseIt‘s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It‘s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it‘s abstract and de-contextualized.6.所指意义ReferenceIt means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.7.同义词SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.8.多义词PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.9.同音(形)异义HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.10.同音异义HomophonesIt refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.11.同形异义HomographsIt refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.12.上下义关系HyponymyIt refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 13.反义词AntonymyIt‘s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.14.成分分析法Componential Analysis----分析词汇抽象意义It‘s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis 由British Linguist G.Leech提出It‘s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis.Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect.通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。

English Linguistics

Morphological structure in language processingedited by Harald Baayen and Robert SchreuderBook review for Languagereviewed byIngo PlagEnglish LinguisticsFachbereich 3Universitaet SiegenAdolf-Reichwein-Str. 2D-57068 Siegenhttp://www.uni-siegen.de/~engspra/tel. 0271-740-2560tel. 0271-740-2349 (secretary)fax 0271-740-3246e-mail: plag@anglistik.uni-siegen.detel.: 06422-2817 (home)2047 words (text of review, excl. heading and references) February 10,2005Morphological structure in language processing. Edited by Harald Baayen and Robert Schreuder. Trends in Linguistics. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2004. Pp. viii, 521. ISBN: 3-11-017892-3. $ 113.50 (Hb)Reviewed by Ingo Plag, Universität SiegenThe book under review1 is concerned with the nature of linguistic rules and their psycholinguistic reality, a topic that has been of considerable importance since the foundation of our discipline. Recently, the discussion about these issues has been fuelled both by important advances in psycholinguistics and by the availability of methodologies that allow researchers to study the role of frequency and probability in a much more principled and rigorous fashion than ever before. The existence of large corpora, lexical and syntactic databases as well as powerful statistical software has led to a methodological revolution which has affected even those circles that have hitherto followed the practice of building theories on the basis of asking the linguist in the office next door about the ‘grammaticality’ of a sentence or a word invented a minute ago.The use of the new rich arsenal of modern linguistic methodology has led to significant findings in all areas of linguistics, which forces us to rethink and reshape many of our long-cherished concepts, including the ‘rule’. Probably the most prominent area of research on these questions is morphology, where books like Pinker’s (1999) Words and rules have gained a wide readership, and one that extends far beyond our field. But also phonology and syntax are more and more subject to approaches that take gradient, probabilistic phenomena into account, without losing scientific rigor or theoretical orientation. 2The articles in the present volume investigate the structure of words and how humans process complex words. A few years ago, not many theoretical linguists would1 I am grateful to Harald Baayen, Maria Braun, Sabine Lappe and Mareile Schramm for comments on an earlier draft of this review.2 See, for example, Bod et al. (2003) for the role of probability in different areas of linguistics.have taken notice of such a volume. Today things are different and theoretical linguists and psychologists not only take each other’s findings into account, but even do work together. The long-term cooperation of Harald Baayen (the linguist) and Robert Schreuder (the psychologist) is a prime example of the successful cross-fertilization of these fields and the present book is one more outcome of this joint endeavour. The volume comprises a collection of articles that can be considered a state-of-the-art reference for questions of morphological processing and its implications for linguistic theory. Although the contributions may sometimes not be very easy to read for the linguist because of the statistical jargon that necessarily accompanies the presentation of experimental results, the reader is rewarded with fascinating insights into the nature of linguistic processing and its repercussions on linguistic theory.Each article is preceded by an abstract, and the volume has a useful subject index. While the editors did a marvellous job, this cannot be said of the copy-editors, who have overlooked an abundance of type-setting errors and inconsistencies in the notation of linguistic forms in the majority of the papers. This is sometimes irritating, but I strongly encourage the reader to ignore these formal shortcomings in order to be able to fully enjoy the contents of this book.The book contains 16 high-quality papers, many written by well-known researchers, each of them carefully reviewed by the editors, by other contributors, or by outside reviewers. The studies presented address a wide range of issues concerning the acquisition, representation and processing of morphologically complex words, investigating phenomena in Dutch, French, German, English, Italian, Polish, and Serbian. Many different experimental paradigms are used, so that one also gets a good overview of the current psycholinguistic experimental arsenal. For example, we find studies using visual and auditory lexical decision tasks, different priming techniques (progressive demasking, forward masking, delayed and cross-modal priming), naming tasks, spelling tasks and computer simulations.From the linguist’s perspective, two issues are of particular relevance, and for reasons of space this review will focus on these, neglecting some issues and articles that might be more pertinent for psycholinguists and psychologists. The first of the twoissues concerns the nature and relevance of the paradigmatic axis in the lexicon. A number of experiments described in the volume address the question of how different kinds of relationship between words influence the organization of the mental lexicon and the processing of individual words. The second issue is the question of morphological decomposition. Directly or indirectly, many of the papers in the volume deal with the problem of whether complex words in the mental lexicon are segmented into their constituent morphemes, and if so, under which circumstances such segmentation happens. I will begin with the paradigmatic axis.Recently, Harald Baayen and his co-workers have established the so-called family size effect: simplex words which occur as constituents in many complex words are processed faster than words with only a few morphological family members (e.g. Schreuder and Baayen 1997). While this effect has been shown with morphological families that include derived words and compounds, it is yet unclear how the number of different inflectional forms in a paradigm, i.e. the inflectional family size, influences lexical processing. This question is explicitly addressed in Daniela Traficante and Cristina Burani’s article ‘Visual processing of Italian verbs and adjectives: The role of inflectional family size’, in which they compare adjectives, which in Italian have small paradigms, with verbs, which have large paradigms. The authors indeed find an inflectional family size effect: a larger number of different forms in the paradigm leads to slower access. They interpret their results plausibly as evidence for the morphological segmentation of verbs as against whole-word access for adjectives. This conclusion is remarkable because the question of whole-word access and representation versus morphological segmentation has hitherto focused on the role of token frequency, not type frequency.In their paper ‘Morphological resonance in the mental lexicon’ Nivja de Jong, Robert Schreuder and Harald Baayen further explore the nature of the familiy size effect. They show that this effect is heavily dependent on the linguistic context. If no context is given, all members of the family contribute to the family size effect. If, however, the context provides information as to which word-category is particularly relevant (for example the category adjective in the context of a comparative suffix, or thesub-class of scale-focusing adjectives in the context of very __), only those members sharing the relevant information become co-activated. In essence, the context narrows down the co-activation to those family members that are contextually relevant.Investigating English words, Michael Ford, William Marslen-Wilson and Matthew Davis (‘Morphology and frequency: Contrasting methodologies’) find that the derivational and compounding family size, but not the inflectional family size influence response latencies to monomorphemic words. In the light of the Italian evidence mentioned above, this is explainable by the small size of inflectional families in English. The strongest predictor for response latencies was, however, not family size, but word form frequency (with monomorphemic nouns) and lemma frequency (with comparatives and superlatives of adjectives). The authors also found effects for the degree of semantic relatedness to other words, which adds yet another dimension to the already complex enough picture.Laurie Feldman and Matthew Pastizzo further explore semantic issues connected to morphological family size in their article ‘Morphological facilitation: The role of semantic transparency and family size’. In two priming experiments, a lexical decision task and a naming task, they investigated whether the expected morphological facilitation varied with the degree of semantic transparency of the morphological family of the target word. In the lexical decision task, they found that latencies depended on how large the semantically transparent family was (this effect was absent in the naming experiment). These results do not only support the reality of morphological families, but they also have methodological implications. Contrary to standard assumptions, semantic transparency as a phenomenon is not restricted to the relatedness of prime and target, but also pertains to whole clusters of words.Let us now turn to the other major issue introduced above, the problem of morphological segmentation. This problem is not restricted to psycholinguistics but finds its correspondence in morphological theory, for example in word-and-paradigm models as against morpheme-based models. The former rely on relationships between whole word-forms, the latter on relationships between sub-lexical units, assuming morphological segmentation. The results of recent psycho- and neurolinguistic studiescan be interpreted as evidence for the psychological reality of both morphemic and whole-word representations, and morphological theory has started to incorporate these results in various ways (cf., for example, Hay and Plag 2004 on suffix ordering). For infelction, one of the most influential models (see Clahsen 1999, Pinker 1999 for overviews) proposes a dual mechanism, according to which regular inflection always involves computation (irrespective of frequency), while irregular forms are stored as wholes. Other dualistic approaches use race models in which processing by rote and by computation compete with each given word, with the outcome being a function of various properties of the word in question, frequency chiefly among them. On the contrary, single mechanism models use only full-form representations that are organized, for example, in computational networks or analogical sets. In the papers of this volume, all three types of models are being advocated.For example, Harald Clahsen, Ingrid Sonnenstuhl, and James Blevins present a study in which they extend their dual mechanism model from inflection to derivation, studying German nominalizations and diminutives. They refine their approach by stating that their model now ‘treats productive inflection and derivation both as a result of combinatorial operations but associates productive derivation [sic] (like irregularly inflected items) with stored entries’ (p. 149). In my view, this begs the question by which mechanism the same type of word, i.e. productively derived derivatives, can be both segmented and not segmented, and how a decomposed item can be ‘associated’ with a stored whole-word entry in a model where only one or the other, whole-word storage or decomposition, is possible. What irritated me most about this paper, however, is the facs that the authors ignore the counter-evidence to their claims that can be found in their own paper, as well as in other papers (of this volume and beyond). First, the derivational processes investigated by Clahsen et al. pattern like a sub-class of German –n plurals, which speaks against the proposed dichotomy of inflectional and derivational morphology. Second, no mention is made of the full-form frequency effects found with regular inflection in earlier studies (e.g. Baayen et al. 1997) and in studies presented in the same volume.Thus, only some 50 pages later the reader finds a contribution by Harald Baayen, James McQueen, Ton Dijkstra and Robert Schreuder in which full-form frequency effects are investigated (‘Frequency effects in regular inflectional morphology: Dutch plurals revisited’). In a numer of experiments the authors show that the (relative) frequencies of plural forms influence response latencies. This finding can be interpreted as strong evidence for the independent representation of plural forms for nouns and verbs, in both the auditory and visual modalities, even for forms that are completely regular. In their article ‘Frequency effects in processing inflected Dutch nouns: A distributed connectionist account’, Matthew Davis, Marten van Casteren and William Marslen-Wilson take up Baayen et al.’s results and show that these can be modeled in a neural network, if homonymous affixes are included in the training set. This shows that frequency effects can be accounted for in a single mechanism system without distinct processing mechanisms of whole-word storage and decomposition.Frequency effects for regularly inflected forms are also found by Dominik Sandra and Michel Fayol in their study ‘Spelling errors with a view on the mental lexicon: Frequency and proximity effects in misspelling homophonous regular verb forms in Dutch and French’. What is especially interesting about the results of this study is the fact that even in an area in which there is complete regularity due to simple, few and straighforward (spelling) rules, language users engage in probabilistic morphological processing.Overall, the findings accumulated in this state-of-the-art volume suggest at least three important conclusions: First, we are only beginning to estimate the full complexity of lexical storage and processing. There is no model in sight in which different kinds of frequency, semantic and context effects are all taken care of in a satisfactory manner. Second, one has to be very cautious in interpreting behavioral data. In spite of the rhetoric in many current studies, there is no clear one-to-one mapping between subjects’ response patterns and underlying computational mechanisms. Third, linguists of all persuasions are well-advised to take note of current psycho- and neurolinguistic findings in order to be able to build theories of greater descriptive and explanatory adequacy. This volume is a good starting point.ReferencesBod, Rens, Jennifer Hay, and Stefanie Jannedy (eds.). 2003. Probabilistic Linguistics. Cambridge: MIT Press.Baayen, Harald, Ton Dijkstra, and Robert Schreuder. 1997. Singulars and plurals in Dutch: Evidence for a parallel dual route model. Journal of Memory and Language 37, 94-117.Clahsen, Harald. 1999. Lexical entries and rules of language: A multidisciplinary study of German inflection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22.6.Hay, Jennifer, and Ingo Plag. 2004. What constrains possible suffix combinations? On the interaction of grammatical and processing restrictions in derivational morphology. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 22, 565-596.Pinker, Steven. 2003. Words and rules: The ingredients of language. New York: Basic Books Schreuder, Robert, and Harald Baayen. 1997. How complex simplex words can be. Journal of Memory and Language 37, 118-139.。

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics：语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ，but it studies language in general）2。

General linguistics：普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics。

（language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ）nguage：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。

4.descriptive (描述性)：A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use。

5。

prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors。

i.e。

what they should say and what they should not to say.6。

synchronic（共时语言学)：the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7。

diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3）speech（口语）Writing（书面语)These the two media of communication。

English Linguistics 英语语言学课件

Cultural transmission
----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct). • Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. • A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. • The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.
Language is symbolic in nature
• Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare

英语语言学填空题及答案（最新版）

英语语言学填空题及答案（最新版）Chapter one1.Linguistics is generally defined as the .2.The study of language as a whole is often called .3.The study of_ used in linguistic communication led to theestablishment of phonetics.4.The study of is known as semantics.5.Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to .6. The study of is generally known as applied linguistics.7. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be .8. The description of a language at some point of time in isa synchronic study the description of a language as it through time is a diachronic.9. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is to writing.10. _ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the member of a speech community, and refers to the realization of langue in actual use.11. Linguistic is descriptive while traditional grammer is .12. Modern linguistic regards the language as primary, not the written.13. Many of the rules of traditional grammer apply only to thelanguage.14. When the study of meaning is ,not in isdation ,but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.15. Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different oflinguistic study.答案：1.scientific study of language2.general linguistics3.sounds4.meaning5.psychology6.applications7.descriptive8.history; changes9.prior/doc/a86555740.html,ngue; parole11.prescriptive12.spoken13.written14.conducted15.typesChapter Two1. Phonetics is defined as the study of the of language; if is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.2. The three branches of phonetics are_ , auditory phonetics and acousfic phonetics respectively.3. English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in termsof _and the other is in terms of _ .4. Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language-_______.5. The different throes which can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetics envronments are called the _ of that phoneme.6. The assimulation rules assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a_______; thus making the two phones similate.7. The assimulation rule also accounts for the _______ of the alvedar nasal in some sound combinations.8. The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted althoughit is______.9. Language is first ______through its sounds.10. The letter [P] in terms of place of articulation______ in terms ofmanner of articulation is _______.11. _______, not phonetic identity is the ctciterion with which we operate the phonological analysis of language .12. The greatest source of modification of the air stream is founding the _______.13. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of _____and______ vowels .14. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of______.15. Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a ______and a phrase consisting of the same elements.答案:1.phonic medium/doc/a86555740.html,beled articulation phonetics3.manner of articulation; place of articulation4.the speech sounds5.allo phones6.sequential phoneme7.varying pronunciation8.orthographically represented9.perceived10.bilabial; stops11.phonetic similarity12.oral cavity13.tense; lox14.simultaneous distinctive features/doc/a86555740.html,pound nounChapter Three1.Linguists define the word as the smallest ______found inlanguage.2.Morpheme is the_______________ that carries information aboutmeaning or function.3.The root consistutes the _____ of the word and carries themajor components of its meaning .4.Morpheme are usually ______: there is no nature connectionbetween their sound and meaning.5.When _______ are conjoined to other morpheme （or words）, anew words are derived , or formed.6.Derivation is an _______ that form a word with meaning andcategory distinct from that of its bases.7.Unlike phonemes and syllables which are the elements ofsound , words_______.8.______ are the foundation building blocks of a language .9.Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part ofthegrammer that is concerned with ______ and ________.10.The content words of language , such as ____,_____,_____andadverbs, are sometimes called open class words.11.Affixes______ belong to a lexical category and are alwaysbound morpheme.12.Bound morphemes which are for the most part purelygrammatical makers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case are called_________.13._______, ________ and free morphemes combine are the majorways to produce new words.14.The ways word are formed are called _______.15.When two words are in the same _______, the compound willbe in this category.答案：1.free form2.smallest unit of language3.core4.arbitrary5.derivational morphemes6.affixational process7.carry meaning8.words9.word formation; word structure10.nouns; verbs; adjectives11.do not12.inflectional morphemes13.derivation; compounds14.morphological rules15.grammatical categoryChapter four1.To determine a word's category，three criteria are usually employed: , , .2. The XP rule is .3.Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that .4.The S rule is5.The first, formed by the in accordance with the subcategorization properties, is called deep structure.6.questions begin with a wh- word are called .7.Corresponding to the final syntactic form of sentence which results from appropriate transformations , is called .8.If the head is a verb, then the specifier is .9.Word level categories are divided into two kinds: and .10.Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called .11. The structures which formed by joining two or more elements ofthe some type with the help of a conjunction are .12.The information about is included in the head and termed subcategorization.13.The element which specifies optionally expressible properties of hand is .14.A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another is .15.The construction in which the complement phrases is embedded is called .答案1.meaning，inflection, distribution2.XP→(specifier)X(complement)/doc/a86555740.html,ern the formation of sentences4.S→NP VP5.XP rule , head’s6.questions7.suffice structure8.qualifier9.major lexical categories , minor lexical categories10.phrases11.coordinate structures12.a word’s complement13.modifiers14.transformation15.matrix clauseChapter five1.According to the naming theory , words are just or labeis for things .2.3.Two kinds of context are recognized :the situational context and the .4.In the English vocabulary there are two category of words:and .5.Synonyms can be divided into the ,stylistic synonyms, and collocational synonyms.6.When two words are identical in ,they are .When two words are identical in ,they are homographs.7.swperordinate is more general in meaning, but hyponyms ismore .8.three kinds of antonymy are recognized：Gradable antonymys, , and .9.There are four certain relations between sentences,theyare: , , and preswpposes.10.There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and meaning .11.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is true ,if X is false,Y may be true or false, we called the relation is12.A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of themeaning of the word. The various meaning of the word are to some degree. Complete homonyms are often brought into being by .13. Reference deals with the relationship between theelement and word of experience.14. held the view that “we shall know a word by thecompany it keeps15.semantics canbe simply defined as the study of . 答案：/doc/a86555740.html,s2.referent3.linguistic context4.native words, borrowed words5.Dialectal synonyms ,emotive synonyms6.homophones, spelling7.specific/doc/a86555740.html,plementary antonyms, relational opposites9.synonymous , inconsistence , entails10.semantic11.entails12.primary , related , coincidence13.linguistic ,non-linguistic14.J.R.Firth15.meaningWelcome T o Download欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！。

英语语言学Linguistics 第一章Chapter1 导论Introduction

Displacement移位性/不受时空限制
Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from immedite situation. (P. 9) 用语言谈论超越说话人所处语境的任何人或物或事，语言使用不受时空限制。
基础认知感觉器官↓ ↑认知水平提高反映脑神经↓ ↑ 心理现实编码离散化分类概括 ↓ ↑表达对象指称义（概念范畴）语言符号 ↓（社会）约定一般性音（语音形式） ↑
{
客观现实
{
音响（物质材料）特殊性
In the beginning was the word. —John 1:1
Any elements of language not arbitrary?
Arbitrariness任意性
Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated理据 ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…

Linguistics

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

Linguistics

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

新编简明英语语言学学习重点总结

一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

英语语言学English Linguistic讲课教案

英语语言学E n g l i s h L i n g u i s t i cChapter 1 Introduction1. Linguistic and English LinguisticLinguistic 的目的 aims at developing a theorygeneral linguistic 一般语言学descriptive linguistic 描述性语言学general linguistic (一般语言学 ) 为 descriptive linguistic (描述性语言学) 提供了framework(框架), 这也就是为什么 general linguistic 能够被分析和被描述.General linguistic and descriptive linguistic are complementary to each other (相互补充).English linguistic is a kind of descriptive linguistics.2.The nature of languages (语言的本质)1. language is a system2. language is symbolic3. language is a system of vocal symbolsThe system of language is called langue1. language is a system the speaker ’s speech is called paroleCompetence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his languagePerformance is the actual use of language in concrete situation2. language is symbolic ( 语言是象征意义的)3. language is a system of vocal symbols ( 语言是一种声音符号)语言学侧重研究的是 speech 不是 written formReason1.Biologically (生物上来讲) 儿童学习说比学习读写早得多.2.Functionally (功能上来讲) 日常生活中口语使用比书面语频繁的多.3.Historically ( 历史而言) 口头语使用在书面语之前,当今世界有许多语言并没有留下文字记录Language is arbitraryLanguage is creativeLanguage is double-structuredLanguage is changeableLanguage is arbitrarya linguistic symbol is composed of two things speech sound( form)形式and the idea( meaning) 意义Language is creativeLanguage is double-structuredgrammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless语法上的有意义,声音上的无意义.Language is changeableWhat is the nature of human language?In a short , it is a system of arbitrary vocal symbolsThe unique features like creativity(创造力)duality of structure (结构的双重性)changeability(易变性)3.Scientific method (科学方法)1. collecting data ( 收集数据)2.forming a hypothesis (提出假设)3.testing the hypothesis (验证假设)4.drawing conclusions (得出结论)An important principle of the scientific method Objectivity 客观性Three biases 三种偏见1.some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced有的语言是原始的有的语言是先进的.2.only the standard variety is the pure form of a language只有标准的语体才是纯正的语言3.change is not natural for living language and such a change is a sign ofcorruption and decay语言变化是不自然的变化,变化是衰败的现象.Sources of data 资料的来源Collecting data 是研究的首要工作. 假如这语言学家不懂那门语言,他可以找一个informant ( 为语言学调查提供资料的当地人)Rules construction语言描述的首要工作是construct rules ( draw conclusion) 得出结论How does a linguist construct a rule?书本p15页中4.The goal of linguistics 语言学的目的establish a model of a native speaker’s competence建立一种本族语言的模式literal model 具体模式 physical modelmodeltheoretical model 理论模式 conceptual modelEg. Which types does a model of the competence of a native speaker belong to? ---- theoretical model / conceptual model 理论模式两个特性explicitness 明确性 the rules of the langue the model contains are clearlydefined某一门语言的规则定义非常明确generative 生成性use a finite set of rules to generate an infinite number ofsentences用有限的规则创造无限的句子四种研究的方向Phonological 音位知识Morphological 词法知识Syntactic 句法知识Semantic 语义知识Phonological 音位知识 sound and sound patterns of his language研究语音和语音模式Morphological 词法知识 how a word is formed如何构词的模式Syntactic 句法知识 whether a sentence is true or not句子是否符合语法Semantic 语义知识 meaning of a language 语言的意义5.Sub-branch of linguistics 语言学的分支6.The father of modern linguistics—Saussure现代语言学之父(瑞士人 come from Swiss)现代语言学开始于20世纪,但是发展迅速,有两大流派(two schools) Structure linguistics 结构语言学Transformational-generative Grammar 转换生成语法 TG-grammar为什么说Saussure是现代语言学的奠基人呢?1.’’ A Course in General Linguistics” is the first real essay on linguistic theory<<普通语言学>>是第一本真正意义上的语言学专著.2. The distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic andparadigmatic, langue and parole. Show us a brief explanation of these basic and significant distinctions.书中关于共时研究和历时研究, 横向关系和纵向关系, langue 和parole的阐述很明了.4. A few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguisticstudy and exerted great influence on the latter development of linguistics.其中的一些理论成为语言学的基础对后来的语言学发展影响很大.Chapter 2 phonetics 语音学定义phonetics is known as the science that studies speech sounds of all human languageThree sub-branches 三个分支articulatory phonetics 发音语音学acoustic phonetic 声学语言学auditory phonetic 听觉语言学发音器官 articulatorsWhat is vocal tract?-- The speech organs above the larynx from the vocal tract 喉以上的器官称之为vocal tractConsonants and vowels 辅音和元音Consonant : is a speech sound where the airstream from the lungs is either completely blocked or partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that theair escapes with audible friction气流完全封闭或部分封闭，或开口小并且有摩檫Vowels ： is a speech sound that the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced withvibration of the vocal cords.气流不受阻碍，发音时声带一定振动。