语言学第四章总结

合集下载

语言学概论第四章语义笔记

语言学概论第四章语义笔记

语义一、语义的内容和性质(一)意义与语义:意义(价值、语义)例如:1、改革开放具有深远的意义;2、粮食对于一个农民的意义;3、这个词在这句话的意义是什么;(语义)所以,“意义”和“语义”是两个不同的概念,它们所指的对象是不一样的,它们不是同义词,而是上下位概念。

而“语义”一项在语言意义这个范畴内也有几层意思;语言单位的意义:语义:可推行的交际单位的意义:不可推行的“举烛”事件使燕国强大(?书燕说)语义:是人们对“三个世界”(客观世界、主观世界、语言世界)(二)语义的内容(主要类型)1、理性意义和附加意义(认知角度)①理性意义:是人们对客观世界以及人的精神世界中的现象的理性认识在语言中的反映。

如:妇女:【 + 人】【 + 成年】生命:【 + 生命】【 + 停止】理性意义是抽象的,概括的,是语义的核心内容。

②附加意义:是附着在理性意义上的反映语言使用者的心理文化等特征意义。

A、感情色彩和语体色彩感情色彩:表说话者对所谈对象的感情或态度,有褒义、贬义和中性三种。

如:“成功”和“得逞”“成果、后果、结果”语体色彩: 表词语所用的社会坏境通常有口语语体和书面语体。

如:书面语体,母亲;口语语体,妈、娘;一般语体,妈妈;B、联想色彩a、形象联想:指词的理性意义所引起的人们对现实中某种形象的联想。

b、意义联想:由于多义词的几个义项或同音词的几个意义相互作用而产生的联想。

(比如说“元音和原因”同音)c、文化联想:是由于人们的文化背景、社会观念的作用而产生的联想。

(如:中国人和英美人谈到对狗的看法)2、词汇意义和语法意义(语言系统角度)词汇意义:词的语言形式能够表达的全部内容,包括理性意义和附加意义,从客观事物和现象中抽象出来的,与人的认知能力有关。

语法意义:语法形式表达的意义。

从语素、词、短语中、句子等语法单位中抽象出来的,用语言的特点有关。

(“他学习我”和“我学习他”词汇意义不变,构成词汇相同)3、语言意义和言语意义(语言状态角度上):语言意义:是词在语言系统中固有的意义,它是抽象的概括的是全社会共同理解的。

语言学纲要笔记第四章语法

语言学纲要笔记第四章语法

第四章语法一、语法的内涵和研究范围1、语言结构和使用的规则性2、客观的规则和对客观规则的抽象3、对“语法”的多层次理智(1)语法的词的构成、变化和用词造句的规则。

(客观的,一种语言只有一套)。

(2)对客观语言结构规则的描写、说明和解释。

实际指语法学。

(有主观性。

不同专家可能有不同的系统)。

陆俭明《现代汉语语法研究教程》P12-13:语法是一种语言中由小的音义结合体组合成大的音义结合体所依据的一套规则。

4、大语法和小语法(1)凡是能够体现为语言结构的规则性的部分都是语法。

(大语法)包括语音学、语义学、词法学(形态学)、句活学所研究的对象。

(2)只限于词和句子的构造规则。

(小语法,本书的理解)(3)有的甚至只指句子的构造规则(句法学)。

二、语法规则1、语言结构(1)结构成分:音义结合体,如语素、词、短语、句子。

(2)结构方式:成分与成分的组合,如:成绩好——好成绩。

虚素“们、看、了、呢”与别的成分组合时,永远不会出现在句道:“第、初、问”与别的成分组合时,永远不会出现在句末。

[分布]2、语法单位的内涵即语法系统的组成部分,凡是能在组合的是位置上被替换下来的组合成分单位,如短语、句子,都是合义结合的。

3、组合规则和聚合规则(1)组合规则:语法单位的组合起来的规则,链条,现实的,存在于话语中。

(2)聚合规则:语法单位的归类的规则,仓库,潜在地,存在于人脑中。

例如:小学生的句型练习:游戏中的语词龙(组合规则)及其后接的多种可能性(聚合规则)。

三、语法单位的层级性教材中从大单位到小单位,是解构式[分解]:应该从小单位到达单位讲,建构式[组合]。

(一)句子1、概念:语言交际的基本表述单位。

陆俭明《现代汉语语法研究教程》P21:是语言中前后有较大停顿、伴有一定句谓、表示相对完整意义有音义结合体,是最大的语法单位。

2、句型:按语气分:陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。

张涤华等《汉语语法修辞词典》:[补充,不讲]句类:(1)句子的类型。

语言学概论(第四章)

语言学概论(第四章)

二、组合规则
语素组合成词的规则
词的不同类型: 单纯词:由一个词根语素或一个词根语素加上屈折词缀构成的词 山、树、高、葡萄、窈窕、table、books、run 合成词:由两个或两个以上的构词语素组成的词 复合词:由词根语素按一定的规则组合起来构成的合成词 学习、黑板、司机、降低、football、railway、take-off 派生词:由词根语素和派生词缀组合起来构成的合成词 reaction、unjust、artist、musician、绿化、作者、木头
1)交际中能用来对话的片段,不管多么短,都算一个句子 “谁?”——“我。” 2)从语音形式上看,句子的最大特点是有一个完整的语调 3)句子可以根据不同的标准进行分类
根据句子的交际功能可分若干功能类型,简称句类
根据句子的结构特点,句子可以归纳为若干结构类型,简称句型
二、组合规则
语素组合成词的规则
语素的不同类别: 1)根据语素在构词中的不同作用可以把语素分为词根和词缀 词根:山、钱、家、说、炒、table、dance、fresh、blue、spy 词缀:老-、第-、-子、-者、-性、dis-、un-、co-、-ful、-er
词缀按与词根语素的位臵关系,可以分为前缀、中缀和后缀 词缀按功能可分为派生词缀和屈折词缀
3. 添加(插入)
小王骑走了自行车。→ 小王把自行车骑走了。 You know him. → Do you know him?
4. 替代
我请了老张,可老张不肯来。→ 我请了老张,可他不肯来。 Your bike is outside, is it?
四、变换
变换和句型
变换原则
小明打了他。→ 他被小明打了。 *他打了小明。 妈妈批评了小洪。→ *小洪被爸爸批评了。 妈妈批评了小洪。→ 妈妈批评了谁? → 谁被妈妈批评了? → 小洪被谁批评了? (1)老张用这个箱子装书。 (2)这个箱子老张装书。 (3)老张装书用这个箱子。 (4)装书老张用这个箱子。 (5)这个箱子老张用来装书。 (6)谁用这个箱子装书? (7)老张用什么装书?

语言学第四章要点

语言学第四章要点

Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1.W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。

该术语来自希腊语,字意是排列。

句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。

排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。

合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。

句法是一个规则系统。

2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统,句子由单词组合而成。

语言学纲要 第四章

语言学纲要 第四章

第四章一,举例解释下列名词1.内部曲折指的是依靠词根中的元音或辅音的变化来表达不同的语法意义的手段.如:(英语)foot(脚,单数)-feet(脚,复数),goose(鹅,单数)-geese(鹅,复数),build(建设,现在时)-built(建设,过去时)等.2.后缀是词缀的一种,粘附在词根语素的后面构成新词,如:汉语的"者"放在动词形容词(或语素)后面表示跟这个动作形状有关的人——作者,编者,长者,工作者,劳动者,等等.又如英语的-er/-or接在表动作的词(或语素)后面,表示跟该动作有关的人-worker(工作者),teacher(教师),publisher(出版者),translasor(译者)等等.3.词尾是变词语素,它附着在词干后面,表示某种语法意义,例如英语动词doing,其中的ing 就是词尾,表示动作行为的方式.4.复合词就是由两个以上的词根语素构成的词,例如汉语"白菜","电脑","支持",英语"themselves","waterfall",都是复合词.5.语法范畴是指通过词形变化表现出来的语法意义的归类,例如"he"的语法意义是主格,"him"的语法意义是宾格,它们都属于格的语法范畴.二,填空题1.语法2.组合规则聚合规则3.具有完整的语调4.自由词组5.实词虚词6.句法词法7.词尾词缀词根8.构词变词9.述宾结构述补结构偏正结构主谓结构10.词形变化词形变化三,单项选择1.D2.D3.B4.A5.A6.C7.D8.A9.C 10.A四,分析题1.地震(陈述式) 看见(补充式) 忘记(并列式)司令(支配式) 拖鞋(偏正式) 伤心(支配式)2. 轻的我们意气风发地走进不同凡响的新时代|主‖谓||偏‖正‖偏‖正||述‖宾||述‖补‖偏‖正||偏‖正|3.①我们支持的是党委王书记.(王书记是受事)②支持我们的是党委王书记.(王书记是施事)(这个句子的多义是因为"王书记"的施事还是受事身份不能确定,他可以是"支持"这一动作的发出者,也可以是"支持"这一动作的涉及对象,两种含义在这里都江得通,造成了多义.因此可以在前后适当增加成分,明确"王书记"是施事或受事,而不会既是施事又是受事.)五,问答题1.什么是词?举例说明其定义的内涵。

语言学概论第四章 语言的性质

语言学概论第四章 语言的性质
3、语言交际表达为一个过程。 一方面,语言线条性特点,决定了说着和听者运用语言 交际,表现为一个过程。另一方面,交际过程本身也分为五 个阶段:编码-发出-传送-接收-解码。
其中涉及心理、生理、物理等因素,但是没有社会因素作根底, 没有对社会约定的语言的共同理解,语言交际无法进行。
再看一个材料: 〔背景:20年代一个来华的德国牧师要给在他们家当女佣的
二、语言为全民使用。 三、语言为全民效劳。
思考:不同的阶级、阶层和集团对语言的 使用有一定影响,这是否与全民性矛盾?
需要注意:自言自语现象。 它是在个人范围内进行的,但是它并不
能否认语言交际的社会性。因为:
1、自言自语也是对语言的运用,只不过说者和 听者是一个人承担而已。
2、自言自语并不是交际的主要方面。
第二节 语言的全民性
一、语言为全民所创造。
全民包含两个方面:一个是历史上世世代代的人们,另 一方面是某个断代社会上的人们。
与植物有关的器官:种、苗、叶、枝、蘖 农具词汇:鉏、夷、斤、斸、耒、耜、耞、芟、镈、耨、 刈 关于农业生产活动场所的词:仓库、仓廪、田、田野、 沟、仓、渠、场、廪、畴、陆、阜、陵、墐、井、沟渎 与农业有关的动作行为的词来:坺、舂、耕、垦、耦、 耰、种
畜牧业方面的词汇只有6个:六畜、牧、刍、豢、牢、饩。 渔猎业方面的词汇有:搏、罟、网罟、罛、罶、罝、罗、罜、狩、蒐、 弋、毕、矠、阱、鄂。
我的祖母照片〕那时,祖母对照相机这东西非常恐惧,说是能 把小孩的灵魂摄去,因此千方百计谢绝了,这让德国人莫名其 妙,同时感到非常遗憾。〔?齐鲁晚报?〕
思考:在有的交际中尽管有时候对一些语言没有形成共同 的理解,但是交际仍然能够进行。这种个体性语言成分的存在 是否违背语言交际的社会性呢?

语言学第四章要点英语整理

语言学第四章要点英语整理

语言学第四章要点(2011-10-11 21:15:48)说明:本章要点参考了多本教材,其中的X-bar theory, Universal Grammar, merger and move等部分仅供考研的同学参考。

其他同学不做要求。

第四章Syntax句法学1.Syntax定义is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. Sentences are structured according to particular arrangement of words.2、Syntax as a system of rules. as a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences3、Sentence structureSubject all language have ways of referring to some entity, such as a person , a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, this referring expression is grammatically called subject. A subject may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.2.Type of sentence英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么?Traditionally, three major types of sentences are distinguished. They are simple sentence, coordinate or compound sentence and complex sentence.A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. For example, ① John reads extensively. the sentences contains a single clause and can stand structurally independent.A coordinate sentence并列句 contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinat ing conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other. For example, ③ John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause子句, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix sentence主句. For example, ⑤ Mary told Jane [that John liked linguistics]. In the above examples, the clauses in the square brackets are embedded clauses. Theyare subordinate to the clauses outside the brackets which are called matrix clauses.A complex sentence的特征:Some conclusions can be drawn from the complex sentence.1、an embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause.2.most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a subordinator, such as “that”,” if ”.3.an embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence unless it form changes.3、linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构Language is a highly structured system of communication. Sentences are not formed by randomly(随意)combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order to make a string of words not only meaningful but also linearly- and hierarchically-structured.(线形结构和层次结构)Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.5、Syntactic categories:句法类型1.lexical categories词类 (four major lexical categories and six minor lexical categories)2. Phrasal categories 短语类(lexical items have certain combinational properties that allow them to combine with words of different categories to form phrase. NP VP PP AP)6、Grammatical relations(语法关系) The structural and logical relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. (who does what do whom). Structural vs. logical subject, object. (**)7、Combinational rules组合规则1、Phrase structural rules The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule, or rewrite rule. It allows us to better understand how words and phrases form sentences, and so on.2、Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement occurs whena constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operationof which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).3、什么是X-标杆理论?X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world.4、Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position, the sentence involving which cannot be described by phrase structure rules. It was governed by transformational rules, the operation of which may change the syntactic representation of a sentence (句法的表达方式).1 NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement occurs when, for example, a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice (postpose, prepose).WH-movement is obligatory in English. It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.2 Other types of movementAUX-movement (auxiliary)3 D-structure and S-structureThe syntactic component of the grammar:Phrase Structure Rules + the Lexicon (词汇)(generate)―――D-structure (deep structure) ―――Movement Rules ( transform)―――― S-structure (Surface structure) A sentence may not look different when it is at different syntactic levels. Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.4 Moreα-a general movement ruleThere is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement, called Moveα(or Move Alpha), which means “move any constituent to any place”. The problem is Moveαis too powerful and the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain this power and stimulate tha t only “certain constituents” move to “certain positions”.7、Toward a theory of universal grammarSince early 1980s, Noam Chomsky and other generative linguists proposed and developed a theory of universal grammar (UG) known as the principles and parameters theory. According to Chomsky, UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift, which exists in the mind or brain of a normal human being. According to principles-and-parameters framework, UG consists of a set of general conditions, or general principles, that generate phrases and at the same time restrain the power of Moveα, thus preventing this rule from applying in certain cases. UG also contains a set of parameters that allow general principles to operate in certain ways, according to which particular grammar of natural languages vary。

语言学概论笔记(第四章)(4)

语言学概论笔记(第四章)(4)

2)分类: ①体词属性范畴:指由名词的词形变化形式表⽰的意义。

A.“性”范畴:在某些语⾔中表⽰⼈或事物有关性属的⼀组特征。

B.“数”范畴:表⽰事物数量的⼀组特征。

(汉语中没有严格的数范畴) C.“格”范畴:表⽰名词与其他词的语法结构关系的⼀组特征,在很多综合性语⾔中这都是重要的名词属性范畴。

D.“有定和⽆定”范畴:表⽰名词指称性质的⼀组特征。

②谓词属性范畴:指由动词的词形变化形式表⽰的意义。

A.“时”范畴:表⽰动词所反映的动作发⽣的时间和说话的时间的关系的⼀组 特征。

B.“体”范畴:表⽰动词所反映的动作⾏为进⾏的状况的⼀组特征。

C.“态”范畴:表⽰动词与主语名词之间的施受关系的⼀组特征。

(主动态、被动态) D.“⼈称”范畴:表⽰动词与主语名词之间⼀致关系的⼀组特征。

9.句法范畴 1)定义凡是主要由结构的变化形式表⽰的语法意义。

2)分类: ①类别范畴:由语类和语类选择形式表⽰的语法意义。

A从词的类别看,各种语⾔都需要词的语法类别意义 B从词与词的类别选择看,各种语⾔也都要求某类词与某类词组合的意义 ②关系范畴:指通过虚词和语序表⽰语法结构关系的语法意义。

A.通过虚词和语序来表⽰特定的语法关系意义 B.通过语序变化来确定结构的语法关系意义 第四节语法单位的聚合和组合 1、词和句⼦是语法结构中最重要的两个单位 因为词和句⼦既是基本单位,⼜是最终单位,他们可以把各种语法单位联系起来 2、聚合规则和组合规则主要是指应⽤于词和句⼦的规则。

3.语素的语法地位: 语素是最⼩的语法单位,在语法地位上并不特别重要。

①形式上它是构词的基本单位,本⾝很难建⽴聚合类和组合类。

②义⾓度上,语法分析不太需要语素这个单位。

4、词类:指可以替换出现在语法结构某些共同组合位置上的词的类,即具有聚合关系的词的类。

词类是词的语法分类。

5、划分词类的标准: ①形态标准,即根据词形变化来确定词类 ②意义标准,即根据词的意义来确定词类 ③分布标准,即根据词的聚合位置来确定词类 备注:分布是反映词类的本质属性,⽽在具体区别词类时,形态和意义可以作为参考。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章

Chapter 4 Syntax1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)DefinitionIt may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组(或短语),再把这些直接成分依次切分,得到各自的直接成分,层层切分,直到最终成分为止。

实际操作中,为了方便,通常切到词为止。

直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。

Advantages:Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法,句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来,如果有歧义,也会被揭示出来。

Problems①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at anylevel, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.开始的时候,一些提倡者坚持二元切分。

语言学纲要+第四章

语言学纲要+第四章

第四章语法第一节语法和语法单位一、说话要符合规则我们平常说话,往往脱口而出,除了在特殊场合需要斟酌字句以外,一般不会在说话以前完考虑这么说合不合规则。

那么,说话的时候是不是没有规则呢?如果说有,你怎么证明这种规则呢?这可以从人们用外族语(假定他们还没有学到家)说话时结结巴巴的费劲样子得到证明。

他们不但说话困难,而且常常出错。

我们不妨举一些外国学生使用汉语时出错的例子:(1)太阳升起在浩荡的平原上。

(2)我们充分利用本地资源制造农业机械化的道路。

(3)在参观期间发生的个人感动的美丽事情层出不穷。

(4)其实对这一点我也以前不十分清楚。

(5)尽管天塌下来,我也能顶得住。

(6)我看书的入神时,不时门开了,好几个同学进来。

我们汉族人听到或者读到这些句子,都会感到别扭,觉得有些地方不像中国话。

怎么会有这种感觉呢?因为我们心底里有一种“像”中国话的“像”的标准,并且会根据这种标准去修改上面的各个句子。

比方说,“浩荡”一般见于“浩荡的队伍”“东风浩荡”等说法,不能说“浩荡的平原”,“平原”只能说“广阔”“一望无际”等。

“农业机械”可以制造,而“农业机械化的道路”不能“制造”,只能“开辟”。

“事情”不说“美丽”,只说“生动”,年龄比较大的人还会批评说,“层出不穷”指不好的事,这里要改成“举不胜举”“真是说不完”之类的说法。

这些可以说是用词不当,词的意义之间的配合不合适。

从第四句开始,牵涉到词序、虚词,问题比较复杂一些。

例(4)的“也”要挪到“以前”的后面;例(5)的“尽管”意味着天已经塌下来,要改成“即使”或者“就是”;例(6)里“的”(得)必须紧跟动词(“看得”“看书看得”),下半句可改成“不时有同学开门进来”,因为“不时”和“了”在时态上不能相配。

经过这样的修改,上面所引的那些句子都“像”中国话了。

从这里可以看到,语言是有规则的,说话必须符合大家共同遵守的规则,违背这种规则,就会使对方感到别扭甚至产生误会。

在上面的六个例子中,头三句主要是用词不当,后三句涉及造句的语法规则。

语言学概论 第四章

语言学概论 第四章

3、根据语法形式的共同特点把它们归并为几个基 本类型,这种语法形式的类就叫做“语法手段”。
词形变化
词法手段 语法手段 句法手段 词的轻重音
词的重叠
虚词
语类选择
语序 语调


4. 词法手段
(1)词形变化是指通过词的形态变化产生一定语 法意义的形式就是词形变化,包括:
附加:在词的前面、中间或后头加上词缀。 books 屈折:词的内部发生语音的交替变化。(汉语无) foot—feet send—sent 异根:换用不同的词根构成相同意义的词。 go— went (汉语无) 零形式:相对与词形变化的词的原形形式。 fish
3.谓词性范畴的表现形式:主要表示的意义范畴有时、 体、态和人称。 (1)时范畴即表示动词所反映的动作发生的时间和说话的 时间的关系的一组特征,一般可分为现在时、过去时和 将来时。 (2)体范畴即表示动词所反映的动作行为进行的状况的一 组特征,常见的有进行体、完成体和未完成体。 (3)态范畴即表示动词与主语名词之间的施受关系的一组 特征,主要分主动态和被动态两种。 (4)人称范畴即表示动词与主语名词一致关系的一组特征。 如英语中第三人称单数。
A、表复数或“逐个”的意思。如马来语名词重叠 表复数,汉语中名词或量词表重叠表“逐个”的 意思。如“人/人人”“个/个个”等。 B、表短时和尝试的意思。如汉语中的“想/想 想”“体验/体验体验”等。 C、表程度增加的意思。如“雪白雪白”等。

5、句法手段
(1)虚词是通过使用虚词来表示一定语法意义的形式。 语言中凡是没有词汇意义只有语法意义的词就是虚 词。虚词可分为辅助词和功能词两小类。



2、在这三种分类标准中,功能分布的标准最具普 遍性,而且是反映词类聚合关系本质的特征,是 词类的本质属性。因为仅从词的意义标准来划分 词类,有些词汇意义相同或相近的词却分属不同 的词类的现象就不能得到解释。而以形态标准来 区分词类,对那些形态较发达的语言比较可行, 但在那些缺少形态或根本没有形态变化的语言面 前又无能为力了。因此分布标准最可行,只是在 具体区别词类时,形态和意义也可以作为参考。

语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版

语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版

Chapter 44.1 syntactic (句法的) relations4.1.1 positional relation(位置关系)For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential (有序的) arrangement of words in a language.Positional relation are a manifestation(表现)of one aspect of syntagmatic relations Word order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.4.1.2 relation of substitutability(可代替性)Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure. Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is what Saussure called associative(联想的) relations or in Hjemslev ’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence(共现)Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical constructionAny syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位)4.2.2 immediate constituents(直接成分)Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:SNP VPDe t N V NPDe t NThe girl ate the appleThis is tree diagram. 在句子结构分析中,成分用来指任何语言单位,而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分,如在The girl ate the apple 本身的(A) the boy(B) ate the apple (C)都是一个成分,成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位,如果两个成分B(the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分AWord-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTo dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.3.1Endocentric(相信结构)Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.1 Exocentric(并列结构)Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.2.4 Coordination and SubordinationEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination (并列)is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Coordination of NPs:[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]Coordination of VPs:[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]Coordination of PPs:[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]Coordination of APs:[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]Coordination of Ss:[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination(从属) refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:4.3. Syntactic(句法) FunctionThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 SubjectIn English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent. In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” and “logical subject”Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:Pro-formsThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in thesentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbContent questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in4.4Category (范畴)The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 NumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.4.4.2Gende(性)Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.4.4.3Case(格)The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.4.4.4Agreement.Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).4.5Phrase, Clause and Sentence4.5.1phrase4.5.3SentenceBasic sentence types: QuirkSVC Mary is kind.a nurse.SVA Mary is here.in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball.SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.SVOA I put the plate on the table.SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6Recursiveness(递归性)Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.4.6.1ConjoiningConjoining: coordination.Conjunctions: and, but, and or.联系一个小句或者其他并列或链接的过程,通过这种过程组成的句子即并列4.6.2Embedding(嵌入)Embedding: subordination.Main clauses and subordinate clauses.Three basic types of subordinate clauses:Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:(注:可编辑下载,若有不当之处,请指正,谢谢!)。

2017自考语言学概论笔记第四章(语法)

2017自考语言学概论笔记第四章(语法)

第四章 语法 1. 解释“语法”。

答:语法即词的构成、变化和词构成词组和句⼦的规则。

2. 解释“递归”。

答:递归指相同的规则可以在⼀个结构⾥重复使⽤。

3. 解释“语境”。

答:语境是说话时的环境条件,包括特定的场所、对话⼈和上下⽂等。

4. 简答语法规则的抽象性表现。

答:语法规则作为⼈们说话时⼈⼈都必须遵守的规则具有⾼度抽象的性质。

词语和句⼦的数量是⽆限多的,因此不可能对每⼀个词语和句⼦都建⽴⼀条规则,于是就需要把各种现象加以归类。

5. 简答语法规则的递归性。

答:“递归”指的是相同的规则可以在⼀个结构⾥重复使⽤。

语⾔中句⼦的格式和长度各不相同,⽽且抽象也不能使新的规则不断地衍⽣,这样就需要让⼀种规则多次起作⽤。

语法规则实际上就是⼀种有限⼿段可以重复使⽤的规则。

语法规则的这种递归性质,使它成为⼀种简明的规则,帮助⼈们学习语⾔和运⽤语⾔时举⼀反三,以繁驭简。

6. 解释“历时语法”。

答:历时语法指的是从语法发展变化⾓度纵向地、动态地研究语法,研究的重点是某些语法现象在特定的时间过程中产⽣和消失的原因及其规律。

7. 解释“共时语法”。

答:共时语法指的是从某⼀时期存在的语法现象⾓度横向地、静态地研究语法。

研究的重点是某⼀语法在特定空间范围内的语法表现形式和语法规则系统。

8. 解释“个别语法”。

答:个别语法指的是对个别语⾔语法的研究,它既包括研究⼀种语⾔的语法系统,也包括研究⼀种语⾔中与其他语⾔不同的语法特点,意义在于发现各种语⾔独特的语法现象。

9. 解释“句⼦”。

答:句⼦是由若⼲个词或词组按照⼀定规则组合成的,能表达相对完整的意义,前后有较⼤停顿并带有⼀定的语⽓和句调的语⾔单位。

10. 解释“语法规律”。

答:语法规律指语法规则本⾝,也就是客观存在的语法,即⼈们说话时直觉和习惯上所遵守的某种语感。

11. 解释“普遍语法”。

答:普遍语法指的是对⼈类语⾔的语法共性的研究,其意义在于发现⼈类语⾔中共有的语法机制。

语言学概论---第四章---语法

语言学概论---第四章---语法

第四章语法一、名词解释1.语法2.客观存在的语法3.主观认识的语法4.历时语法和共时语法5.教学语法和面向信息处理的语法6.普遍语法和个别语法7.词法(形态学)和句法(造句法)8.组合规则和聚合规则9.核心语法(小语法)和外围语法(大语法)10.语法单位:语素、词、词组、句子、句组11.语法形式12.语法意义13.语法手段14.词法手段15.句法手段16.综合性语言17.分析性语言18.虚词、语类选择、语序19.语法范畴20.词法范畴、体词性范畴、谓词性范畴、句法范畴、类别范畴、关系范畴21.附加、屈折、异根、零形式22. 重音、轻读23.词类24.体词性词组、谓词性词组,向心词组、离心词组25.完全主谓句、不完全主谓句、非主谓句。

26.多重复句 27.句组二、简答和论述1.语法规则的性质和特点.2.请结合具体例子谈一谈语法和语音、语法和语汇、语法和修辞、语法和语境、语法和逻辑之间的关系。

3.语言学家研究语法,首先必须限定某个范围,确定自己的研究内容。

研究的内容不同,语法规则就会有所区别,这种区别最重要的有:4.历时语法与共时语法的区别:上面(1)5.教学语法与面向信息处理语法的区别:上面(2)6.普遍语法和个别语法的区别:上面(3)7.语法现象的分类(传统语法学、结构语法学和现代形式语法学分别怎样对语法现象进行划分?)8.词法规则、句法规则的区别:9.组合规则与聚合规则的关系。

10.为什么说每个语言成分都既处在组合关系中又处在聚合关系中?11.为什么说聚合规则是潜在的,组合规则是现实的?12.为什么说聚合规则和组合规则主要是指应用于词和句子的规则?13.现代形式语法学把语法分为核心语法和外围语法,为什么说这种语法分类是一种较新的观点,在理论和方法上都有重要的意义?14.语法单位之间的关系:15.怎样看待语素的语法地位?16.为什么说语法规律只有一种,而语法规则可以多种多样17.为什么说方言语法实际上是共时语法现象反映历时语法现象?18.为什么说形态丰富的语言中词法问题重要,而汉语中句法问题更重要?19.语法手段中的词法手段有哪些?20.语法手段中的句法手段有哪些?21.词的轻重音的作用:22.词的重叠的作用:23.语序的作用:24.语调的作用:25.类别范畴的表现形式:26.关系范畴的表现形式27.词缀和词尾有哪些不同?28.语法形式和语法意义有什么样的对应关系?29.词法范畴中的体词性范畴和谓词性范畴各包括哪些内容?30. 什么是句法范畴?请结合例子论述句法范畴所包括的内容.31.语法手段和语言类型有什么关系?32.不同语言的不同虚词形式:33.不同语言的不同语类选择形式.34.不同语言中相同的语法意义和不同的语法范畴.35.外语中的主句、小句、从句.36.英语的动词谓语句一般可以分为七种主要句型.37.汉语的动词谓语句分类和英语不同38.复杂结构单句、复谓结构单句与复句的区别39.为什么说词和句子是语法结构中最重要的两个单位?40.为什么说句子的意义和词的意义具有突出的地位?41.怎样看待语素的语法地位?42.划分词类可以有哪些不同的标准:43.各种语言词类划分结果的特点?44.为什么不同语言有不同的词类数量和类型?45.如何理解词组作为一种语法单位,它与词这种语法单位实际上是同质不同量的关系?46.词类和词组的聚合类的关系?47.汉语中比较重要的三种特殊词组:48.句子的类型49.什么叫复句,复句的判断标准是什么?50.直接组成成分分析法的定义及其原则:51.多重复句与句组的区别:52.要不要把句组作为一级语法单位?53.句组要不要作为语法单位?(请答出各种不同意见的根据所在)54.句组有哪些语法作用?55.句组的三种意义关系和三类衔接形式:参考答案一、名词解释1.语法:是语言中关于词的构成、变化和词构成词组和句子的规则。

语言学概论第四章

语言学概论第四章

(二)语义场的系统性 语义场最重要的特点是它的系统性。一个语义场 内包含若干个词语(义项),在意义领域恒定或 封闭的状态下,一个词义占据的地盘大了,其他 词义的地盘势必就会缩小;一个词义占据的地盘 小了,其他词义的地盘势必就会扩大。在这种情 况下,系统中某个词语的意义会受到系统中其他 词语的制约,系统中某个词义的变化或词语数量 的增减,会导致意义领域的重新划分和分配,从 而引起系统中其他词义的变化。
第三节 词义的聚合
一、语义场 (一)“语义场”是词义系统性的重要表现。词 义有一定的系统性。一个词语的意义(义项)同 邻近的其他词义可以建立起各种关联,从而处于 互相依存、互相规定、互相制约的关系之中。 “语义场”是指具有共同类属义素的词语(义项) 构成的聚合体。类属义素是指反映事物所属类别 的语义特征。比如“钢笔、铅笔、圆珠笔……”的 类属义素都是“书写工具”,它们就构成一个语 义场。“车、船、飞机”的类属义素都是“交通 工具”,它们也构成一个语义场。
义素分析法可以清楚、简洁地说明词义的 结构,便于比较词义之间的异同。并且义 素分析法可以使语义的描写形式化,对包 括机器翻译、人机对话等在内的自然语言 的计算机处理具有重要意义。
横排结构式: 哥哥[+同胞+男性+年长] 弟弟[+同胞+男性 -年长] 姐姐[+同胞 -男性+年长] 妹妹[+同胞 -男性 -年长]
(三)语义场的层次性 事物本身的分类是有层次的,因而反映事物类别 的语义场之间也就形成了有层次的结构。若干较 小的语义场可以集合成较大的语义场,若干较大 的语义场可以集合成更大的语义场。
车 汽车 火车 卡车、轿车、吉普车 交通工具 船 飞机 自行车
二、同义词与反义词 (一)同义词 同义词是意义相同或相近的一组词。 意义完全相同的一组词称为“等义词”。如:维 生素与维他命,演讲和讲演,番茄与西红柿。 基本意义相同而有细微差别的一组词称为“近义 词”。近义词之间的差别可以表现在词的理性意 义之上,如:天气与气候,才能和才华。也可以 表现在非理性意义即附加色彩上,如结果与成果, 聪明与聪颖。

语言学概论--第四章 词汇

语言学概论--第四章 词汇



一定要把“词”和“词汇” 这两个概念区分开来。词汇是 词和固定短语的“总汇”,不 是单指个别的词语,而是指词 的集合。有人从网上对1999年 到2002年共四年的《人民日报》 中的“词汇”一词的使用情况 进行了统计,共检索出包含 “词汇”的用例172例,使用规 范的例句只有45个。
应当指出的是,“词汇”作为 语言学专业术语,其内涵也不是单 一的。它可以指一种语言中所有词 和固定短语的总和,如“汉语词 汇”、“俄语词汇”等;它可以指 词汇的下位类型,如“方言词汇”、 “科技词汇”、 “基本词汇”、 “一般词汇”、“《儿女英雄传》 的词汇”、“少儿词汇”、“鲁迅 的词汇”、“莎士比亚的词汇”等。 但不论其内涵如何,词汇只能 指许多词语的总和,不能单指一个 词。
词 汇 研 究 的 重 要 性
词的正确使用是准确表达思想 的前提之一,如果使用不当,就不能正 确地表达思想感情. 高尔基曾说: “作为一种力量,而 起作用的真正的语言美,是由词汇的 确切、鲜明和响亮动听而创造出来 的。而词汇的确切、鲜明和响亮动 听则构成了书的图景、性质和思想。 广泛地熟悉我们丰富词汇的一切词 藻,对于一个作家-----„艺术家’来说 是有必要的,而且善于从中挑选最确 切、鲜明有力的词儿,也是必要的。”
四、 词 汇 的 分 类
一种语言中的词汇是相当 丰富的。为了研究的方便,可 根据不同的标准对词汇进行分 类。 (一) 基本词汇和一般词汇 根据词在词汇体系中的地 位和作用划分的 1.基本词汇 词汇中最稳固的核心部分, 它是千百年来被人们长期使用 着的那部分词,是构成新词的 基础。
基本词汇的三个特点: A 全民常用性 B 历史稳定性 C 构词的能产性 2 . 一般词汇 词汇中除去基本词汇之外的 所有成员。

语言学第四章总结

语言学第四章总结

Chapter 4 Form Word to TextSyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituen ts are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:句法关系a. Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of one aspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontal relation or chain relat ionb. Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of word subst itutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same st ructure. It refers to groups of more than one word which may be joi ntly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set . It called associative relations, vertical relations, choice relations.c. Relation of cooccurrence共现关系2.Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called imme diate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysi s or IC analysis.3. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent. Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4. Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction. (and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic unit s so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5. Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic fo rm and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. a. Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. It incl udes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics in clude word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb. Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c. Object include direct object and indirect object6. Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense and refers to the defining properties of these general units. a. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes di splaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b. Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine, neuter.c. Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify the syntacti c relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived. Agreement (concord)7. Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that expres s a compete thought.8. Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embedding one relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in t he sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic. Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjuncti on, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substituti on)9. Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a senten ce, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively s mall number of classes.Wordlevel categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and min or lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary, conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain wo rd category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, comple ment10. Phrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arr angement of elements that make up a phrase. NP----(Det) N (PP)… VP---(Qual) V (NP)… AP---(Deg) A (PP)… PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement) The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11. Phrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles:help make more precise the meaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are thems elves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. The XP rul es (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed com plementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the constr uction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matr ix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads. The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。

语言学概论:第四章-语法

语言学概论:第四章-语法

(一)语法形式
1、语序:词语排列的先后顺序。 汉语:我们理解——理解我们
衣服干净——干净衣服 紧握——握紧
俄语:他喜欢数学 • Он любит математика • Он математика любит • Mатематика oн любит • Mатематика любит oн • любит oн математика • любит математика oн
冬天
中性
2012-2013下学期
钢笔
房子`
语言学概论:第四章-语法
2、数:是词的语法形式所表示的事物或现象的量的 特征。主要是名词和代词所有的语法范畴。
景颇语人称代词的数 单数 [ŋai33]我 [naŋ33]你 [kj‘i33]他 双数 [an55]我俩 [nan55]你俩 [k‘an55]他俩 复数 [an55 t‘e 33] 我们 [nan55 t‘e 33]你们 [k‘an55 t‘e 33]他们
开白和布关——
语言学概论:第四章-语法
白色的布
计算机汉语分词的难点
交集型歧义字段问题”(词的边界问题)
(1)这样,才能干警务工作。 (2)公路局处理解放大道路面积水问题。
2012-2013下学期
语言学概论:第四章-语法
2012-2013下学期
语言学概论:第四章-语法
第三节 句法
一、短语(词组)
(三)语素的类型
(1)根据语素构成词的能力 • 成词语素: 汉语:山、钱、说、炒、高…… 英语:table,house,dance,kill…… • 不成词语素: 汉语:警、威、究、协、净…… 英语:unfair,reader,useful
2012-2013下学期
  1. 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性,平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
  2. 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
  3. 3、如文档侵犯您的权益,请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间:9:00-18:30)。

Chapter 4 Form Word to TextSyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituen ts are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:句法关系a. Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of one aspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontal relation or chain relat ionb. Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of word subst itutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same st ructure. It refers to groups of more than one word which may be joi ntly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set . It called associative relations, vertical relations, choice relations.c. Relation of cooccurrence共现关系2.Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called imme diate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysi s or IC analysis.3. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent. Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4. Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction. (and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic unit s so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5. Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic fo rm and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. a. Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. It incl udes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics in clude word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb. Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c. Object include direct object and indirect object6. Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense and refers to the defining properties of these general units. a. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes di splaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b. Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine, neuter.c. Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify the syntacti c relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived. Agreement (concord)7. Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that expres s a compete thought.8. Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embedding one relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in t he sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic. Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjuncti on, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substituti on)9. Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a senten ce, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively s mall number of classes.Wordlevel categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and min or lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary, conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain wo rd category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, comple ment10. Phrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arr angement of elements that make up a phrase. NP----(Det) N (PP)… VP---(Qual) V (NP)… AP---(Deg) A (PP)… PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement) The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11. Phrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles:help make more precise the meaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are thems elves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. The XP rul es (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed com plementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the constr uction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matr ix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads. The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。

相关文档
最新文档