3000字英文参考文献及其翻译范例
论文外文文献翻译3000字左右
南京航空航天大学金城学院毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译系部经济系专业国际经济与贸易学生姓名陈雅琼学号2011051115指导教师邓晶职称副教授2015年5月Economic policy,tourism trade and productive diversification（Excerpt）Iza Lejárraga,Peter WalkenhorstThe broad lesson that can be inferred from the analysis is that promoting tourism linkages with the productive capabilities of a host country is a multi-faceted approach influenced by a variety of country conditions.Among these,fixed or semi-fixed factors of production,such as land,labor,or capital,seem to have a relatively minor influence.Within the domain of natural endowments,only agricultural capital emerged as significant.This is a result that corresponds to expectations,given that foods and beverages are the primary source of demand in the tourism economy.Hence,investments in agricultural technology may foment linkages with the tourism market.It is also worth mentioning that for significant backward linkages to emerge with local agriculture,a larger scale of tourism may be important. According to the regression results,a strong tourism–agriculture nexus will not necessarily develop at a small scale of tourism demand.It appears that variables related to the entrepreneurial capital of the host economy are of notable explanatory significance.The human development index(HDI), which is used to measure a country's general level of development,is significantly and positively associated with tourism linkages.One plausible explanation for this is that international tourists,who often originate in high-income countries,may feel more comfortable and thus be inclined to consume more in a host country that has a life-style to which they can relate easily.Moreover,it is important to remember that the HDI also captures the relative achievements of countries in the level of health and education of the population.Therefore,a higher HDI reflects a healthier and more educated workforce,and thus,the quality of local entrepreneurship.Related to this point,it is important to underscore that the level of participation of women in the host economy also has a significantly positive effect on linkages.In sum, enhancing local entrepreneurial capital may expand the linkages between tourism and other sectors of the host country.Formal institutions and their regulatory control of the market,proxied by the size of the government and price controls,were not found to have significant effects on linkages formation.Despite the importance of democratic governance,this was not identified as a key determinant either.On the other hand,the significance of informal institutions accords with the clustering dynamics inherent in tourism,in which linkages are formed on the basis of self-enforcing“relations-based”governance.Also,informal structures cost less than formal,rules-driven institutional frameworks for entrepreneurship.Therefore,highly formalized regulations can deter the spontaneous and cost-driven coordination among potential local suppliers and the potential buyers of the tourism economy.One type of formal institutions that does matter is policing and vigilance.As would be expected,the results show that countries with higher incidence of violence or crime are significantly associated with lower levels of tourism linkages.Indeed, the coordination of providers in tourism clusters depends fundamentally on trust among local entrepreneurs and trust can hardly flourish in an environment characterized by social conflict.Equally important,the perception of violence on the part of tourists and hotels will dissuade tourists from venturing beyond the safe boundaries of the“enclave”hotel resort.Finally,hotel managers and other foreign investors in the tourism economy will be less inclined to maintain productive relations with the host economy in the absence of predictability and stability. Therefore,investments in institutions that maintain safety and a perception of safety,in the host economy appear critical for spawning coordination.While all country domains may be playing a role in fostering or hindering linkages, the business environment seems to exert an overriding influence on linkages.After controlling for a country's natural endowments,level of development,and institutional maturity,the business environment on its own explains almost20%of cross-country variations in linkages.In particular,the level of corporate taxes in the host economy is associated with the most significant adverse effect on the formation of linkages,in conformity with the lower-cost motivation underlying tourism-led linkage creation.Also,a widespread usage of internet is alsosignificantly associated with a positive effect in the ability of suppliers to orchestrate coordination in tourism linkages.Moreover,the results suggest that there could be a role for government in improving trade facilitation and reducing transportation costs.Also,maintaining an open trade regime seems to be critical for the emergence of linkages.This underscores the importance of not protecting inefficient economic activities and opening potential products for tourism demand to competition.Although trade barriers may indeed serve to prod investors in the tourism economy to procure domestic goods, they will also hinder the competitiveness of local producers.Shielded from imports, local producers will not have the incentives to meet the international quality standards of the products needed by the tourism economy.Yet,quality expectations, possibly more so than costs,will likely inform the procurement decisions of the tourism economy.Concerning the relative magnitude of the effects of the different domains on linkages,the business environment and trade regulations stand out.The independent contributions of these domains,that is their ability to explain variations in the dependent variable when no controls for other domains are applied,amount to53%and 43%,respectively.The level-of-development domain follows with25%explanatory power,while the domains covering institutions and endowments provide an independent contribution of23%each.The implications of the analysis should be considered in light of its limitations. Causal direction cannot be fully substantiated,because we use a cross-sectional approach due to data limitations.In the absence of time-series for the variables at hand,it is not possible to test for causation.While the explanatory variables concerning natural endowments are exogenous,some of the other explanatory variables could potentially be subject to reverse causality.That said,there do not seem to be a priori strong conceptual reasons that would lead us to believe that the degree of tourism linkages critically affects trade policy,the quality of institutions, and other variables of our model.Moreover,the risk of encountering problems of reverse causality is mitigated by the observation that several longitudinal studies have established a causal relationship that runs from higher levels of economic development Eugenio-Martin et al.(2008)or a better business environment(Barrowclough,2007and Selvanathan et al.,2009)to the development of the tourism sector,rather than the other way around.Finally,the construction of the dependent variable as a ratio of indirect to direct tourism expenditure makes the reverse causality hypothesis less compelling. While it might be expected that an expansion of the tourism sector that increases total revenues and employment opportunities might have an impact on the explanatory variables,it is less evident that a change in the composition of tourism revenues, as implied by a change in the LINK variable,would have such an effect.That said, the confidence in our findings would clearly be further enhanced,if supported by results from future studies based on longitudinal designs.The scientific environmental ethics plays a key role in the recognition of the human—environment interactions．Modern environmental ethics is the philosophical rethinking of modern human race environmental behavior．The development of environmental ethics theory as well as its application in reality．determines the viewpoints of environmental ethics．Sustainable development implies harmony on human-environment interactions and intergeneration responsibility，with emphasis on a harmonious relationship among population，resources，environment and development，so as to lay a sustainable and healthy foundation of resources and environment for future generations．The harmonious society construction in China that is raised by the Chinese central government should be covered by environmental ethics．The connotation of open environmental ethics includes a respect for nature．care for the individual human race．and respect for the development of future generations，which means giving consideration to natural values．individual and human race benefits and welfare across generations．The role of environmental ethics in regional development consists of cognition，criticism，education，inspiration，adjusting，legislation and promoting environmental regulations．The major problems in regional development are extensive resource exploration，fast population growth irrational,industrialstructure.Unfair welfare distribution and the twofold effects of science and technology development．The formulation of environmental ethics that aims at regional sustainable development，can not only harmonize the relationship of population，resource，environment and economic development，but also guide behavior selection，push social and political system transformation.strengthen the legal system，and raise environmental awareness of the public．Human races face severe global challenges in resources，environment，population and poverty．To solve these problems science and technology should be developed on one hand，and human-environment interactions should be adjusted on the other hand．Modem environmental ethics is the philosophical review on modem human race environmental behavior．Environmental ethics can be a view point as the moral perception of the relationship between humankind and nature in general．The keystone of sustainable development is on harmonious human．environment interactions．with an emphasis on sustainable environmental ethics．Environmental ethics and sustainable development are key issues in the study of man．1and system，as well as a precondition to regional development(Zheng，2005a)．Though there exists theoretical divergence in different environmental ideologies．some general understandings can also be obtained：human races are the only ethical agents on earth；the essence of the environmental crisis is a cultural and value crisis；future generations have the same right as current generations，especially on survival space；differences should be made between human race and other entities on earth，at the same time they are an undivided union；the capability of the earth is limited．Based on the above general understandings．it is possible to form a more open and sustainable environmental ethics．A more open and sustainable environmental ethics has some special connections．To respect and treat nature friendly means to acknowledge the value and right of nature，that is to say,minimum hurt criterion，basic benefit criterion and fair compensation criterion should be followed．To pay attention to both individuals and mankind should follow justice criterion，equity criterion and cooperation criterion．To have futuregeneration in mind Should follow responsibility criterion，saving criterion，and cautiousness criterion(Wang，2003；Wang，2004a)．The conclusion to be drawn from the above is to give attention to both human race and natural value．to both individual and mankind’s benefit。
毕业论文英文参考文献与译文
Inventory managementInventory ControlOn the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion.The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility.Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored:First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments .Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field ofthese big boys, but also their simple modules inside the warehouse management functionality is defined as "inventory management" or "inventory control." This makes the already not quite understand what our inventory control, but not sure what is inventory control.In fact, from the perspective of broadly understood, inventory control, shouldinclude the following:First, the fundamental purpose of inventory control. We know that the so-called world-class manufacturing, two key assessment indicators (KPI) is, customer satisfaction and inventory turns, inventory turns and this is actually the fundamental objective of inventory control.Second, inventory control means. Increase inventory turns, relying solely on the so-called physical inventory control is not enough, it should be the demand and supply chain management process flow of this large output, and this big warehouse management processes in addition to including this link, the more important The section also includes: forecasting and order processing, production planning and control, materials planning and purchasing control, inventory planning and forecasting in itself, as well as finished products, raw materials, distribution and delivery of the strategy, and even customs management processes.And with the demand and supply chain management processes throughout the process, it is the information flow and capital flow management. In other words, inventory itself is across the entire demand and supply management processes in all aspects of inventory control in order to achieve the fundamental purpose, it must control all aspects of inventory, rather than just manage the physical inventory at hand.Third, inventory control, organizational structure and assessment.Since inventory control is the demand and supply chain management processes, output, inventory control to achieve the fundamental purpose of this process must be compatible with a rational organizational structure. Until now, we can see that many companies have only one purchasing department, purchasing department following pipe warehouse. This is far short of inventory control requirements. From the demand and supply chain management process analysis, we know that purchasing and warehouse management is the executive arm of the typical, and inventory control should focus on prevention, the executive branch is very difficult to "prevent inventory" for the simple reason that they assessment indicatorsin large part to ensure supply (production, customer). How the actual situation, a reasonable demand and supply chain management processes, and thus set the corresponding rational organizational structure and is a question many of our enterprisesto exploreThe role of inventory controlInventory management is an important part of business management. In the production and operation activities, inventory management must ensure that both the production plant for raw materials, spare parts demand, but also directly affect the purchasing, sales of share, sales activities. To make an inventory of corporate liquidity, accelerate cash flow, the security of supply under the premise of minimizing Yaku funds, directly affects the operational efficiency. Ensure the production and operation needs of the premise, so keep inventories at a reasonable level; dynamic inventory control, timely, appropriate proposed order to avoid over storage or out of stock; reduce inventory footprint, lower total cost of inventory; control stock funds used to accelerate cash flow.Problems arising from excessive inventory: increased warehouse space andinventory storage costs, thereby increasing product costs; take a lot of liquidity, resultingin sluggish capital, not only increased the burden of payment of interest, etc., would affect the time value of money and opportunity income; finished products and raw materials caused by physical loss and intangible losses; a large number of enterprise resource idle, affecting their rational allocation and optimization; cover the production, operation of the whole process of the various contradictions and problems, is not conducive to improve the management level.Inventory is too small the resulting problems: service levels caused a decline in the profit impact of marketing and corporate reputation; production system caused by inadequate supply of raw materials or other materials, affecting the normal production process; to shorten lead times, increase the number of orders, so order (production) costs; affect the balance of production and assembly of complete sets.NotesInventory management should particularly consider the following two questions:First, according to sales plans, according to the planned production of the goods circulated in the market, we should consider where, how much storage.Second, starting from the level of service and economic benefits to determine howto ensure inventories and supplementary questions.The two problems with the inventory in the logistics process functions.In general, the inventory function:(1)to prevent interrupted. Received orders to shorten the delivery of goods fromthe time in order to ensure quality service, at the same time to prevent out of stock.(2)to ensure proper inventory levels, saving inventory costs.(3)to reduce logistics costs. Supplement with the appropriate time interval compatible with the reasonable demand of the cargo in order to reduce logistics costs, eliminate or avoid sales fluctuations.(4)ensure the production planning, smooth to eliminate or avoid sales fluctuations.(5)display function.(6)reserve. Mass storage when the price falls, reduce losses, to respond to disasters and other contingencies.About the warehouse (inventory) on what the question, we must consider the number and location. If the distribution center, it should be possible according to customer needs, set at an appropriate place; if it is stored in central places to minimize the complementary principle to the distribution centers, there is no place certain requirements. When the stock base is established, will have to take into account are stored in various locations in what commodities.库存管理库存控制在谈到所谓“库存控制”的时候，很多人将其理解为“仓储管理”，这实际上是个很大的曲解。
外文参考文献译文及原文【范本模板】
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor’s Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大,在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段,项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法.1。
简介调查显示,大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本.2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000）指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的。
.。
标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密。
决（ Diallo and Thuillier， 2005）.4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四,项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有。
..重要（Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化-—在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰..。
3000字外文文献翻译
Human resource management more and more drives value. Under the system that economy development mature, human resource management have to match with fight for the best resources performance, if out of character of the manpower form couples out of character of post, the resources performance be not only whole have no, or may have already exhaust. The modern economy stress balance and match, promote management effect and quality vegetable, will human resource match with make balance, the inside contents establish human resource structure frame, use most in keeping with of the person do most in keeping with of work. Establishment human resource terrace is a communication and collection information way, everyone's opinion comprehensive, give up short take long, with processing salary, welfare etc. affair. Human resource most the importance be a training and development, human resource development have to investment at training aspect, with exertive each stratum of human resource potential.人力资源管理愈来愈被重视。
外文参考文献译文及原文
目录1介绍 (1)在这一章对NS2的引入提供。
尤其是，关于NS2的安装信息是在第2章。
第3章介绍了NS2的目录和公约。
第4章介绍了在NS2仿真的主要步骤。
一个简单的仿真例子在第5章。
最后，在第.8章作总结。
2安装 (1)该组件的想法是明智的做法，以获取上述件和安装他们的个人。
此选项保存downloadingtime和大量内存空间。
但是，它可能是麻烦的初学者，因此只对有经验的用户推荐。
(2)安装一套ns2的all-in-one在unix-based系统 (2)安装一套ns2的all-in-one在Windows系统 (3)3目录和公约 (4)目录 (4)4运行ns2模拟 (6)ns2程序调用 (6)ns2模拟的主要步骤 (6)5一个仿真例子 (8)6总结 (12)1 Introduction (13)2 Installation (15)Installing an All-In-One NS2 Suite on Unix-Based Systems (15)Installing an All-In-One NS2 Suite on Windows-Based Systems (16)3 Directories and Convention (17)Directories and Convention (17)Convention (17)4 Running NS2 Simulation (20)NS2 Program Invocation (20)Main NS2 Simulation Steps (20)5 A Simulation Example (22)6 Summary (27)1介绍网络模拟器(一般叫作NS2)的版本，是证明了有用在学习通讯网络的动态本质的一个事件驱动的模仿工具。
模仿架线并且无线网络作用和协议(即寻址算法，TCP，UDP)使用NS2，可以完成。
一般来说，NS2提供用户以指定这样网络协议和模仿他们对应的行为方式。
外文文献翻译原文及译文
华北电力大学毕业设计（论文）附件外文文献翻译学号： 200701000324 姓名:杨曦所在院系：电力工程系专业班级：电气化0707指导教师：安勃原文标题： Research on Smart Grid in China2011年06月20日对中国智能电网的研究1摘要——智能电网是电力系统的未来发展的新方向。
在本文中，首先是智能电网的背景，意义，以及概念和结构。
典型的智能电网图如下所示.然后,在美国和欧洲智能电网的发展现状进行了描述，并对这些国家未来发展思路的趋势进行了总结和比较及分析。
此外，分析了中国智能电网发展的必要性，详细介绍了在目前与中国与有关项目，并对特高压电网和智能电网之间的的关系进行了讨论。
最后，对智能电网在未来在中国电网的潜在作用进行了展望和并为中国的智能电网发展指明新方向.索引词,智能电网，特高压电网，规划,经营，管理一导言随着世界经济全球化的推广,石油价格一直维持在一个上升的趋势。
还值得注意的是世界范围内的的能源供应短缺，对资源和环境的压力越来越大,同时，由于目前电网的低效率，在能源输送过程中损失了巨大的电力。
此外,由于不断增长的电力需求和用户对电力可靠性和质量日益增长的要求，电力工业正面临着前所未有的挑战和机遇。
因此，一个有环境友好,经济，高性能，低投资，安全性，可靠性和灵活性特点的的电力系统一直是电力工程师的目标。
尽管如此，基础设施和先进的仪表出现互联网更广泛地的使用加速了这个过程[1］。
自1990年以来随着分布式发电越来越多地使用，已经对对电网的强度提出更多的需求和要求［2][3]。
对于这些问题，为了找出最佳的解决方案，电力公司应接受新的思路，采用新技术，对现有的能源系统进行潜力挖掘，对技术和应用加以改进。
来自不同国家的学者和专家已经达成共识：未来电网的必须能够满足不同的需求及能源发电，高度市场化的电力交易的需求，由此可以满足客户的自我选择。
所有这些都将成为未来智能电网的发展方向。
3000字译文范本
毕业论文附件：英译汉（译文）题目：持续的决策导向型规划原作：[美] 迈克尔·曼金斯(Michael C, Mankins)理查德·斯蒂尔(Richard Steele)2004级工商管理2班胡蓉芳译译文：迈克尔·曼金斯(mmankins@)战略与管理咨询机构Marakon Associates旧金山分公司的执行合伙人，他还是The Value Imperative Managing for Superior Shareholder Returns（自由出版社，1994）一书的作者之一；理查德·斯蒂尔(rsteele@) Marakon Associates纽约分公司的合伙人。
持续的决策导向型规划当公司作为一个统一的整体确定了最重要的战略优先事项后（一般会通过年度战略规划进行），就会在整年时间内连续开展执行委员会对话、以求在尽可能多的问题上做出决策，因为许多问题都会涉及多个业务单元，所以公司成立了一些特别工作小组，专门负责准备决策所需的战略和财务信息，以找出每个问题的战略备选方案并进行评估，准备信息的时间可能超过9个星期。
波音民用飞机集团（Boeing Commercial Airplanes, BCA）就是这方面的一个例子。
作为波音公司最大的一个业务集团，BCA多年来一直采用的是长期业务规划流程，这是因为民用飞机的制造周期漫长，因此该集团的CEO艾伦•穆拉利（Alan Mulally）及其领导团队必须从长期角度考虑生产及经营问题，ＢＣＡ的长期经营方案包含一个十年财务预算，其中具体包括预计收入，未能交付的积压订货量，应允毛利，以及资本投资，ＢＣＡ的领导团队每周对经营方案进行审核，以便跟踪本集团的实际业绩相比计划业绩的情况，同时保持集团内成员对执行的关注。
随后，执行委员会将与每个业务单元举行另一轮会议，就业绩目标，资源投入，以及（在许多情况下）管理人员的报酬问题进行协商。
外文参考文献译文及原文
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor's Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大，在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段，项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法。
1.简介调查显示，大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本。
2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000)指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的...标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密...决( Diallo and Thuillier, 2005)。
4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四，项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有...重要(Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化--在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰...围、变更、进度、质量）相结合由于一个工程项目......虑时间价值影响后的结果。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
3000字英文论文
3000字英文论文篇一：英语3000字论文From mid-2022 to the present, many large international Clothing Buyers to shift their business out of Sri Lanka, into more cheap manufacturing destination. During this time, in seven provinces to close 75 factories, including 24 factories in the past 6 months to close. The survey was conducted in February 2022, is a private advisory body RoyDawson conducted.The survey found that many of the major Sri Lankan Clothing Foreign buyers in the past three years, closed their offices in Sri Lanka, their manufacturing orders to other countries.Procurement office in Sri Lanka Apparel Association registered about 50 major international apparel sourcing units, 12 units in the past three years, closed their offices in Sri Lanka. The major shift procurement office in Singapore, India and Pakistan. Production mainly to India, Bangladesh and Vietnam.So far, about 20 foreign buyers no longer a stable operation in Sri Lanka.A major reason for their transfer business in Sri Lankas production costs are relatively high and unstable security situation is also a Print . For example, buyers find it difficult to dispatch technical personnel to local factories for regular factory monitoring, which is at the security concerns.The survey also found that the seven provinces in the investigation of the 75 garment factories in mid-2022 and 2022, only in the past 6 months, there are 24 factories closed. These factories are mainly located in Katunayake, Biyagama, Koggala and SeethawakaPura the free trade zone. Some factoriesregistered in the Investment Authority, part of the plant in the Ministry of Industrial Development Textile Office. In addition, these garment factories closed due to foreign exchange losses to combat unemployment and other related industries. This includes embroidery factory, garments washing plants, manufacturing plants fold, label manufacturing plant, silk manufacturing units Plastic Rack and the polyethylene bag manufacturing units, transport service providers, shipping agency, freight Proxy Agencies, customs clearing technological transformation, Food Providers, sub-contractors to provide services, such as fabric cutting, ironing and packing.The survey showed that in 1980 and 2022, in Sri Lanka has 650 large, medium and small-scale garment manufacturing plant, to increase the direct employment of 45 million people, 10 million people with indirectemployment. However, since 2022, the termination ofmulti-fiber agreement and the end of export quotas, Sri Lankas garment industry stable contraction.This is mainly due to Sri Lankas apparel manufacturing with other Asian countries compared to the higher cost of production. The current global recession has also hit the apparel industry in the past 6 months, increase the frequency of plant closures. After reading this article,people also read:? ? ? ?? Jul 29.2022 transition InspirationJul 29.2022 Jul 29.2022 Jul 29.2022 Jul 29.2022篇二：快易准英语论文3000字一项攻克世界难题的发明成果──快易准英语不用国际音标准确朗读英文是世界难题，我发明的快易准英语攻克了这个难题。
急求经济类3000字左右英文文献(带翻译更好
急求经济类3000字左右英文文献(带翻译更好篇一：一篇经济类英文论文(含中文翻译)The Problem of Social Cost社会成本问题RONALD COASE罗纳德·科斯Ronald Coase is Professor Emeritus at University of Chicago LawSchool and a Nobel Laureate in Economics. This article is fromThe Journal of Law and Economics (October 1960). Several passages devoted to extended discussions of legal decisionshave been omitted.罗纳德·科斯在芝加哥大学法学院名誉教授和诺贝尔经济学奖得主。
本文是其外法学与经济学杂志（1960年10月）。
专门的法律问题的决定的延伸讨论的几个段落已被省略。
I. THE PROBLEM TO BE EXAMINEDThis paper is concerned with those actions of business firms which have harm-ful effects on others. The standard example is that of a factory the smoke from which has harmful effects on those occupying neighbouring properties. The economic analysis of such a situation has usually proceeded in terms of a divergence between the private and social product of the factory, in which economists have largely followed the treatment of Pigou in The Economies of Welfare. The conclusion to which this kind of analysis seems to have led most economists is that it would be desirable to make the owner of the factory li-able for the damage caused to those injured by the smoke, or alternatively, to place a tax on the factory owner varying with the amount of smoke produced and equivalent in money terms to the damage it would cause, or finally, to exclude the factory from residential districts (and presumably from other areas in which theemission of smoke would have harmful effects on others). It is my contention that the suggested courses of action are inappropriate, in that they lead to results which are not necessarily, or even usually, desirable.一、要检查的问题本文关注的是这些行动的企业有伤害他人有用的影响。
3000字英文参考文献及其翻译范例
3000字英文参考文献及其翻译【注意：选用的英文一定要与自己的论文题目相关。
如果文章太长，可以节选（用省略号省略一些段略）。
如果字数不够，可以选2至3篇，但要逐一注明详细出处。
英文集中在一起放前面，对应的中文翻译放后面。
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对文献的翻译一定要认真！对英文文献及其翻译的排版也要和论文正文一样！特别注意：英文文献应该放在你的参考文献中。
】TOY RECALLS——IS CHINA THE PROBLEM？Hari. Bapuji Paul W. BeamishChina exports about 20 billion toys per year and they are the second most commonly imported item by U.S. and Canada. It is estimated that about 10,000 factories in China manufacture toys for export. Considering this mutual dependence, it is important that the problems resulting in recalls are addressed carefully.Although the largest portion of recalls by Mattel involved design flaws, the CEO of Mattel blamed the Chinese manufacturers by saying that the problem resulted ‘in this case （because）one of our manufacturers did not follow the rules’. Several analysts too blamed the Chinese manufacturers. By placing blame where it did not belong, thereis a danger of losing the opportunity to learn from the errors that have occurred. The first step to learn from errors is to know why and where the error occurred. Further, the most critical step in preventing the recurrence of errors is to find out what and who can prevent it.……From:/loadpage.aspx?Page=ShowDoc&Category Alias=zonghe/ggmflm_zh&BlockAlias=sjhwsd&filename=/doc/sjhwsd/2 00709281954.xml, Sep. 2007玩具召回——是中国的问题吗？哈里·巴普基保罗·比密什中国每年大约出口20亿美元的玩具，最常见是从美国和加拿大进口项目。
3000单词外文文献翻译范文
南京航空航天大学金城学院毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译系部经济系专业国际经济与贸易学生姓名学号指导教师曹冬艳职称讲师2014年 4 月Research on the Agricultural Products Export in Shandong Provinceunder Green Trade BarriersChapter One Introduction1.1 Research Background and significance of the PaperGreen trade barriers closely related to green trade protection, which provides the trade protector a new concept and had a huge impact on international trade. Although green trade barriers blocked the international trade to some extent, it actually aims to protect environment and human health. Green trade is a trend in the international trade and an irreversible one in the world market.1.1.1 Research BackgroundAs the world’s largest developing country, agriculture industry is the traditional industry in China and agricultural products have been the traditional ones for trade. And green trade barrier will have a far-reaching influence on China’s agricultural products export. Since China’s accession to the WTO in2001, China’s agricultural products export enterprises have been restricted not only by tariffs, quotas and other restrictions, but also suffer from the so-called “green requirements”, which led to difficulty in access to the world market. Under the WTO framework, more and more countries have adopted subtler, less transparent measures on their agricultural production and trade under green trade barriers, which makes it harder to monitor and predict. So China’s agricultural trade and overall economic development will face new challenges, thus how to cope with green trade barriers has become key issues for us.1.1.2 Significance of the PaperAgriculture in China has a long history. Early center of Agriculture has been identified in the Huang he (Yellow River) in China. Rice, millet, soybean, onion, and peach are among of the most important products originated in this region.China has been a nation of farmers for over 4,000 years. When the People’s Republic of China was established in 1949, all arable land was under cultivation; agricultural infrastructure as irrigation and drainage systems constructed centuries earlier and intensive farming practices already produced relatively high yields (Library of Congress). Currently, even China’s cropland is only about 75 percent of the US(8). The main crops cultivated are rice, wheat, maize, cotton, soybeans and tobacco. Agricultural of China is important due to the size of population and economic development.Since most of Chinese population is considered rural, agricultural activities is one of the main sources of employment in the country. Concerns about food security make the government put strong emphasis in production. In general terms, it must satisfy 21 percent of world’s population food needs with just 9 percent of world arable land.Chapter two2.1 Situation of Agricultural Products ExportReform and trade liberalization in China’s external sector has proceeded progressively during last 20 years. Though this reform period, China’s trade regime has gradually changed form a highly centralized, planned and import substitution regime to a more decentralized, market-oriented and exports promotion one. These changes in trade and other policies have significantly affected the total and composition of China’s trade in favor of the products in which China has a comparative advantage. China tends to exports labor-intensive products such fruits,vegetables,fish and processed agricultural goods, which has been destined mainly to neighboring countries,especially Japan, Korea and others countries of Southeast Asia and also the USA and Europe.Exports of agricultural products are an important source of foreign currency in China, however ,even the value of agricultural products exportation continue growing, its share as part of the total export value has diminished gradually over the years, from a share of 20% in 1998 to 6.3% in 2000(21). China continues being a major world player in exports of agricultural products. In 2001, export of garlic and mushrooms were above 40 percent of world exports, while export of silk reached a share of 81 percent (measured in value).China exports a lot of vegetables, however not all in same big quantities. Garlic has been the main exported in this category with a quantity of 54.65 thousand Mt in 2001, and an average of 233 thousand Mt over the part 11 year period. Canned mushrooms and Dry onions reached averages of 171 and 103 thousand Mt each one during the same period. Other vegetables, also very important, that had big average exported quantities (in thousand Mt) are : cabbages (53.5), carrots (35.9), mushroom (35.5), watermelons (28.5), dried mushrooms (24.8), cauliflower (18.3), tomatoes (18.1), leeks (13.6), and green broad beans (11.6).In the group of meat (23), chicken meat and pork has been the most important with an average export of 237.2 and 190.2 thousand Mt per year. Other types of meat that represent relative largeaverage quantities (thousand of Mt) per year are: meat preparation pigs (70) canned chicken meat (42.5), pig meat (35.3), beef and veal boneless (32.7), rabbit meat (21.7), and duck meat (15.8).In the cereal group, maize has been the most important product with an average exported quantity that surpassed 6.3 million Mt per year between 1991 to2001, and represented 73.1.% of average exported cereals. Rice has been also important, ever its quantity is not so large as maize, but it reached an average export of 1,6 million Mt each year, and a share of 19% of total cereals exports:both maize and rice together represented 92.1% of cereal exports. Other cereals less important in quantity are sorghum and buckwheat, and finally with even less quantity are wheat, triticale and millet.Export of fibres were represented principally by cotton lint, which had an average of 115 thousand Mt per year, that is 55.9% of total fibres exports measured in quantity, but only 18.1% measured in value. Other products such cotton waste, scoured wool, raw and waste silk, and jute met average imported quantities of 16.6, 11.7, 10.9, and 9,7 thousand Mt respectively. With less quantity are other products like carded or comber hair, tow and waste of flax, ramie, unreliable cocoons and greasy wool. From the point of view of value, export were led by raw and waste silk, and carded or comber hair, with a participation of 30.9 and 26.8% respectively.Spices exports were dominated by ginger, which in 2001 reach a record quantity of 177 thousand Mt Exports of pimento reached 84.8 thousand Mt in 2001 and an average of 50.6 thousand Mt per year while cinnamon surpassed slightly an average of 23.3 thousand Mt per year. Other products are anise peppers. In the stimulant group, even China exports green coffee and cocoa powder, quantities are relative small to compare with export of tea, which accounted average of 201.3 thousand Mt in the 11 years period. In the other crops group, cigarettes and tobacco leaves has lead the list with an average export quantity of 40.3 and 15.5 thousand Mt tons per years respectively. Other products are natural rubber-232, hops, and oil of citronella.2.2 General Situation and The Trade of Export to Main Countries or Regions2.2.1 General Situation of Export to Main Countries or RegionsAccording to the China’s Agricultural Yearbook of 1994, Chinese agricultural exports have reached more than 160 different countries and region region. Chinese agricultural exports are distributed all over the continents; however this distribution is not balanced. The average exports from 1994 to2000 show that the Asian region was the main destination, concentrating 75.5% of total agricultural exports. The other regions have participated with different percentages: Europe 15.2%, North America 5.4%, Africa 2.3%, Latin America 1% and Oceania 0.6%.In the Asia region, exports are also concentrated in three destinies: Japan (30.9%), Hong Kong (18.2%) and South Korea (6.7%); these three destinies together have signified an average percentage of 55.8% per year. Other countries in this region with an important participation are: Singapore (2.8%), Indonesia (2.6%), Malaysia (2.5%) and Philippines with 2.1%.In Europe, the main buying countries have been Russia, Holland and Germany, each one with participation of 2.9, 2.7 and 3.1%.In North America, exports have gone to the United States (4.7%) and Canada (0.6%). In Africa the main destinies are Cote d’Ivoire (0.3%), Morocco (0.3%) and South Africa (0.3%). In Latin America Cuba (0.3%) and Brazil (0.2 %), and finally in Oceania is Australia (0.5%).China has had an important participation in several agricultural exports. Products with high share of world exports were ramie and raw and waste silk, with 91.9% and 87.7% in 2001. Both of these two products show increase in share between 1991 and 2001. When shares changed from 58.3% to 91.9% and from 72% to 87.7%, respectively.2.2.2 The Trade of Export and importIn 1991, there were only 6 products its export share was above 50% of world exports: sweet potatoes, pork, raw and waste silk, ramie, unreelable cocoons and cake of cotton seed. In 2001 the number of products increased to 10 products; the new added products were buckwheat, oil of tung, hair (carded or combed), reelable cocoons, fresh or dried vegetables and ginger. At the same time some products decreased participation under 50%, as in the case of sweet potatoes, pork and cake of cottonseed.Other products that had participation between 30% and 50% in 2001 were: cassava tapioca, mushrooms (dried and canned), hair of horses, garlic, groundnuts (prepared, shelled, and in shell), and oil of citronella.In the group of products with share between 20% and 30% were: rabbit (meat and skins), wool shoddy, chestnuts, beeswax, canella, oil of sesame seeds, soya sauce, honey and dry beans. The rest of product had a share below 20%.Total agricultural exports show an increasing tendency, according to data from Faostat, it increase in11.7% between 1991 and 2001.Exports of cereals have not had a defined tendency. In some years and in others drop. From the point of view of the quantity, China was a net exporter of some cereals such rice, maize, buckwheat, sorghum, triticale and millet. However in some years like 1995 and 1996 Chinas was a net importer of rice and maize, and again 1998 and 1999 for the case of maize. Sorghum exports only were higher than imports until 1997.In the meat products group, it was clear a decrease in pork and pig meat exports since 1995 and 1996 respectively, and a continuous increase in chicken meat exports. China was a net exporter Pork (until 1998), pigmeat, rabbit meat and goose meat principally. It is appreciably that canned chicken is the new tendency in export of meat; it already surpassed export of pork since 1999. Fruits and vegetables exports have had the best performance. Fruits show a continuous increasing tendency, especially pushed by increasing exports of apples juice during last years. Exports of main vegetables (garlic, onion, mushroom and tomato paste) increased year by year, and for 2001, the exported quantities of all vegetables were more than 300% of that one of 1991. In the vegetables group China was a net exporter except in few cases. In the case of fruits China was a net exporter of main fruit as apples (except for 1991-2-4-5), pears, canned pineapple, tangerines (with clementines), plums, mangoes and apple juice (single streng) principally. In the sum of total main fruit China was a net exporter between 1991 and 1995, and in 2001.Textile fibres exports shows a declining tendency, even the export of cotton lint attempted to recover during 1999 and 2000, but for 2001 it declined again. The other main exported products in this group except for jute (decline) show a stable tend. In silk (raw and waste), ramie and hair of horses China was a net exporter during all years of the period.Vegetable oil export statistics suggest that large exported quantities (1994 to 1997) of this category were not sustained in the time. All exported quantities were under 200 thousand Mt, with exception for oil of soya beans in 1997 and for oil of palm in 1994-5. China was a net exporter of some kinder of oils such: oil of tung, oil of groundnuts, oil of sesame seed, oil of cotton seed and oil of safflower.In pulses, instability was also present, caused mainly by changes in dry beans exports. Exports were higher than export for the whole pulses value (quantity), and for dry beans, dry broad beans and lentils.Exports of nuts, except for the walnuts presented a stable tendency; the same situation was experimented by export of tea and livestock, although in livestock, pig and cattle export tendencies are a little inclined towards decreasing. China was a net exporter of nuts, especially chestnuts and walnuts; in stimulants products not only of tea, also of cocoa butter and coffee extracts; and in livestock most of animals export for horses and goats.Some exports show clear decreasing tendency, for example, export of sweet potatoes and dried cassava almost disappeared; quantities exported in 2001 represented only 1.63% and 0.0024% respectively compared with quantities exported in 1991. However taro and potatoes maintained its export levels. Oil-bearing crops also were in the declining tendency group, it was pressured by diminish of soybean oil exports, which did’t recover high exported levels reached in 1991 and 1994. Fodder crops followed decreasing tendency for most of the years and the quantity exported in 2001 was 69.6% lower than the reached one in 1991. In oil-bearing crops China was a net exporter of groundnuts, sesame seeds, castor beans, sunflower seeds, cottonseeds and safflower seeds principally; In fodder products China was net exporter of dry beet pulp and some types of cakes like cotton seed, rapeseed, sunflower seed, linseed, maize and groundnuts, (in the case of soya bean cakes was a net exporter until 1995 and in 2001).Chapter Three3.1The Influence of Agricultural Products Export in Shandong Province under Green Trade BarriersThe research on main countries Shandong agricultural products export to under greed trade barrier. In the first part, it presents the general situation of Shandong Province’s agricultural products export to main countries and regions. Japan, U.S. And the EU are the major trading partners of Shandong Province. It is no doubt that green trade barriers enhances awareness of environment protection,human being’s health, and animals and plants safety. Nonetheless, green trade barriers will also impose negative influence on trade. Many of the developed countries, with their solid financial strength and technological advancement, are moving ahead with respect to the environment standards and technical guidance. They have prepared a series of technical standards which can affect the development countries seriously. Obviously, the environment standards and technical standards set by the development countries are much higher than other countries, which isharder for the exporting countries to meet. Furthermore, the higher standards can result in extra costs,which make it even difficult for exporters to do business in the World. Japan has taken restrictive measures mainly on China’s products such as vegetable, shellfish and other products. On May 29th,2006, “Positive List System ” was formally put into effect in japan. Under this system, maximum residue limits were established for all agricultural chemicals residues, covering 302 kind of food, 799 kinds of agricultural chemicals, and 54,782 limited standards, which comprehensively increase the technological threshold of agricultural products import for entering the market.”Positive List System”, with checks staring overseas is a new comprehensive safety and sanitation monitoring program. The EU has come up with more requirements for the food exporters, which means export of agricultural products to the EU, should not only reach the EU food safety standards, but also attach importance to food safety management, and U.S. Has set higher requirements in food safety and hygiene of imported products. In the following parts, characteristics of technical regulations and standard were analyzed under green trade barriers of Japan, the EU and U.S. Then analysis of negative influence on relevant agricultural products exported data and information and corresponding countermeasures were made to deal with the negative effect of green trade barriers.3.2 The Suggestions to Green Trade BarriersBased on the above studies, the main suggestions are provided from the level of government, enterprises and non-governmental organization: firstly, at the national level, the government as a policy maker should promote the concept of green-consumption, improve standards and certification systems, actively develop ecological agricultural and production bases to improve overall quality level of agricultural products, and establish an early waring system to prevent from foreign green trade barriers. Generally, government is responsible for establishing the system of perfecting agricultural standard, improving the quality level of agricultural products study and following the trail of the international standard constantly. By adopting the international standard and advanced standard of foreign countries actively and accelerating upgrade of the agricultural quality, government is supposed to take responsibility to strengthen the export competitiveness of agricultural products. Furthermore, being the regulator of import and export, government should take steps to perfect the supervision and inspection. In order to achieve the goal of introducing andimproving monitoring technology as well as enhancing our domestic products’ quality at the same level with the developed countries, we should reach the same standard with the country with advanced technology so that the barriers in import and export will be less. In addition, strengthening the quality inspection of agricultural products and system construction, examining main agricultural products with the advanced technology and accelerating the process of connections with international standards should also be our priority. We are confident that our government will assist thousands of business breaking through the “green trade barriers” and exploiting more opportunities in the global market. Secondly, enterprises should raise the green-awareness, and actively improve technology for better quality on their own initiative to avoid trade protectionism. They should also actively adopt green marketing, apply for relevant international certification and foster diversification of export market so as to expand the target market and improve the international competitiveness of agricultural products. Green marketing strategy means that enterprises should development green commodities, expand green market, nurture green nurture green consumers, establish green supply chains and enable their green commodities to enter the world market successfully under instruction of above mentioned conception. Enterprises should execute for its sustainable development conception and take environment protection as their top responsibility. Enterprises should take social interests, environment protection and customers’satisfaction into consideration during the consistent operation of current and future marketing strategy. First of all, enterprises should establish and improve the industry technology system of modern agriculture. Enterprises should take full advantage of our agriculture’s distinctive features and our specific national conditions, accelerate the innovation of system and mechanism, and promote agricultural science and technology innovation, popularization and talent training, exploring a pragmatic and efficient model of agricultural science and technology. Secondly, enterprise should invest more to innovation including introduction of technology innovation and increase technological input during the process of production. Enterprises should also focus on the employment technological training, pay more attention to the products quality,and expand the inspection for products technological contents to avoid the negative effect of the green trade barrier. Thirdly, non-governmental organizations such as industry association should enhance self-construction, establish early warning mechanisms and improve the technical standards. A main trend of development at present is to protect the environment. In general, compared with government and enterprises, NGO plays acomplementary role in dealing with green trade barriers. NGO is a vital part in the economy circle, especially in the 21st century when there aer some problems that cannot be resolved by the government alone. At president, regarded as corporation partners in the process of social economic development by developed countries government, international communities as well as most of development countries government’, NOG has achieved irreplaceable accomplishments in coping with complicated affairs involving establishing specific rules and taking the initiative of various sectors of the industry. Through profound organization innovation and institution revolution worldwide, NOG has gained strong power in dealing with green trade barriers.CaoYY. Research on the Agricultural ProductsExport in Shandong Province under Green Trade Barriers (D).The Netherland: Dongbei University of Finance and Economics.2011绿色贸易壁垒下山东省农产品出口贸易问题研究第一章介绍1.1 研究背景及意义绿色壁垒和绿色贸易保护息息相关，这提供了贸易保护者一个全新的概念并且对于国际贸易产生了巨大的影响。
外文文献及翻译doc
Criminal Law1.General IntroductionCriminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penaltieswas reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change.2.Elements of a CrimeObviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.(1) actus reusThe first element of crime is the actus reus.Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”---that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not on e’s behavior is illegal.Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action,or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent‟s failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one‟s official position. Duty also can arise from one‟s own creation of a dangerous situation.(2)mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual‟s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor‟s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea hasbeen reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3)CausationThe next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abel‟s death. ”In other words, …but for Cain‟s act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to thesatisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state‟s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪，有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判，及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。
外文文献及译文模板
文献、资料题目：学 专 班 姓 名： 张三学 号： 2010888888指导教师：翻译日期： ××××年××月××日临沂大学本科毕业论文外文文献及译文，the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been working to develop a new encryption standard to keep government information secure ．The organization is in the final stages of an open process of selecting one or more algorithms ，or data-scrambling formulas ，for the new Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and plans to make adecision by late summer or early fall ．The standard is slated to go into effect next year ．AES is intended to be a stronger ，more efficient successor to Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES)，which replaced the aging DES ，which was cracked in less than three days in July 1998．“Until we have the AES ，3DES will still offer protection for years to come ．So there is no need to immediately switch over ，”says Edward Roback ， acting chief of the computer security division at NIST and chairman of the AES selection committee ．“What AES will offer is a more efficient algorithm ．It will be a federal standard ，but it will be widely implemented in the IT community ．”According to Roback ，efficiency of the proposed algorithms is measured by how fast they can encrypt and decrypt information ，how fast they can present an encryption key and how much information they can encrypt ．The AES review committee is also looking at how much space the algorithm takes up on a chip and how much memory it requires ．Roback says the selection of a more efficient AES will also result in cost savings and better use of resources ．“DES was desig ned for hardware implementations ，and we are now living in a world of much more efficient software ，and we have learned an awful lot about the design of algorithms ，”says Roback ．“When you start multiplying this with the billions of implementations done daily ，the saving on overhead on the networks will be enormous ．”……临沂大学本科毕业论文外文文献及译文- 2 -以确保政府的信息安全。
(完整word版)外文文献及翻译doc
Criminal Law1.General IntroductionCriminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penaltieswas reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change.2.Elements of a CrimeObviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.(1) actus reusThe first element of crime is the actus reus.Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”---that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not on e’s behavior is illegal.Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action,or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent’s failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one’s official position. Duty also can arise from one’s own creation of a dangerous situation.(2)mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual’s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor’s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea hasbeen reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3)CausationThe next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abel’s death. ”In other words, ‘but for Cain’s act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to thesatisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state’s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪，有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判，及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。
英译中文献参考模板
本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文学院材料与能源学院专业高分子材料与工程年级班别学号学生姓名指导教师2011年月聚碳酸酯表面铝阳极氧化膜纳米氧化物涂层剪裁的透射和反射特性Inka Saarikoski, Mika Suvanto和Tapani A. Pakkanen芬兰约恩苏大学化学系2007年十月二十五日发表.摘要纳米涂料能有效的聚碳酸酯增加透光率，减少反射。
在这项研究中，采用电化学方法使纳米阳极氧化铝（AAO ）涂层形成在PC上表面。
通过AAO层的厚度，阳极氧化参数，以及AAO孔径的改变，对AAO涂层的PC反射性能产生的影响。
通过椭圆光度法测量透射和反射。
当波长为420-780纳米的光照射时，AAO的重量百分数为86-94％的PC的透光率比不含有AAO的PC高出4个百分点。
PC的AAO涂层的光反射中至少有0.2％的波长为177纳米。
而反射率比一般常用的没含有夹层的PC要少5％。
纳米表面和剖面AAO的特点是利用扫描电子显微镜得出。
关键词：聚碳酸酯，铝阳极氧化膜氧化氮，纳米结构，透过率，反射目录1．绪论 (1)2．实验细节 (3)2.1.在聚碳酸酯上制备纳米铝阳极氧化膜氧化膜 (3)2.2.制备参对用的独立的铝阳极氧化膜氧化膜 (4)2.3.涂层聚碳酸酯的表征 (4)3. 结果与讨论 (5)3.1. 用铝阳极氧化膜氧化氮纳米涂层包裹的聚碳酸酯的透光率 (7)3.2. 用铝阳极氧化膜氧化氮纳米涂层包裹的聚碳酸酯的反射率 (8)4.结论 (10)致谢 (11)参考文献 (12)1．绪论最近几年中，聚碳酸酯（PC ），聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯（聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯），以及环烯烃共聚物是透明的热塑性聚合物，其优良的光学特性，低吸水率，和相对较高的热变形温度使它们广泛使用在光学领域。
[1,2]光学性能的聚合物可以通过应用抗反射（AR）涂料来改善。
除此之外，抗反射表面海应用在手提电话，眼镜镜片[ 3 ] ，光学镜头[ 3,4 ] ，展板，和太阳能电池[ 4 ] 。
外文文献原稿及译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿About Programmable Logiccontrollers（PLCs）PLCs (programmable controller) is used in a variety of automatic control system and process control hub.They contain multiple input and output, input and output is used to transistors and other circuit, analog switch and relay to control the equipment.PLC software interface, standard calculator interface, specialized language programming and network equipment.Programmable logic controller I/O channel rules including all input output contact and contact, to expand capacity and the largest number of channels.Contact number is the sum of input and output points.PLC can specify any combination of these values.Extension units can be stack or connected to each other to increase the total control.The largest number of channels are in an extension system, the total number of maximum input and output channels.PLC system rules include scanning time, number of instructions, data storage and storage program.Scan time is used to monitor input and output module of PLC need time.Standard operation instruction is used in PLC software.Data storage is the ability to store data.Program memory is the ability to control software.Used for programmable controller input devices including DC, AC, intermediate relay, thermocouple, RTD, frequency or pulse, transistors and interrupt signal input;Output devices include DC, AC, intermediate relay, frequency or pulse, transistor, three-terminal two-way thyristor switch components;PLC programming equipment including control panel, handle and computer.Programmable control is used to control a variety of software programming language.These languages including iec61131-3, sequential table (SFC), action block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), and the structure of the text (ST), instruction sequences (IL), relay ladder diagram (RIL), flow charts, C language and Basic language.Iec61131-3 programming environment can support five languages, with international standards to regulate, SFC, respectively, FBD, LD, ST and IL.This allows more vendor compatibility and a variety of languages.SFC is a kind of graphlanguage, it provides the programming in order to cooperate, can support the order selection and tied for choice, to choose between them.Runtime FBD with a big, established the complicated process, in the form of graphs.Standard mathematical and logical operation can be combined with user interaction and interface operation.LD is suitable for discrete control and interlock logic diagram language.It is fully compatible with FBD on discrete control.ST is a kind of text language, used for complex mathematical and computational process, language is not applicable to chart.IL is similar to the combination of coding low-level languages.It is used in relatively simple logical instructions.Relay ladder diagram and ladder diagram is used for programmable controller is an important programming dder diagram programming is designed to relay logic diagram representation of the program.Flow chart is a graphic language, for use in a controller or operations described in the order of application software, it is used to establish a standard component of recycled runtime.C language is a high-level programming language, suitable for processing the most complicated calculation, a continuous data acquisition task.It typically run in PC debugging.BASIC language is used to handle the number of consecutive data acquisition and interface operation of high-level language.Programmable controller also specification of many computer interface equipment, network rules and characteristics.PLC energy equipment and running environment is also very important.The development history of programmable controllerIn 1968, general motors (GM), according to the needs of the development of the market situation and put forward the "many varieties, small batch, new car brand model" strategy.To implement this strategy, relying on the original industrial control device obviously not, and there must be a kind of new industrial control device, it can be with the change of the products, flexible and easily change control scheme to difficult to meet the different requirements of control.In 1969, the famous American digital equipment corporation (DEC) according to the function requirements of GM, developed the new industrial control device, and the GM of a vehicle to run automated production line for the first time to succeed.According to this new type of industrial control devices can be programmedto change control scheme this characteristic, and the situation of the specialized for Logic control, says the new industrial control device for the Programmable control (Programmable Logic Controller), hereinafter referred to as PLC.From 1968 to now, the PLC has experienced four generation: most of the first generation of PLC with a machine development, with the core memory storage, only the logic control function.In the second generation of PLC products for 8-bit microprocessor and semiconductor memory, PLC product seriation.The third generation of PLC product with high performance microprocessor and chip is used in great quantities in the PLC CPU, PLC speed greatly improved, thus enabling it to develop in the direction of multi-function communications and networking.The fourth generation of PLC products not only comprehensive use 16-bit and 32-bithigh-performance microprocessors, high-performance slice microcontroller processor, RISC (Reduced instruction set computer) Reduced instruction system CPU and other advanced CPU, and more than one processor in a PLC configuration, multi-channel processing.Also produced a large number of embedded microprocessor module, only makes the fourth generation of PLC product has the function of logical control, process control, motion control, data control, networked control functions really worthy of the name of multi-functional controller.At the same time, the PLC network composed of PLC has also been rapid development.PLC and industrial control of PLC network in factory enterprises become the preferred device, composed of PLCmulti-stage distributed PLC network become indispensable fundamental part of CIMS system.People spoke highly of the importance of PLC and its network, it is one of the three pillars of modern.Selecting machine modelMarket popular PLC products manufacturer in China with the following companies:(1) schneider company, including the introduction of early from Modicon company by the tianjin instrument instrument and meter plant products, products are now Quantum, Premium and Momentum;(2) rockwell company (including AB company) PLC products, products are now SLC and Micro Logix Control Logix etc.(3) of Siemens PLC products, products are now 400/300 / S7-200 series;(4) ge PLC products;(5) the company's products such as omron, mitsubishi, Fuji, panasonic, one of the most popular is the mitsubishi FX series.The basic principle of PLC selection is: in the input/output quantity meet the requirements under the premise of should choose the most reliable, maintenance, and use the most convenient and cost-effective optimal products.Selecting I/OPLC is an industrial control system, the control object is industrial production equipment or the production process of industrial products, working environment is the industrial production field.It connects the industrial production process is achieved by I/O interface module.PLC has a lot of I/O interface module including switch input module, the switch output module, analog input module and analog output module and special module, we should use according to the characteristics of their implementation options.(1) determine the number of input/outputAccording to the requirements of the control system, determine the number of input/output required, should increase the spare quantity of 10% 20%, in order to increase control function in any time.(2) the switch quantity input/outputSwitch input/output interface and can take the signals from the sensors and switches and control equipment.A typical 24-240 - v ac input/output signals, 5-240 - v dc input/output signals.(3) the analog input/outputAnalog input/output inte rface can accept the signal generated by thesensor.These interfaces can be used to measure turnover rate, temperature and pressure, and thus to control the voltage or current output device.Range for these interfaces - 10-10 v, + 0 to 10 v, 4-20 ma, or 10 to 50 ma.Some manufacturers on the PLC design special dedicated analog interface, so it can receive low level signal.In general, this interface module can be used to receive different types of thermocouple and RTD mixed signal.(4) special function input/outputWhen selecting a PLC, user may faced some special types of input/output and some because of the location of the limited input/output and fast response and frequency problem caused by the non standard input/output.Now, the user should consider whether to accept by the market or manufacturers to provide a special module, through a dedicated part of the module and dispose data, so as to reduce the use of the CPU, improve the efficiency of the task processing, to minimize failure caused by high limit control.PLC statusIn a PLC, the lack of keyboard and other input and output devices is a very worthy of attention.In PLC front usually have a certain amount of status ually indicates that:The start-up - as long as the PLC charged, it will be started.Program is running - this will indicate whether running or if no program is running. Error display - when PLC has a large hardware or software errors, it will be displayed. These lights are usually used for debugging.A certain number of button will also be provided to the PLC hardware.The most common button is a run/programming selection switch, when in keeping the state, it will be transferred to the programming;When the production status, it will be transferred to the operation.A PLC system almost no start closing switch or reset switch at the front.It needs to be designed into the system the rest.The state of the PLC can also be ladder logic diagram.Test whether the program implemented is very common for the first time.'first scan input in ladder diagram by scanning for the first time, will is right, and in the rest of the time when the scanning is wrong.In this case, the PLC - 5 'first scan' address is' S2:1/14 '.According to the example of the logical relationship, the first scan will seal the 'light' until the 'clear' is started.So the light will be start brighter in the PLC, but after the "clear" is launched, it will shut down and remain in the closed position.'first scan module is mentioned in the "first pass" module.PLC application domainAt home and abroad at present, the PLC has been widely used in steel, petroleum, chemical, electric power, building materials, machinery manufacturing, automobile, textile, transportation, environmental protection and cultural industries with happiness and usage can be roughly divided into the following categories:(1) the switch quantity logic controlThis is the most basic, the most widely PLC applications, it replaces the traditional relay circuit, realize logic control, sequence control, can be used for control of single equipment, also can be used in many machines and automatic assembly line.Such as injection molding machine, printing machine, stapler machinery, combined machine tool, grinding machine, packaging production line, plating production line, etc.(2) analog controlIn the process of industrial production, there are a lot of continuous change, such as temperature, pressure, flow, liquid level and speed and so on are all analog.In order to make the programmable controller to deal with analog, must implement the analog quantity and digital quantity between A/D and D/A conversion module, the programmable controller for analog control.(3) motion controlPLC can be used in circular motion and linear motion control.From control mechanism configuration, early applied directly to switch the I/O module connection position sensors and actuators, now in general use special motion controlmodule.Such as driving a stepper motor or servo motor of uniaxial or multi-axis position control module.The world's major products almost all have motion control function of PLC manufacturers, widely used in all kinds of machinery, machine tools, robots, elevators, etc.(4) process controlProcess control is to point to the analog quantities such as temperature, pressure, flow rate of the closed loop control.As industrial control computer, PLC can prepare the all kinds of control algorithm procedures, complete the closed-loop control.PID control is generally be applied closed loop control system of the control rge and medium-sized PLC has PID module, at present many small PLC also has thefunction module.PID processing is generally run special PID subroutine.The process control in metallurgy, chemical industry, heat treatment, boiler control occasions has wide application, etc.(5) the data processingModern PLC with mathematical operation, data transmission, data conversion, sorting, look-up table, a function, such as the operation can complete data collection, analysis, and processing.These data can be compared with the reference value of memory, accomplish a certain number of control operation, also can send to other intelligent device, the use of communication function or printing them tabulation.Data processing is generally used in a large control system, such as unmanned control of flexible manufacturing systems;Can also be used to process control system, such as paper making, metallurgy, food industry, some of the large control system.(6) communications and networkingPLC communication with the communication between PLC and the communication between PLC and other smart devices.With the development of computer control, factory automation network is growing fast, the PLC manufacturers have attached great importance to PLC communications functions, have launched their own network systems.The newly production PLC has a communication interface, communication is very convenient.PLC application field is still in the extension, in Japan, the application of PLC has been from the traditional industrial automatic control equipment and machinery, extended to the following areas of application: small and medium-sized process control system, remote maintenance service system, the energy conservation monitoring control system, and of the relation of living machines, relationship with the environment, and all have rapidly rising trend.It is important to note that with PLC, DSC mutual penetration, both the boundaries of an increasingly fuzzy, PLC applied to discrete manufacturing industry from the traditional to the applied to the continuous process industries to expand.译文PLC介绍PLC（可编程控制器）是用于各种自动控制系统和过程的可控网络集线器。
3000字的本科毕业外文文献翻译(格式标准)
本科毕业生外文文献翻译学生姓名：指导教师：所在学院：专业：中国·大庆2013 年5 月Chapter 1IntroductionSpread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal ) generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).1.1 History Frequency hoppingThe concept of frequency hopping was first alluded to in the 1903 U.S. Patent 723,188 and U.S. Patent 725,605 filed by Nikola Tesla in July 1900. Tesla came up with the idea after demonstrating the world's first radio-controlled submersible boat in 1898, when it became apparent the wireless signals controlling the boat needed to be secure from "being disturbed, intercepted, or interfered with in any way." His patents covered two fundamentally different techniques for achieving immunity to interference, both of which functioned by altering the carrier frequency or other exclusive characteristic. The first had a transmitter that worked simultaneously at two or more separate frequencies and a receiver in which each of the individual transmitted frequencies had to be tuned in, in order for the control circuitry to respond. The second technique used a variable-frequency transmitter controlled by an encoding wheel that altered the transmitted frequency in a predetermined manner. These patents describe the basic principles of frequency hopping and frequency-division multiplexing, and also the electronic AND-gate logic circuit.Frequency hopping is also mentioned in radio pioneer Johannes Zenneck's book Wireless Telegraphy (German, 1908, English translation McGraw Hill, 1915), although Zenneck himself states that Telefunken had already tried it several years earlier. Zenneck's book was a leading text of the time, and it is likely that many later engineers were aware of it. A Polish engineer, Leonard Danilewicz, came up with the idea in 1929.Several other patents were taken out in the 1930s, including one by Willem Broertjes (Germany 1929, U.S. Patent 1,869,695, 1932). During World War II, the US Army Signal Corps was inventing a communication system called SIGSALY for communication between Roosevelt and Churchill, which incorporated spread spectrum, but due to its top secret nature, SIGSALY's existence did not become known until the 1980s.The most celebrated invention of frequency hopping was that of actress Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil, who in 1942 received U.S. Patent 2,292,387 for their "Secret Communications System". Lamarr had learned about the problem at defense meetings she had attended with her former husband Friedrich Mandl, who was an Austrian arms manufacturer. The Antheil-Lamarr version of frequency hopping used a piano-roll to change among 88 frequencies, and was intended to make radio-guided torpedoes harder for enemies to detect or to jam. The patent came to light during patent searches in the 1950s when ITT Corporation and other privatefirms began to develop Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), a civilian form of spread spectrum, though the Lamarr patent had no direct impact on subsequent technology. It was in fact ongoing military research at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Magnavox Government & Industrial Electronics Corporation, ITT and Sylvania Electronic Systems that led to early spread-spectrum technology in the 1950s. Parallel research on radar systems and a technologically similar concept called "phase coding" also had an impact on spread-spectrum development.1.2 Commercial useThe 1976 publication of Spread Spectrum Systems by Robert Dixon, ISBN 0-471-21629-1, was a significant milestone in the commercialization of this technology. Previous publications were either classified military reports or academic papers on narrow subtopics. Dixon's book was the first comprehensive unclassified review of the technology and set the stage for increasing research into commercial applications.Initial commercial use of spread spectrum began in the 1980s in the US with three systems: Equatorial Communications System's very small aperture (VSAT) satellite terminal system for newspaper newswire services, Del Norte Technology's radio navigation system for navigation of aircraft for crop dusting and similar applications, and Qualcomm's OmniTRACS system for communications to trucks. In the Qualcomm and Equatorial systems, spread spectrum enabled small antennas that viewed more than one satellite to be used since the processing gain of spread spectrum eliminated interference. The Del Norte system used the high bandwidth of spread spectrum to improve location accuracy.In 1981, the Federal Communications Commission started exploring ways to permit more general civil uses of spread spectrum in a Notice of Inquiry docket. This docket was proposed to FCC and then directed by Michael Marcus of the FCC staff. The proposals in the docket were generally opposed by spectrum users and radio equipment manufacturers, although they were supported by the then Hewlett-Packard Corp. The laboratory group supporting the proposal would later become part of Agilent.The May 1985 decision in this docket permitted unlicensed use of spread spectrum in 3 bands at powers up to 1 Watt. FCC said at the time that it would welcome additional requests for spread spectrum in other bands.The resulting rules, now codified as 47 CFR 15.247 permitted Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and many other products including cordless telephones. These rules were then copied in many other countries. Qualcomm was incorporated within 2 months after the decision to commercialize CDMA.1.3 Spread-spectrum telecommunicationsThis is a technique in which a (telecommunication) signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the original information.Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions. This technique decreases the potential interference to other receivers while achieving privacy. Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential noise-like signalstructure to spread the normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI).Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number sequences —created using pseudorandom number generators —to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the alloted bandwidth. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another modulation technique that accomplishes the same purpose, based on transmitting short duration pulses. Wireless Ethernet standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface.Chapter 22.1 Spread-spectrum clock signal generationSpread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum. In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency and its harmonics, and would therefore radiate energy with an infinite spectral density. Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).To avoid this problem, which is of great commercial importance to manufacturers, spread-spectrum clocking is used. This consists of using one of the methods described in the Spread-spectrum telecommunications section in order to reduce the peak radiated energy. The technique therefore reshapes the system's electromagnetic emissions to comply with the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations. It is a popular technique because it can be used to gain regulatory approval with only a simple modification to the equipment.Spread-spectrum clocking has become more popular in portable electronics devices because of faster clock speeds and the increasing integration of high-resolution LCD displays in smaller and smaller devices. Because these devices are designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, passive EMI reduction measures such as capacitors or metal shielding are not a viable option. Active EMI reduction techniques such as spread-spectrum clocking are necessary in these cases, but can also create challenges for designers. Principal among these is the risk that modifying th e system clock runs the risk of the clock/data misalignment.2.2Direct-sequence spread spectrumIn telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique. As with other spread spectrum technologies, the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the information signal that is being modulated. The name 'spread spectrum' comes from the fact that the carrier signals occur over the full bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's transmitting frequency.2.2.1Features1.It phase-modulates a sine wave pseudorandomly with a continuous string ofpseudonoise (PN) code symbols called "chips", each of which has a much shorter duration than an information bit. That is, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster chips. Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than the information signal bit rate.2. It uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the transmitter isknown a priori by the receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the informationsignal.2.2.2Transmission methodDirect-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a "noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1 values, at a frequency much higher than that of the original signal, thereby spreading the energy of the original signal into a much wider band.The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However, this noise-like signal can be used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 × 1 = 1, and −1 × −1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver believes the transmitter is using.For de-spreading to work correctly, the transmit and receive sequences must be synchronized. This requires the receiver to synchronize its sequence with the transmitter's sequence via some sort of timing search process. However, this apparent drawback can be a significant benefit: if the sequences of multiple transmitters are synchronized with each other, the relative synchronizations the receiver must make between them can be used to determine relative timing, which, in turn, can be used to calculate the receiver's position if the transmitters' positions are known. This is the basis for many satellite navigation systems.The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain. This effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit, but physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on attainable processing gain.If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN sequence (or no sequence at all), the de-spreading process results in no processing gain for that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-shaped envelope centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission, except that the added noise causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM transmission.In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier, instead of adding pseudo-random noise to the data, which results in a uniform frequency distribution whose width is determined by the output range of the pseudo-random number generator.2.2.3Benefits∙Resistance to intended or unintended jamming∙Sharing of a single channel among multiple users∙Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception (stealth)∙Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver2.2.4Uses∙The United States GPS and European Galileo satellite navigation systems∙DS-CDMA (Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access) is a multiple access scheme based on DSSS, by spreading the signals from/to different users with different codes.It is the most widely used type of CDMA.∙Cordless phones operating in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands∙IEEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi, and its predecessor 802.11-1999. (Their successor 802.11g uses OFDM instead)∙Automatic meter reading∙IEEE 802.15.4 (used e.g. as PHY and MAC layer for ZigBee)2.3 Frequency-hopping spread spectrumFrequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver. It is utilized as a multiple access method in the frequency-hopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA) scheme.A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency transmission:1.Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. Theprocess of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to recede into the background.2.Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An FHSS signal simply appearsas an increase in the background noise to a narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper would only be able to intercept the transmission if they knew the pseudorandom sequence.3.Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types ofconventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.2.3.1 Basic algorithmTypically, the initiation of an FHSS communication is as follows1.The initiating party sends a request via a predefined frequency or control channel.2.The receiving party sends a number, known as a seed.3.The initiating party uses the number as a variable in a predefined algorithm, whichcalculates the sequence of frequencies that must be used. Most often the period of the frequency change is predefined, as to allow a single base station to serve multiple connections.4.The initiating party sends a synchronization signal via the first frequency in thecalculated sequence, thus acknowledging to the receiving party it has correctly calculated the sequence.5.The communication begins, and both the receiving and the sending party changetheir frequencies along the calculated order, starting at the same point in time.2.3.2 Military useSpread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming, unless the adversary has knowledge of the spreading characteristics. Military radios use cryptographic techniques to generate the channel sequence under the control of a secret Transmission Security Key(TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share.By itself, frequency hopping provides only limited protection against eavesdropping and jamming. To get around this weakness most modern military frequency hopping radios often employ separate encryption devices such as the KY-57. U.S. military radios that use frequency hopping include HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS.2.3.3Technical considerationsThe overall bandwidth required for frequency hopping is much wider than that required to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency. However, because transmission occurs only on a small portion of this bandwidth at any given time, the effective interference bandwidth is really the same. Whilst providing no extra protection against wideband thermal noise, the frequency-hopping approach does reduce the degradation caused by narrowband interferers.One of the challenges of frequency-hopping systems is to synchronize the transmitter and receiver. One approach is to have a guarantee that the transmitter will use all the channels in a fixed period of time. The receiver can then find the transmitter by picking a random channel and listening for valid data on that channel. The transmitter's data is identified by a special sequence of data that is unlikely to occur over the segment of data for this channel and the segment can have a checksum for integrity and further identification. The transmitter and receiver can use fixed tables of channel sequences so that once synchronized they can maintain communication by following the table. On each channel segment, the transmitter can send its current location in the table.In the US, FCC part 15 on unlicensed system in the 900MHz and 2.4GHz bands permits more power than non-spread spectrum systems. Both frequency hopping and direct sequence systems can transmit at 1 Watt. The limit is increased from 1 milliwatt to 1 watt or a thousand times increase. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) prescribes a minimum number of channels and a maximum dwell time for each channel.In a real multipoint radio system, space allows multiple transmissions on the same frequency to be possible using multiple radios in a geographic area. This creates the possibility of system data rates that are higher than the Shannon limit for a single channel. Spread spectrum systems do not violate the Shannon limit. Spread spectrum systems rely on excess signal to noise ratios for sharing of spectrum. This property is also seen in MIMO and DSSS systems. Beam steering and directional antennas also facilitate increased system performance by providing isolation between remote radios.2.3.4 Variations of FHSSAdaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) (as used in Bluetooth) improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. This sort of adaptive transmission is easier to implement with FHSS than with DSSS.The key idea behind AFH is to use only the “good” frequencies, by avoiding the "bad" frequency channels -- perhaps those "bad" frequency channels are experiencing frequency selective fading, or perhaps some third party is trying to communicate on those bands, or perhaps those bands are being actively jammed. Therefore, AFH should be complemented by a mechanism for detecting good/bad channels.However, if the radio frequency interference is itself dynamic, then the strategy of “badchannel removal”, applied in AFH might not work well. For example, if there are several colocated frequency-hopping networks (as Bluetooth Piconet), then they are mutually interfering and the strategy of AFH fails to avoid this interference.In this case, there is a need to use strategies for dynamic adaptation of the frequency hopping pattern.Such a situation can often happen in the scenarios that use unlicensed spectrum.In addition, dynamic radio frequency interference is expected to occur in the scenarios related to cognitive radio, where the networks and the devices should exhibit frequency-agile operation.Chirp modulation can be seen as a form of frequency-hopping that simply scans through the available frequencies in consecutive order.第一章介绍扩频技术是信号（例如一个电气、电磁，或声信号）生成的特定带宽频率域中特意传播，从而导致更大带宽的信号的方法。
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3000字英文参考文献及其翻译
【注意：选用的英文一定要与自己的论文题目相关。
如果文章太长，可以节选（用省略号省略一些段略）。
如果字数不够，可以选2至3篇，但要逐一注明详细出处。
英文集中在一起放前面，对应的中文翻译放后面。
中文翻译也要将出处翻译，除非是网页。
对文献的翻译一定要认真！对英文文献及其翻译的排版也要和论文正文一样！
特别注意：英文文献应该放在你的参考文献中。
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TOY RECALLS——IS CHINA THE PROBLEM
Hari. Bapuji Paul W. Beamish
China exports about 20 billion toys per year and they are the second most commonly imported item by U.S. and Canada. It is estimated that about 10,000 factories in China manufacture toys for export. Considering this mutual dependence, it is important that the problems resulting in recalls are addressed carefully.
Although the largest portion of recalls by Mattel involved design flaws, the CEO of Mattel blamed the Chinese manufacturers by saying that the problem resulted ‘in this case （because） one of our manufacturers did not follow the rules’. Several analysts too blamed the Chinese manufacturers. By placing blame where it did not belong, there is a danger of losing the opportunity to learn from the errors that have occurred. The first step to learn from errors is to know why and where the error occurred. Further, the most critical step in preventing the recurrence of errors is to find out what and who can prevent it.
……
From&CategoryAlias=zonghe/ggmflm_zh&BlockAlias=sjhwsd&filen ame=/doc/sjhwsd/, Sep. 2007
玩具召回——是中国的问题吗
哈里·巴普基保罗·比密什
中国每年大约出口20亿美元的玩具，最常见是从美国和加拿大进口项目。
据估计，中国大约有10000家玩具制造工厂从事玩具出口。
考虑到这种相互依存，在召回时谨慎处理是很重要的。
尽管绝大部分美泰的玩具召回涉及设计缺陷，但是，美泰公司的首席执行官指责中国制造商说，导致这种问题的原因“是因为我们的一些制造商不遵守规则”。
一些分析师也指责中国制造商。
把责任归咎于不存在错误的地方是危险的行为，这将使得我们丧失从继有的错误中吸取教训的机会。
第一步是要从错误中学习知道为什么发生错误和哪里发生了错误。
此外，防止错误的再次发生最关键的一步是要找出什么以及谁可以阻止它。
……
来源：&CategoryAlias=zonghe/ggmflm_zh&BlockAlias=sjhwsd&filename=/doc/sjhwsd/，2007年9月。