语言学第四章chapter4
语言学第四章要点
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1．W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
语言学第四章 ppt课件
性关系
语言学第四章
• EX:
• The _______ smiles.
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man
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boy
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girl
语言学第四章
4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability
• 替代关系 • The Relation of Substitutability
• , and Paradigmatic Relations （聚合关系） by Hjemslev(丹麦语言学家,哥本哈根学派的 创始人和主要理论家 ).To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations（垂直关系） or Choice Relations.
语言学第四章
On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and internal properties.
The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.
语言学第四章
Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.(词的单位）
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章
Chapter 4 Syntax1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)DefinitionIt may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。
实际操作中，为了方便，通常切到词为止。
直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。
Advantages：Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义，也会被揭示出来。
Problems①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at anylevel, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。
语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版
语⾔学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版Chapter 44.1 syntactic（句法的）relations4.1.1 positional relation(位置关系）For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential（有序的）arrangement of words in a language.Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relationsWord order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.4.1.2 relation of substitutability(可代替性）Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure.Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is what Saussure called associative(联想的）relations or in Hjemslev’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence(共现）Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical constructionAny syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位）4.2.2 immediate constituents(直接成分）Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: SNP VPDe t V NPDe tThe girl ate the appleThis is tree diagram. 在句⼦结构分析中，成分⽤来指任何语⾔单位，⽽该单位⼜是更⼤语⾔单位的⼀部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本⾝的（A）the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是⼀个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更⼤的单位，如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成⼀个更⾼的成分AWord-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTo dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.3.1Endocentric（相信结构）Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.1 Exocentric（并列结构）Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre”or “Head”inside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.2.4 Coordination and SubordinationEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Coordination of NPs:[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]Coordination of VPs:[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]Coordination of PPs:[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]Coordination of APs:[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]Coordination of Ss:[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination（从属）refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:4.3. Syntactic（句法）FunctionThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 SubjectIn English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject”and “logical subject”Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:Pro-formsThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbContent questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in4.4Category （范畴）The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 NumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.4.4.2Gende(性）Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.4.4.3Case（格）The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.4.4.4Agreement.Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).4.5Phrase, Clause and Sentence4.5.1phrasePrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.4.5.3SentenceBasic sentence types: QuirkSVC Mary is kind.a nurse.SV A Mary is here.in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball.SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.SVOA I put the plate on the table.SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6Recursiveness(递归性）Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within anotherconstituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.4.6.1ConjoiningConjoining: coordination.Conjunctions: and, but, and or.联系⼀个⼩句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句⼦即并列4.6.2Embedding（嵌⼊）Embedding: subordination.Main clauses and subordinate clauses.Three basic types of subordinate clauses:Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:。
新编简明英语语言学教程04Chapter-4-gram
The criteria on which categories are determined
确定词的范畴的标准
Meaning (意义) Inflection (屈折变化) Distribution(分布)
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Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. e.g.
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Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.
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‘s; -ed, -ing; -er, -est… Although inflection is very helpful in determining a
word’s category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. Moisture, fog, sheep; Frequent, intelligent Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.
因此, 一个词的分布情况与其意义和屈折变化 能力的信息一起对于确定它的句法范畴有帮助.
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Phrase categories and their structures
语言学第四章chapter4
▪ Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events. run, walk, seem
▪ For example, a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article (a, an and the) and can take inflections for possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Of course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
精选ppt
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Word Classes
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
4.4 The Descriptive Approach
4.4.1 Structural analysis
精选ppt
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
▪ (1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.
b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. ▪ (2) a. Jack looked up the word.
Chapter 4 语言学第四章总结
Chapter 41.SyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Syntax is a brand of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:a.Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of oneaspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontalrelation or chain relationb.Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets ofword substitutable for each other grammatically insentences with the same structure. It refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set. Itcalled associative relations, vertical relations, choicerelations.c.Relation of co-occurrence2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called immediate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis.3.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent.Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English andother languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction.(and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguisticform and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.a.Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.It includes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics include word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentencestructure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c.Object include direct object and indirect object6.Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow senseand refers to the defining properties of these general units.a.Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis ofword classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b.Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine,neuter.c.Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify thesyntactic relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived.Agreement (concord)7.Phrase is a single element of structure containing more thanone word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that express a compete thought.8.Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embeddingone relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic.Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution)9.Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfillthe same or similar functions in a particular language such asa sentence, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.Word-level categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and minor lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary,conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, complement10.P hrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.NP----(Det) N (PP)…VP---(Qual) V (NP)…AP---(Deg) A (PP)…PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement)The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11.P hrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise themeaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.The XP rules (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。
语言学导论第四章
XP rule:
XP
specifier the seldom very
(1) categories: ategories: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Kate likes classical music.(sentence) classical music (noun phrase) like (verb)
S Infl VP
Hale Waihona Puke Det Will theN train e
V arrive
Do insertion: insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP CP C NP N birds S Infl VP C NP S Infl VP V fly
three criteria for determining a word’s category
meaning inflection distribution
2.phrase categories: The category of phrases is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. [NP a poor boy] boy] [VP run quickly, like music] [AP extremely cold] cold] [PP mainly about] about]
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis
(Bloomfield: 直接成分分析法)
Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
Definition: An approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century England, who lay down rules for the correct or “proper” use of English by following Latin.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar
语言学-Chapter4-课后练习答案
Chapter 4 Revision Exercises1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→(Det) N (PP) ...VP→(Qual) V (NP) ...AP→(Deg) A (PP) ...PP→(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. The most reliable of determining a word’s category is its distribution.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structure.It has four important properties:1)there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2) a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type ofthe elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (orS-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each phrase.a) rich in mineralsAPA PPrichb) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPoften read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsNPDet N PPthe argument against the proposalsd) already above the windowPPDeg P NPalready above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentences, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree sentences.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.Modifiers: crippled(AdjP), with extreme caution(PP)SNP Infl VPAPDet A N Pst V NPDet N PPP NPAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.Modifiers: huge(AdjP), in the black sky(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N Pst V PPA NPDet AP N A huge moon hung in the black skyc) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.Modifiers: carefully(AdvP), yesterday(AdvP)SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V NP AdvPDet N AdvP AdvAdv The man examined his car carefully yesterdayd) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Modifiers: wooden(AdjP), in the storm(PP)SNP Infl VPDet AP N PP Pst V PPA P NP P NPDet N Det NA wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.SNP Infl VPN V NPDet AP N Con NAJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP Infl VPN Pst V PP Con V PPP NP PDet NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP Infl VPN Pre V AP Con APA PP A PPP NP P NPN N Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPCPC SNP Infl VPNP N Pre V NPN You know that I hate warb) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP Infl VPN Pre V NPDet N CP-C SNP Infl VPNP N Pst V NPDet AP NA Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP Infl VPN Pst V APA CPC SNP NP Infl VPDet N Pst V NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Roll-Royce d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP Infl VPDet N Pst V PPP CPC SNP Infl VPN Plu V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings 12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP Infl VPN Pst V NPNThe essay he wrote that was excellent Surface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pst V APC S Aux ANP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was excellentb) Herbert bought a house that she loved.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN V NPN Herbert bought a house she loved thatSurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N V NPN Herbert bought a house that loved ec) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPC S P NPNP Infl VP NN Pre V NPNThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPDet N CP Pre V PPNP C S P NPNP Infl VP NN N Pre V NPNThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguistics13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each sentence.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Aux V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface Structure:CPC SInfl NP Infl VPAux N Aux V AdvPAdvWould You e come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Deep Structure:CPSNP Infl VPN Pst V NPN PPP Det NPNHelen did bring what to the partySurface Structure: CPC SNP Infl NP Infl VPN Pst N Pst V NPN PPP Det NPN What did Helen e bring e to the partyc) Who broke the window?Deep Structure:CPC SNP Infl VPN Pst V NPDet NWho broke the windowSurface Structure: CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPDet N Who e broke the window--。
语言学_Chapter 4_Syntax
The structural approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (system), not as isolated bits. This approach to grammar, based on Saussure’s ideas of language, studies the interrelationships between words.
Chapter contents
4.2 how to define each word in the sentence? 4.3, 4.4 How to describe the phrases involved? 4.5 How is the sentence formed?
形式主义对句子结构描述：简单的操作、雅致的 描写、严格、清晰的逻辑。
Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
Structural approach
Generative approach
Traditional approach
Functional approach Rule-governed sentence formation
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้Word
Sentence
Traditional approach
语言学 Chapter 4
different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence
Syntax 12
Chapter 4 Form Word to Text
4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents
上列“生成过程”可以用以下图示表示： S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The boy kicks the ball. 当运用了全部短语结构规则的时候，结果就得 出终端语符列，该终端语符列中每一成分叫做 语符列元素。
Syntax 10
Chapter 4 Form Word to Text
4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents
Phrase structure rules (短语结构规则): 用以上规则依次类推： S→NP+VP Vt+NP VP→ Vi NP→Det+N Det→the, a, etc. N→man, boy, ball, etc. V→hit, kick, take, etc.
The is big dog after the small cat. running
Syntax
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Chapter 4 Form Word to Text
4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents Endocentric & exocentric constructions exocentric construction coordinative endocentric subordinative
语言学第4章
4.4.1 Structural analysis
One type of descriptive approach is called structural analysis. Its main objective is to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language.
4.2 Word Classes
unacceptable a. Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. b. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. acceptable
What we are here concerned with is the grammatical structure.
The method involves the use of “test-frames”. car, radio, child, etc. (4) The _____ makes a lot of noise. All these linguistic forms fit in the same testframe, they are likely to belong to the same grammatical category, i.e. noun. noun
However, we should note that it does not mean that these prescriptive rules cannot be broken. In spoken English, for example, split infinitives as to boldly go instead of to go boldly or boldly to go are used sometimes.
语言学第四章
Constituent: component elements in a construction.
Immediate constituents: constituents immediately, directly, below the level of construction.
Ultimate constituent: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through segmentation.
The structural approach: regards linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure or system.
Structuralism or structural linguistics is a term used in linguistics referring to any approach to the analysis of language that pays explicit attention to the way in which linguistic features can be described in terms of structures and systems.
She gave him a book; She gave a book to him.
? (the governor/ the governed)
4.2 The structural approach
The origin: the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, “father/founder of modern linguistics” ; The beginning of the 20th century, Course in General Linguistics.
语言学 第四章Chapter 4
19
Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)
The technique of breaking up sentences into smaller units by making successive binary cutting is called Immediate Constituent (IC) Analysis. It reveals the hierarchical relations, as well as sequential relations, among words or groups of words in a sentence.
7
Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.
They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.
10
The ______ smiles. man boy girl
(These words can be replaceable with each other grammatically.)
11
It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
语言学第四章
语言学第四章Chapter 4:SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another followinga simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. 10. In English thesubject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually followsthe verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.16. A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.17. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words areconstantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C_____condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati?cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.27. A. recursive B. grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.A. transformational rulesB. generative rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. x-bar theory30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.31. The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.A. GenerativeB. TransformationalC. X-barD. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms:35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structureV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence?44. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures?47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.。
语言学_Chapter 4
Chapter 4 SyntaxA4.1 Syntax—The definition of syntax—Approaches to the study of sentences-The traditional approach-The structural approach-The generative approach-The functional approach4.2 Categories4.2.1 Word-level categories—The definition of syntactic categories—Two kinds of word-level categories-Major lexical categories‐Noun (N)‐Verb (V)‐Adjective (A)‐Preposition (P)-Minor lexical categories‐Determiner (Det)‐Degree words (Deg)‐Qualifier (Qual), Auxiliary (Aux)‐Conjunction (Con)‐Complementizer (C)4.2.2Phrase categories and their structures—The definition of phrase—Phrasal categories-Noun phrase (NP)-Verb phrase (VP)-Adjective phrase (AP)-Prepositional phrase (PP)—The elements of phrases-Head-Specifier-Complement4.3 Phrase structure rule—The definition of phrase structure rules—The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PP-NP (Det) N (PP) ...-VP (Qual) V (NP) ...-AP (Deg) A (PP) ...-PP (Deg) P (NP) ...4.3.1 XP ruleThe XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement)4.3.2 Coordination rule—The definition of coordinate structures—The coordination rule: X X* Con X4.4 Phrase elements4.4.1 Specifiers4.4.2 ComplementsThe XP Rule (revised) XP (Specifier) X (Complement*) —Complementizer—Complement clause—Complement phrase (CP)—Matrix clause4.4.3 ModifiersThe Expended XP rule: XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 Sentences (The S Rule)The S rule: S NP VP4.6 Transformations—Deep structure (D-structure) and surface structure (S-structure)—Some transformation rules-Auxiliary movement-Do insertion‐Do insertion rule: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position -Wh movement‐Wh Movement: Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence‐Wh movement (revised): Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP-Move αand constraints on transformationsIntroduction of a linguist----Leonard BloomfielLeonard Bloomfield (April 1,1887—April 18,1949)was an American linguist who led the development ofstructural linguistics in the United States during the 1930sand the 1940s. His influential textbook Language,published in 1933, presented a comprehensive descriptionof American structural linguistics. He made significantcontributions to Indo-European historical linguistics, thedescription of Austronesian languages and description oflanguages of the Algonquian family.Bloomfield’s approach to linguistics was characterized by itsemphasis on the scientific basis of linguistics, adherence tobehaviorism especially in his later work and emphasis on formalprocedures for the analysis of linguistic data. The influence ofBloomfieldian structural linguistics declined in the late 1950s and1960s as the theory of Generative Grammar developed by NoamChomsky came to predominate.Immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis is a method of sentence analysis that was first mentioned by Leonard Bloomfield and developed further by Rulon Wells. The process reached a full blown strategy for analyzing sentence structure in the early works of Noam Chomsky. The practice is now widespread. Most tree structures employed to represent the syntactic structure of sentences are products of some form of IC-analysis. The process and result of IC-analysis can, however, vary greatly based upon whether one chooses the constituency relation of phrase structure grammars (= constituency grammars) or the dependency relation of dependency grammars as the underlying principle that organizes constituents into hierarchical structures.IC Analysis refers to division of a sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.Immediate constituents: the two parts that are yielded after a sentence is cut into its constituent elements .Ultimate constituent: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through the division, or segmentation or the forms at the word-level.B4.1 SyntaxSyntax: a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.The traditional approach takes a sentence as a sequence of words. It studies sentence formation by studying words in terms of categories and their interrelationships.The structural approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (system), not as isolated bits. This approach to grammar, based on Saussure’s ideas of language, studies the interrelationships between words.The generative approach is mainly referred to transformational-generative grammar proposed by Noam Chomsky. Chomsky proposes that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework.The functional approach offers an alternative to structuralism (formalism).Systemic-functional approach starts from clause and extends itself to discourse. It involves what language can show (ideational function), what kind of relation can it establish (interpersonal function), and in what way (textual function).4.2 CategoriesCategory: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic category（句法范畴）：refer to the linguistic forms that have paradigmatic relations, which can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.Word level category can be divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.Major lexical categories(实义语类）：Noun, Verb, Adjective and PrepositionMinor lexical categories(功能语类）：Determiner(Det)限定词: the, a, this, thoseDegree words(Deg)表程度: quite, very, more, soQualifier (Qual)表频率: often, always, seldom, almostAuxiliary (Aux)助动词: can, will, do, do, be, haveConjunction (Conj)连词: and, or, butComplementizer(C)补语化成分: that, if, for, whetherPhrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.4.2.2Phrase categories and their structuresPhrasal categoriesNoun phrase(NP): the pretty girlVerb phrase(VP): often dreamAdjective phrase(AP): very pessimisticPrepositional phrase(PP): mainly aboutPhrases are usually contain the following elements:Head, Specifier and Complement.The word around which a phrase is formed is termed headThe word on the left side of the head is said to function as specifierThe word on the right side of the head is complement.4.3 Phrase structure rulePhrase structure rule:grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.-NP (Det) N (PP) ...-VP (Qual) V (NP) ...-AP (Deg) A (PP) ...-PP (Deg) P (NP) ...NP can consist of a determiner(Det), an N head and a PP complement,for instance: those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girlsVP can be composed of a qualifier, a V and an NP complement,for instance: always play games, finish assignmentsAP can be composed of a degree word, a A and a PP complementfor instance: very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toPP can consist of a degree word, a P and an NP complement,for instance: on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationThe XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule:Coordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.The coordination rule: X X* Con X4.4 Phrase elementsWords which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers ( shortened as Cs) The sentence introduced by the complementizers is called a complement clause.Sentence complement is called complement phrase (shortened as CP)The construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.Modifiers in English vary in terms of their position with respect to the head.XP (specifier)(Mod) X (complement*) (Mod)The new rule allows a modifier to occur either before or after the head.Where there is a complement, a modifier that occurs after the head will occur to the right of the complement as well.E.g., a careful girl, read carefully, read a book carefully, open the can with care4.5 Sentences (The S Rule):A sentence combines an NP (often called the subject) with a VP.Linguists take an abstract category inflection as a sentence’s head. Inflection takes an NP(the subject) as its specifier and a VP category as its complement.Inflp(=S）：NP + Infl+VPIC Analysis (直接成分分析法): refers to division of a sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.Immediate constituents（直接成分）: the two parts that are yielded after a sentence is cut into its constituent elements .Ultimate constituent （最终成分）: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through the division, or segmentation or the forms at the word-level.4.6 TransformationsInversion: move inflection to the left of the subject NP, for instance,The train will arrive--------Will the train arrive?Do insertion: insert interrogative do into an empty inflection position,for instance,Birds fly-------- birds do flyAfter the auxiliary do is inserted into the inflection position,the inversion transformation can be made by moving the interrogative do into the C position.Birds do fly-----Do birds fly?Deep structure is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties.Surface structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformation.CThis chapter is about Syntax. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. (According to the text book)As for rules, the sequence of words informing the sentences is also an important part of syntax. This book mainly focuses on English syntax. And the sequence of words in a sentence matters. For example, sentence“ Mike ate the apple. ” and “ The apple ate Mike. ” is very different in their meanings.If we just see the elements of these two sentences, we can find that they are identical in the words part. The only difference between them is the words sequence. So we can realize how important the sequence of words is. However, it is not always true if we broad our scale to all the languages in the world.For some of the languages, however, the sequence of words is not that important than English. They do have some rules of the sequence of words, but not that serious. Because my second foreign language is German, I thought of it as soon as I encountered this part. And I decide to have a brief look of it.In German, sentences with different words sequence can have the same meanings. Here is the rules of German’s sentences:“ subject + V + object + others .”The only rule is that V should be put in the second place. And no matter how you deal with the other parts, this sentence can only have one certain meaning. And I think this is because in German, there is four different declension. Not only subjects and objects have their form of declension, but also verbs and adjectives. This declension makes German a more difficult language to learn. But at the same time, this declension also makes German more accurate and precise.So syntax is a complicated which relate to not only language rules but also the inner characteristics of a certain language. English、German and Chinese are all different.D7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A。
语言学第四章chapter4
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
4.4 The Descriptive Approach
Definition: An approach taken throughout the 20th century which attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used by collecting samples. Various techniques may be employed.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
4.2 Word Classes
Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas as if they were all things. cats, dogs, war, wedding, courage, beauty, rain, love, hatred Adjectives are words that describe the thing, quality, state or action which a noun refers to. beautiful, red Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events. run, walk, seem
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
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course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics.
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英语语言学：第4章 Phrase structure rules
▪ Representation(通过词性表征句法): The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds Art + N + V + Art + N+Prep+Art + N
▪ Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.源自精品课件英语语言学：第4章
▪ Adjectives are words that describe the thing, quality, state or action which a noun refers to. beautiful, red
▪ Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events. run, walk, seem
英语语言学：第4章
4.2 Word Classes
▪ Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas as if they were all things. cats, dogs, war, wedding, courage, beauty, rain, love, hatred
▪ Articles, Exclamations, Numerals
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英语语言学：第4章
▪ The definitions above are useful for identifying most forms, but they are never completely accurate. A different approach might focus on some other properties of the word classes.
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英语语言学：第4章
4.1 Introduction
▪ Syntax: study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words. Difference between morphology and syntax
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英语语言学：第4章
▪ Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now
b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter.
▪ (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up.
▪ (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the.
▪ Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or noun phrases.
▪ Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things.
▪ For example, a noun can be defined as a
form that comes after an article (a, an and the) and can take inflections for
possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Of
▪ Morphology: the internal structure of words Syntax: the combination of words
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英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
▪ (1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
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英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach
4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar