语用学论文
浅谈语用学下高职高专英语教学论文
浅谈语用学下高职高专英语教学论文1语用学的基本理论1.1语境的定义与解释语境（context）这个概念最早由波兰人类学家马林诺夫斯基（Malinowsiki）在上世纪20年代提出，他指出“话语和环境是紧密结合在一起的，没有语境，词汇就没有意义。
”我国语言学家何兆熊先生（1997）认为，对语境的解释大体分为两类：“一类是把语境解释为从具体的情景抽象出来的，对语言活动的参与者所产生的影响的一些因素，这些因素系统地决定了话语的形式、话语的合适性或话语的意义，另一类把语境解释为语言活动参与者所共有的背景知识，这种背景知识使听话者得以解释说话人通过某一话语所表达的意义”（何兆熊、蒋艳梅，1997）。
语境对于语义的成功传达起到至关重要的作用，比如在汉语口语中经常用“吃了吗？”来打招呼，但如果在用英语交流时提问“：Haveyoueaten?”那就不是打招呼的意思，一般会被误解为请听话人吃饭的含义。
因此，要想恰当准确地进行交流，对中西方文化的理解，对特定语境的理解尤为重要。
我们要在教学中不断传达给学生这一语用学理论，使学生了解不同文化背景，帮助学生积累这些跨文化交际中的文化差异，学会分析语境的不同，恰当地选择语言进行交流。
1.2会话合作原则另一个重要的理论是由牛津大学著名哲学家格莱斯（H.P.Grice）提出的合作原则（cooperativeprinciple），他认为，“我们的交谈通常不是由一连串无不相关的话语组成的，否则就不会合情理。
至少在某种程度上，他们常常是合作举动；参与者都在某种程度上承认其中有一个或一组共同目标，至少有一个彼此都接受的方向（”GriceH.P.,1975）。
为进一步说明这一原则，格莱斯引入了四大准则：数量准则（QuantityMaxim）：使所说的话正好满足当前交谈所需要的信息；所说的话不能多于需要的信息。
质量准则（QualityMaxim）：所说的话要力求真实。
不要说自知虚假的话，不要说缺乏足够证据的话。
语用学论文
浅析语用中的指示语以及对外汉语教学中语用学的指示语摘要：指示是指利用语言进行指点或标示。
语言中存在这一语言现象充分说明了语言和使用语言之间的语境之间的密切关系。
指示语作为语用学研究的一个重要课题，一直受到语言学家们的重视。
本文将着重从语用学中的指示语角度来分析在对外汉语教学中的造成学生学习汉语语用失误的原因。
关键词：语用学；指示语；对外汉语；教学Ⅰ、语用学基本概念Ⅱ、语用学中的指示语何自然先生认为:“我们把表示语言指示信息的词语称为指示语,归入语用学的范畴,因为指示语是一些不能单用语义学的真假条件衡量的词语,它们的意义只有结合语境才可能得到正确的解释”。
指示（dexis）这一术语来自希腊语，它的意思是利用语言进行指点或标示。
指示语可以分为五类，分别是人称指示语、时间指示语、地点指示语等类别。
1.人称指示语2. 时间指示语3. 地点指示语Ⅲ.对外汉语教学中语用学之指示语历来的对外汉语教学，内容基本上只包括语音、词汇、语法等语言项目。
但通过实际教学，我们发现，外国人在掌握以上汉语基本语言项目后仍然出现话语不当的现象。
这就要求我们在研究汉语语音、词汇、语法的同时，还要研究汉语的语用。
而语用学之指示语应该是我们研究的一个重要内容。
1、外汉语教学中指示语的影响外国人学习汉语在语用方面的失误不是因违反语法规则或用词不当而引起的，而是在指示语上没有很好理解汉语的不同才导致出现语法正确但语用错误的现象。
这些指示语不同的使用就体现了在使用汉语语言形式或词语时因思维方式和习惯的不同或观察事物的角度、范围有差异。
根据指示语的性质，指示语的使用有两个必不可少的阶段：先要确定以言语行为中的哪一要素为参照点，下面从人称指示、时间指示、地点指示三个方面举例加以说明。
1.1 人称指示语差异人称指示语指“谈话双方用话语传达信息时的相互称呼”。
如在汉语中表示称呼的根据第一人称（包括说话人）、第二人称（包括听话人）和第三人称（即不包括说话人也不包括说话人）的书面形式分类就有“我（我们）、你（你们）、他（他们）、她（她们）、它（它们）”。
Pragmatic Politeness语用学论文
Pragmatic Politeness in Chinese and American CulturesChangcheng常程Class 4, Grade 2009No. 200905140401The School of Foreign LanguagesChina West Normal UniversityA Paper for PragmaticsJune 2012Pragmatic Politeness in Chinese and American Cultures Abstract:This paper studies pragmatic politeness in both Chinese and American cultures. It gives a general idea of some pragmatic knowledge of politeness and comparisons of Chinese and American ways of expressing politeness in different situations. In brief, the findings in this paper support the view that politeness varies quite different in different cultures. By understanding this, we can communicate better with foreigners and get a better understanding of our own culture.In this paper I would focus the study of politeness in Chinese and American cultures.Firstly，I will explain some famous pragmatic theories on politeness of China and foreign countries, like Confucius, Gu Yueguo, Levinson and Goffman. Secondly, I‟ll do some comparisons on different aspects of pragmatic politeness between China and the U.S. There‟re greetings,giving and receiving compliments, during a meal, usage of euphemisms, and misunderstanding responses. In the end, I‟ll draw a conclusion and list the referent resources I‟ve used.Key words: linguistic,pragmatic,politeness,Chinese,American,cross-cultural communicationPoliteness can be understood as a social phenomenon. It is a tool to develop good interpersonal relationships. People live in society, they communicate in certain manner of politeness. But people in different culture have different understanding of being polite thus confusion and misunderstanding occurs on cross-cultural communications. Therefore, we have to study the differences in different cultures so that we can avoid misunderstanding and behave ourselves in appropriate ways in any condition.Pragmatic theories on politeness:In Chinese culture:Confucius (B.C. 551-479), who lived at a time when the slavery system had disintegrated and there were constant wars between feudal states; the former aristocratic social hierarchy was shattered and chaos reigned over the land. To reform the society, Confucius advocated the restoration of “li”(礼) or politeness. which referred to the social politeness and the order of the slave society of the Zhou Dynasty (周礼).To Confucius, it was the model of an ideal society. Restoring li, it was necessary to put each individual in his place according to his social position. Confucius set much store by zhengming (正名)because he thought, if names are not called, speech cannot be used appropriately, thus li cannot be restored, and principle cannot be maintained.Modern Chinese Politeness can be realized in a number of ways, among which the use of language is an important one. With the development of Confucius theory and pragmatic theories, more and more attention has been paid to the ways in which language is used to show politeness and also the difference between different languages and cultures.Prof. Gu Yueguo, a scholar of Beijing Foreign Studies University, has traced the origin of the concept of politeness in the Chinese culture, and has also formulated a different set of politeness maxims, which he thinks are more suitable to Chinese. Theories in foreign countries:“Face theory” was put forward by Brown and Levinson, which is based on the face concept raised by Goffman. According to Goffman, “face” is a thing of communicators who all have to pay attention to. It is just like “mianzi”(面子) in Chinese culture.I f one wants his face cared for, he should care for other people‟s face. They also hold the view that the problem for any one is the internal aggression while retaining the potential for aggression in internal social control, and especially in external competitive relations with others. Politeness presupposes that potential for aggressionas it seeks to disarm it, and makes possible communication between potentially aggressive parties.Another influential theory concerning politeness is Leech‟s Politeness Principle. Leech places PP as a member of a set of principles which he called Interpersonal Rhetoric; other important principles within Interpersonal Rhetoric include theCo-operative Principle and the Irony Principle.These principles do not provide the main motivation for talking, but serve as regulative factors to ensure that once conversation is under way, it will not follow a fruitless or disruptive path. Instead of basing his theory on the concept of face, Leech patterns on Grice‟s CP and divides the PP into a number of maxims.Comparison:Greeting:Greeting is an important part of speech communication. Along with the constant increasing knowledge of people, greeting is characterized by fashion and costume.In 1990, an American complained, “I‟m tired of nosy Chinese! Every time I come in or go out, they ask, …Going to work?‟ …Coming home?‟ …Going shopping?‟ …Eaten yet?‟”I looked around furtively then whispered, “Do you know why they ask me so many questions?”He looked surprised and whispered back, “No. Why?”“Because they report to the Communists on us.”“Really?” His eyes widened as paranoia took a toehold.“Not really,” I said, laughing. “That‟s just how Chinese greet one another!”(From Dr. Bill Brown)In this story, we can know that Americans usually greet people with a simple “H i” or “Good Morning” or “Nice weather today!” But Chinese, we say with “Ni Hao”(How are you?) and we ask what you are doing. And unlike Americans, who don‟t want an honest answer to “How are you?” Chinese do expect an answer.To show care and concern for others is considered as a polite act. The Chinese think that they are being polite by showing concern for the other person, and asking all these questions will help build intimacy between themselves. But American s would feel that person is invading their privacy.Giving and Receiving Compliments:When we listen to people speak a foreign language that we understand, we notice that the native speakers of that language use words and phrases in a manner different from what we are used to. In American English, for example, people say “Thank you” frequently. A word for “thank you” exists in almost every language, but how and when it is used is not always the same. In Chinese language, we do not thank people for trivial as well as important or unusual favors. For Americans, this expression is used as a polite response to different kinds of favors and compliments, and is often automatic.When being complimented, an English-speaking person would readily accept the compliment by saying something like “Thank you” to show his appreciation of the praise, but a Chinese speaker would try to deny the truth of the compliment. They both are being modest and they both think they are behaving properly. The English speaker is being polite to the extent that by accepting and showing appreciation of the compliment, he avoids hurting the positive face of the person who makes it; the Chinese speaker is showing modesty by denigration himself, ignoring the factuality of the compliment paid to him. As has been mentioned, self-denigration has been at the core of the Chinese concept of politeness for over two thousand years, the Chinese, in order to show modesty, will go to such lengths as to underrate what he himself has achieved and deny the truth of a complimentary remark.Sometimes, American repeat the sentence hundreds of times a day.“Have a good flight?” “Not at all bad, thank you.”“You are a beautiful woman.” “Thank you”“And your name, sir?” “Hare.”“Thank you. We‟ll see you tomorrow at 8then.”We can easily notice how often Americans use the expression “thank you”. A customer, after paying $100 for a meal in a restaurant, says, “thank you” to the person who hands him he bill. In response to “ I like the color of your car.”, an American might answer “thank you” In both of these cases, no great favor or compliment was extended, yet “thank you” was the most frequent response. While Americans say “thank you” readily whene ver possible, either for a trivial compliment or for a big favor they received, their Chinese counterpart tend to keep the heavy word of thanks in their hearts and leave it unsaid. They would try to look for a chance to do something for the helper in return. They think the heartfelt gratitude is not worth mentioning. On the other hand, if you repeat your gratitude orally, the people would think that you treat him as an outsider. They think it as their obligation to give you a hand whenever you have trouble and turn to him for help. He regards it as his honor and pleasure to be helpful. It‟s universal both in America and in China on this point. During a meal:In American family, people usually say fewer words when they‟re eating than Chinese do. They may pray before the meal and say “help yourself” if there‟s a guest. During the meal they may discuss something interesting and less serious.A:“How was your school day?”B:“Not bad, just a little bit boring.”A:“How‟s your work?”C:“Good. My boss forgot to take toilet paper so he couldn‟t come out until I came. God, he was so embarrassed and he said thanks. That was the first time he‟d said …thanks‟ to someone, can you believe it?”After the conversation, people continue to eat in pleasant mood. They like easy and quiet atmosphere while eating.In China, people prefer annoying and fun atmosphere during dinner, especially with friends. If the table is too quiet and gentle, they may feel uncomfortable. They tell jokes, gossip others, argue the latest news, etc.Euphemisms in Different Cultures:Euphemism is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. For instance, we refer to "die" as” pass away”.It‟s rude of one to violate a taboo either in language or in culture both Chinese and American cultures.Take the word “old” as an example.In America, people like to be energetic and young. Almost everyone wishes to stay young forever. And being old lay the concept of sick, incompetent and lazy to Americans. So there is no American who prefers to be considered as old, which means useless and a burden to his or her family as well as to the society.In China, we love and respect the old much more than the Americans do. We often leave the seats to the old people in a bus, and it is considered as polite and a good virtue and the elderly people will accept, take it for granted and say “thank you”. But in the U.S., a person will get angry if he was offered a seat on a bus because of he is regarded as old. He thinks he is far from being incapable of taking care of himself, and thus other people‟s offer of seat is an insult to him.Chinese culture respects the old and treats “being old” as a symbol of wisdom, forgiveness, experienced, and kindness. Therefore, old people are respected in the family and in the society. Then the word lao (old) in Chinese are used to modify these people. It is not a taboo, but a respectful addressing word to show esteem to the addressee, such as laoshi (teacher), laoban (boss), laozong (general manager). The addressee is not necessarily old in age and Chinese people merely attempt to show their respect and politeness in this way. Some people refer to their friends in the way of adding “lao” in front of their last names, like “lao Zhang”, “lao Wang”. They express intimacy to the addressee. Sometimes Chinese call foreigners “laowai” just to show our friendliness, not because of their age or appearance. . Misunderstanding responses:Let‟s see the dialogue that follows.A: You‟ve got a nice coat.B: Thank you. My sister bought it for me in Beijing. Do you like it?A: Oh, yes. It looks fine and I appreciate the pretty color.B: Well, if you really like it, I‟ll ask my sister to buy one for you too.The A in the dialogue compliments B‟s coat just to show his or her friendliness and begin a conversation, but B misinterprets A‟s intention as desiring to buy a same coat. As a result, A is embarrassed and the conversation can hardly continue. Chinese rarely use such sente nce pattern as “I like your….” for fear of being misunderstood as admiring the things other possesses. Moreover, it is very common for a man to commend a pretty woman in American culture, but he may offend a Chinese girl by saying, “You are a se xy girl.” She would feel kind of insulted by such a compliment that is barely accepted for her owing to Chinese culture.The function of an apology is to make up for rude words or acts, and it serves as a remedy to recover the harmonious relationship. How to make and accept an apology is a very important part in the pragmatic politeness. When someone says sorry, we should not say “It doesn‟t matter.” in English in response as we do in Chinese. We should say, “That‟s all right”, “That‟s OK.”, or “No problem.” When our work gets compliment from others, we tend to say, “It‟s nothing.” and “You flatter ed me.” or “Never mind.” to show our modesty. But in English, “Never mind.” is used to comfort the interlocutor as a means of showing politeness.Therefore, we should know more about the differences between Chinese and American culture, so that we can try to avoid misunderstandings, which are usually caused by pragmatic mistakes in mutual communication.ConclusionTo conclude, I‟d like to say that pragmatic politeness exists with different manners in different cultures. We need to distinguish the contrary aspects of Chinese and American cultures in order to deal with the awkward situations that related to pragmatic politeness. Only in this way can we avoid misunderstandings in thecross-cultural communication and become a master of words.References:George Yule：Pragmatics 上海外语教育出版社，2000；Gu, Yuehuo：Politeness Phenomenon in Modern Chinese 1990；Leech, G. Principles of Pragmatics 1983；维基百科语料收集：(1) The performative hypothesis:1) Clean up this mess!2)Thereby order you that you clean up this mess.(2) Performative and constative:1)I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.2)I promise to finish it in time.(3) Strategies: Come on go to the party. Everyone will be there. We will have fun.(4) Spatial deixis: I am not here now.Temporal deixis: 1) I live here now. 2)I lived there then.(5) Names and referents 1) Can I borrow your Shakespeare？2) Yeah, it‟s over there on the table.(6)The role of co-text1)The cheese sandwich is made with white bread.2)The cheese sandwich left without paying.(7) The role of co-text:Man: Does your dog bite?Woman: No.(The man reaches down to pet the dog. The dog bites the man‟s hand.) Man: Ouch! Hey! You said your dog doesn‟t bite.Woman: He doesn‟t. But that‟s not my dog.(8) A positive politeness strategy:1) A. How about letting me use your pen?B. Hey, buddy, I‟d appreciate it if you‟d let me use your pen.2)Hi. How‟s it going? Okay if I sit here? We must be interested in the same crazy st aff. You take a lot of notes too, huh? Say,do me a big favor and let me use one of yo ur pen.(9)Regularity :Ifoundan old bicycle lying on the ground. The chain was rusted and the tires were flat.(10) Presupposition:1)A. Mary‟s dog is cure.B. Mary has a dog.B is the presupposition of A2) He stopped smoking.B. He smoked once.B is the presupposition of A。
逻辑语用学 课程论文
硕士研究生课程论文论文标题逻辑语用学探析学院人文学院专业逻辑学班级 2009 级学号 2009020018学生姓名桂卫教师王向东2010-1-13逻辑语用学探析摘要：本文在语用学的基础之上，简要介绍逻辑语用学的定义及研究逻辑语用学的哲学意义。
逻辑语用学不仅扩大了言语行为理论的研究领域，扩充了人们对语言表达意义的理解，而且还揭示出语言中所蕴含的理性——交往理性，进而拓展了生活世界理论研究的内容。
关键词：语用学、逻辑语用学、言语行为一：语用学简介语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的前当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确定使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解地基本原则和准则。
语用学于20世纪70年代于西方诞生，其是从研究符号与符号解释者的关系发展到不仅研究如何使用语言，还特别注重研究如何理解语言，研究如何从字面意义去理解其中的蕴含意义，成为一门新兴的认知学科。
语用学从说话人和听话人的角度，把人们使用语言的行为看作各种规约制约的社会行为，研究特定情景中的特定话语，从而发现语用规律。
它不是从语言系统内部(语音、语法、语义)去研究语言本身表达的意义，而是根据语境研究话语的真正含义，解释言下之意、弦外之音。
其研究的主要内容包括：语境、指示词语、会话含义、预设、言语行为、会话结构六个方面。
语用学研究语言的应用和理解，重在理解，重在语言的使用时，很注意语言的策略和场合要求向对方做出顺应，而在研究理解时十分注意交际的认知关系。
但在整个交际活动过程中，语用学既研究编码，也研究解码过程，更侧重于研究在不同的语言环境中如何理解和运用语言。
语用学的研究方法可分为三种不同的类型：①纯语用学：也叫形式语用学，是语言哲学领域的重要研究内容之一，他研究语用学的形式和范畴，是研究语用学形式化的最适宜方法。
②描写语用学：致力于描写人的来自经验的有关自然语言的运用原则，分析自然语言怎样跟语境相联系，关注人们为达到特定的交际意图在一定的语境中恰当地使用语言和准确地理解话语的语用能力。
语用预设研究论文语用学论文的角度
语用预设研究论文语用学论文的角度一、语用预设三、语用预设在话语交际中的作用1.改变、否定语义预设。
语用预设不仅比语义预设更灵活，而且能进一步改变甚至否定语义预设。
如：（1）Policeman：WheredidyouputthemotorbikeSupect：Ididnottealanymotorbikeatall.警察的问话里有一个语义预设“Yougotthemotorbike.”（你手头有这辆车），在审讯语境下，这无疑意味着嫌疑人“偷”了这辆车，这是警察故意设置的语用预设，目的是诱使嫌疑人承认并说出其所在，只是对方察觉到了这一用心，直截了当地推翻了这一语用预设——“我根本就没偷过车”。
既然没偷，当然不知其所在了。
因此，语用预设在特定的场合中可改变语义预设所含的意思。
语用预设涉及说话人的态度和意图（何自然，1998），说话人完全可以按照自己的意图巧妙地预设不利于对方的事态，再加上预设的隐蔽性，听话人不易识别说话人的别有用心，一不小心就会陷入其设好的圈套。
听话人要识破对方的意图，则要透过其语义层面的普通预设来把握其真正的语用预设。
语境中的语言因素和语境中的非语言因素都可导致语义预设的改变或否定。
预设对语境因素的这种敏感性表明了其语用性质（何兆熊，2000：297），因此很难把它作为一种纯粹的语义关系来研究，必然要从语用的角度来分析。
2.消除语句歧义。
许多语句从单纯的语义学角度看往往不止一种解释，存在语义歧义，但在一定的语境中，交际双方拥有共同的相关背景知识，往往不需要额外的解释就能使意思唯一确定，说话人对共享的语境知识的预设简化了交际言语，而交际对方完全能理解说话人的“不言而喻”。
如：（2）Thetallmanandthewomanleft.从语义角度看，这是一个歧义句，tall只修饰man呢还是修饰两者man和woman？事实上双方都明白当时在场的只有man是高个子，因此不可能产生理解上的歧义，也就不需要刻意的解释和说明了。
英语语用学学科论文
连云港师范高等专科学校英语语用学学科论文班级：12英教专科一班姓名：余王丹学号：1221013125摘要：本文主要从语用学的角度对语言交际中的礼貌现象进行了研讨，以旨更全面地展示语用礼貌观。
本文共分四部分：一、礼原则的由来；二、礼貌原则的解析；三、礼貌策略；四、礼貌原则的应用。
加深对礼貌原则的理解可以有助于提升自身的语用能力。
关键词：语用学礼貌原则教学应用一、礼貌原则的由来(一)礼貌的界定在众多关于礼貌的各种文献中，围绕“礼貌”一词进行的研究主要有五个方面，具体如下：(1)礼貌是人们在交际中的一种现实目的(Politeness as areal-world goa1)。
人们在说话过程中运用礼貌原则的目的就是取悦他人。
(2)礼貌是一种敬重(Politeness as the deference)。
(3)礼貌是一种语体(Politeness as the register)。
语体是指“与社交语境有关的系统化变体”(Lyons，1977)。
或者指在一定场合下人们说话或写作时的语言变化(Holliday，1978)。
(4)礼貌是一种话语表层现象(Politeness as an utterancelevel phenomenon)。
该观点认为，礼貌是一种表层语法编码，该观点主要是离开语言运用的实际环境去研究礼貌问题。
(5)礼貌是一种语用现象(Politeness as a pragmatic phi—nominee)。
该观点在语用学界已经成为人们的一种共识。
总之．在语用学领域，人们关心的不是说话人是否真正对他人友善，而是他说了什么，以及他的话语对听话人产生了什么影响。
把礼貌看成敬重、语体，是一种社会语言学现象，不属于语用学的范围，而把礼貌看成一种话语表层现象，就是脱离了语境去谈礼貌，这是一种超理想化的理论，因为语言形式是和语境、说话人和听话人之间的关系紧密联系的。
（二）礼貌原则提出的必要性在英语语用学习领域中，提及言语行为理论(Speech Act Theory)．人们会很自然地联想到美国语言哲学家格赖斯(H．P．Grieve)的会话含义学说(Convocational Implicate)，即为了保证会话的顺利进行，谈话双方必须共同遵守一些基本原则，尤其是用来解释会话结构的“合作原则”(Cooperative Principle)。
语文教学实践中语用学(3篇)
第1篇摘要：语用学作为现代语言学的一个重要分支，关注语言在实际使用中的意义和功能。
在语文教学中，将语用学理论应用于实践，有助于提高学生的语言运用能力，培养他们的语文素养。
本文将从语用学的角度出发，探讨语文教学中的实践应用，以期为语文教育工作者提供一定的参考。
一、引言语用学，又称语用论，是研究语言在实际使用中的意义和功能的学科。
语用学强调语言与语境、语言与交际者、语言与目的之间的关系，关注语言在具体语境中的实际运用。
在语文教学中，将语用学理论应用于实践，有助于提高学生的语言运用能力，培养他们的语文素养。
本文将从以下几个方面探讨语文教学实践中语用学的应用。
二、语用学在语文教学实践中的应用1. 语境教学语境教学是语用学在语文教学中的重要应用之一。
语境包括语言语境、情境语境和文化语境。
在语文教学中，教师应关注语境的创设，引导学生理解和运用语言。
（1）语言语境教学：教师在教学中，要注重语言环境的设计，让学生在具体的语言环境中感受和体验语言。
例如，在教学《草原》一课时，教师可以创设草原风光的图片、音乐等情境，让学生在直观感受中理解草原的美丽。
（2）情境语境教学：情境语境是指语言在实际使用中的具体情境。
教师在教学中，要关注情境的创设，让学生在具体情境中运用语言。
例如，在教学《我的老师》一课时，教师可以组织学生进行角色扮演，让学生在模拟情境中体会老师的关爱。
（3）文化语境教学：文化语境是指语言使用背后的文化背景。
教师在教学中，要关注文化背景的介绍，让学生了解语言背后的文化内涵。
例如，在教学《背影》一课时，教师可以介绍朱自清所处的时代背景，让学生更好地理解文章的意义。
2. 交际教学交际教学是语用学的另一个重要应用。
在语文教学中，教师应注重培养学生的交际能力，让他们在实际交际中运用语言。
（1）口语交际教学：教师在教学中，要关注口语交际能力的培养，让学生在日常生活中学会运用语言。
例如，在教学《自报家门》一课时，教师可以组织学生进行口语交际活动，让他们在交流中提高口语表达能力。
语际语用学发展论文
浅谈语际语用学的发展与研究摘要：语际语用学研究是一个新兴的领域，是以语用学理论为基础的二语习得理论和跨文化语用学发展的交叉学科，是语际语言的语用学研究。
语际语是外语学习者在学习过程中产生的一种介于母语与目的语之间的过渡性语言形式。
通过认识和了解语际语用学，有助于二语习得者最终掌握第二语言。
关键词：语际语用学；二语习得；语言学习中图分类号：h08 文献标志码：a 文章编号：1002-2589（2012）35-0188-03语际语用学（interlanguage pragmatics）作为一门较为新兴的交叉性学科的语用学研究基础，是第二语言习得研究的重要组成部分。
是selinker20世纪80年代初最早提出的，到了80年代末，越来越多的人开始对它感兴趣。
它是从语用学和第二语言习得的角度研究语用能力的——学生语际语言中的语用现象和特征，以及这些现象和特征的形成和发展规律的学科。
是关于人们使用第二语言时的具体语用行为同他们的母语或第二语言的关系的研究，它不仅仅是帮助学习者掌握语法和词汇等语言知识，更重要的是帮助人们如何在交际中得体地运用语言知识，提高语用能力。
语际语用学作为第二语言习得研究的一个领域，涉及社会语言学、心理语言学和语言应用的种种问题。
它着重探讨人们在特定的语境下如何实施第二语言的语言行为和如何理解这些行为（何自然）。
本文讨论了语际语用学的理论，并拟就语际语用学产生的背景和定义、语际语用的主要特征、研究状况、研究内容发展趋势做初步的阐述。
一、语际语用学定义及其产生的背景自从语际语用学理论产生以来，越来越多的语言学家开始从语用学角度研究二语习得和外语学习，并且不断扩大其研究领域。
进入21世纪以来，过渡语语用学家们更多地关注语用能力的发展问题及其和二语/外语教学的关系。
1.语际语用学的界定语际语用学（interlanguage pragmatics），也称之为中介语语用学（姜占好，2003），是指对语际语言的语用学研究，即对人们使用第二语言时的具体语用行为的研究。
语言学论文-语用学
语言学论文-语用学Comparison between Chinese and EnglishIdiomsAbstract: Idioms exist in both Chinese and English, and they have been used frequently for a long time. Furthermore, idioms are fixed phrases extracted from language over long time of usage. Although they are formed in short phrases, for example idioms known as “成语” in Chinese, which has only four or eight letters, their meanings are exuberant and connotative. Therefore, the analysis of the idiom’s usage and the cultural differences it reflects is significant to every language learner and translator.Key words: idiom; culture;comparison; differences1 Theoretical Foundation of the Idiom1.1 Definitions of Chinese IdiomsAccording to “Modern Chinese Dictionary”, “Cheng yu”is fixed phrases or short sentences which are concise, having been accepted by common people through years of usage.According to “Cihai”, “Shuyu”(Idiom) is fixed phrases or sentences of a language, which cannot be modified arbitrarily. It must be interpreted as a semantic unit. It includes set phrases, proverbs, maxims, locutions and two-part allegorical sayings, etc.1.2 Definitions of English Idioms“Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture”has two definitions of idiom: (1) a phrase which means something different from the meaning of the separate words from which it is formed; (2) the way of expression typical of a person or a group in their use of language (Summers P., 1998: 657).“Th e New Oxford English Dictionary”defines that idiom is:(1) a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; (2) a form of expression natural to a language, person, or a group of people (Pearsall J, 2001:908).1.3 The Rhetoric of IdiomsIdiom is the distillate of the nation language abstracted bypeople during a long practice. There are three main features of idiom rhetoric: abundant comparisons, vivid words and lively contrasts.First, simile is a direct comparison, in which subject, reference and indicator of resemblance are all present. Such as the Chinese idiom “轻如鸿毛” and the English idiom “as light as a feather”.Second, metaphor—use of a word or phrase to indicate something different from the literal meaning. For example, the Chinese idiom “口若悬河”，it doesn’t mean the river hang on the mouth, but means someone who speaks eloquently and volubly.Third, metonymy—means correspondence or partial similarity between two things that are compared. For instance, “犬马之劳”means to sever somebody faithfully like the dog or the horse. “be in the pipeline”means that if a plan is in the pipeline, it is being developed and will happen in the future.Fourth, analogy is to compare two things or people so that differences are made clear. “口蜜腹剑”literally means someone is honey-mouthed but dagger-hearted. That is to say the person is treacherous and hypocritical. “To bite the hand that feeds one”also uses the contrast. It means to treat someone badly who has helped you in some way.F ifth, exaggeration such as “垂涎三尺” exaggerated means a drool with great envy. “A stream of tears”means someone is really heart-broken.is revealed, like the denotative meaning of words, especially for those culturally-loaded words like idioms. Idioms have a close relationship with the culture to which it is attached that they truly reflect the values and philosophy of life of the people in that culture and are rich in cultural connotations.Comprehension of the Exotic IdiomsThere are some exotic idioms in the Chinese idioms. Such as “以眼还眼”comes from the English idiom “an eye for an eye”. This idiom which comes from the Bible means that if someone does something wrong, they should be punished by having the same thing done to them. And another Chinese idiom “诺亚方舟”, “Noah’s ark” also comes from the Bible.The English idiom “An Achilles’heel” means a small fault in a person or system which might cause them to fail. This idiom is from Greek mythology. Achilles was a man who was killed when he was injured on his heel, because this was the only part of his body where he could be harmed.Therefore, idioms can be an effective tool of learning culture. And learning culture items like idioms can be one of the good examples to learn both language and culture simultaneously. Learning idioms can also make us learn more about the knowledge of cultural background.2 Compare Chinese Idioms with English Idioms2.1 Similarities between Chinese and English IdiomsAs human civilization has developed in a similar way, both English and Chinese idioms are similar in basic moral concepts and value viewpoint, which has formed a common base for both cultures. Their similarities are as follows: First, in both English and Chinese we have alike idioms to express the hard-working, brave and indomitable human nature and the good will and forgiveness. Also there are many idioms in both languages to praise the pi oneering spirit. For example, “既往不咎, Let bygones be bygones”, “心安理得, Have peace of mind”, “有志者，事竟成, Where there is a will, there is a way”, “有始有终, From beginning to end”, etc. Second, those idioms in both English and Chinese to expr ess verities are same. Such as “眼见为实, Seeing is Believing”,etc. Third, the same imagination in both English and Chinese has the same comparison in the idiom. For instance, “轻如鸿毛, As light as a feather”, “冰清玉洁, Be as clear as crystal”, etc.The above similarities are essential to the intercultural communication. Different cultures may conflict in many aspects, but must agree on basic morals and value points. Only by agreeing on basic morals and value points, can cultural conflicts be limited in a tolerable level and intercultural communication carried out.2.2 Differences between Chinese and English Idioms2.2.1 Differences in Animal-related IdiomsAnimals are friends of human. They have so many links withhuman beings and human languages. Before the arrival of modern civilization, sometimes even today, the basic necessities in human life such as food, clothing and transportation and so on are obtained directly or indirectly from various animals. Among all kinds of animals, dogs are particularly valuable in protecting property, finding things and hunting quarries. Pigeons have long been used to deliver messages. Of course, some animals can also do harmful things to human beings, such as wolf, mice, etc., but no matter what they do, whether good or bad, animals are closely related with the daily life of human beings including everyday speech and animal-related idioms are come into being.Dog in most of the English idiom symbolizes the lay folk as “guy”. There is no d erogatory sense in it, such as “a lucky dog 幸运儿”, “love me, love my dog 爱屋及乌”, “help a lame dog over a stile 助人渡过难关”, etc. Of course, there is a little derogatory sense of dog used in idioms to describe the useless, woeful thing. For example, “ a dog in the manager 占着位子不做实事”, “ lead a dog’s life 过着可悲的生活”, etc. On the contrary, in Chinese idiom dog is used to describe beggarliness. Therefore, most of the dog related Chinese idiom is derogatory, like “狗急跳墙—a cornered be ast will do something desperate”, “狗尾续貂—a wretched seq uel to a fine work, incongruous”, “蝇营狗苟—shamelessly seek personal gain”, and others like “狗血喷头，狗仗人势，狗咬狗” etc.Differences in Color-related IdiomsThere are many idioms related to color both in Chinese and English, such as black (黑) and white (白); Black actually is the complete absorption of all light, while white is opposite to black. Therefore, in idioms Black and White also stand on two extreme points. As the original meaning of the black and white, they have the same expression in both Chinese and English idioms, such as “black and white 黑白分明”, “in black and white 白纸黑字”, “turn black into white 颠倒黑白”, etc. But there are some differences in their transferred meaning.In English idiom, black is used to describe atrocity, death and ominous thing, l ike “black sheep 害群之马”, “a black day 不吉利的日子”, etc. But sometime black also has a commendatory usage, such as “a business in the black 盈利的事业”. White in English idiom means chastity, integrity and elegance, for instance “a white lie 善意的谎言”, “the white day 良辰吉日”, and they have the “ white wedding”.In Chinese idiom, black is only used to describe incorrect, bad and criminal thing, for example, “心黑手狠—heartless and cruel”, etc. White in Chinese idiom is unlike its using in English idiom. It represents dreariness, poor and bereavement, for example, “白手起家—start something from scratch”, “一穷二白—poor and blank”, “红白喜事—wedding and bereavement”, etc.(潘红, 2005:209)Differences in Numeral-related IdiomsNumber, as an important part of language, is embodied withdifferent cultural background. Idioms with numbers are the central core and cream of languages, reflecting the wisdom of human kind. They have strong ethnical, historical and regional colors, reflecting the culture difference of different nationalities.To analysis numbers in both Chinese and English idioms, I find that the substantive meaning of number in both Chinese and English idioms is same. For example, “一心一意—whole-heartedly”, “one thing leads to another—一环扣一环”. Furthermore, in English idioms most of the numbers, except the number three and seven, are used as a substantive. It’s the biggest difference between Chinese and English numeral-related idiom. Because expect the substantive meaning of numbers in Chinese idiom, there are many abstractive meaning of numbers used in Chinese. First, the abstractive meaning of number in Chinese always expresses “more”or “less”. For example, one, half and “寸” are used to express “less”, like “一无所长—have no special skill”, “手无寸铁—unarmed”, etc. While three, five, six and nine are used to express “more”, nothing to say hundred and thousand, such as “三头六臂，三令五申，成百上千”, etc. Second, the numb er ten and one sometimes means “whole or all”, such as “十全十美—be perfect in every way”, “一如既往—just as in the past”. Third, two numbers in the same idiom usually express a transformation or a proportion, such as “三长两短—unforeseen accidents”, “十拿九稳—be very sure of success”, “百无一是—have no merits at all”. Fourth, some idioms arecustomarily be used, such as “一退六二五—deny all responsibility”and “不管三七二十一—regardless of the consequences”.(吕叔湘, 2002: 198) They are come from the custom of the counting frame which we used in ancient for counting numbers.In summary, from what is discussed above, we know that numbers play important roles in human cultures. They have strong connotations in both English and Chinese cultures.2.2.4 Differences in Mythology-related IdiomsThere are numerous idioms related to myths in English and Chinese. In English idioms, idioms of mythical origins are mainly from Greek and Roman mythology, which originating from their worship of the nature by Greek and Roman ancestors. Similarly, in Chinese idioms, mythology is generally of Chinese origin. These idioms reflect the formation of Chinese Culture in the primitive stage. They show a full scope of primitive recognition of the world.Take “dragon 龙”for example, dragon is a frequenter in both Chinese and English Myths, so there are many mythical idioms related to dragon. However, the associated meaning of dragon and 龙are opposite. In English, dragon connotes “a terrible fire-breathing monster”or “a giant that eats man”. According the famous legend “Beowulf”, a dragon that had three heads and could breathe fire guarded treasure for the “devils”. So dragon is always associated with devil. In the medieval times,“dragon”was associated with “sin”and it was the symbol of “heresy”. Nowadays, there is the idiom “chase the dragon—means take drugs”, so we can see how evil the dragon is in the westerners’ view.The opposite associated meaning of dragon in Chinese is always a commendatory. First, we see dragon is the totem of the Chinese people. We call ourselves the descendants of dragon proudly, such as “龙的传人”and “龙子龙孙”. Second, dragon in Chinese is associated with “emperor”, because emperors always name themselves as “真龙天子—the god’s son not the devil’s”. Third, dragon is associat e with “talent”, such as the id iom “龙生龙子，虎生豹儿—means talented perso n’s descen dants must be prominent”. Fourth, dragon is also associated with "good luck and success", such as “龙凤呈祥—means good luck”, and “望子成龙—means people hope their children can get success”, etc.3: ConclusionThrough the comparison between Chinese and English Idioms, their differences and similarities are obvious. This is meaningful and helpful for every language learners and users.References:[1] Alfred Lord Tennyson. Poems [M].Cambridge Press.2001.[2] Nida nguage,culture and translation [M].ShanghaiForeign Language Education Press,2000.[3]Pearsall J. The New Oxford English Dictionary [M].Oxford University Press,2001.[4] Summers P. Longman Dictionary of English Language andCulture[M].Longman Press,1998.[5] 辞海编辑委员会.辞海[M].北京:商务印书馆,1989.[6] 胡文仲.英美文化辞典[M].上海:外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.[7] 李娅玲.英语成语中色彩词汇的文化特征[J].怀化师专学报,1999(12).[8] 吕叔湘.现代汉语大辞典[M].北京:商务印书馆,2002.[9] 潘红.英汉国俗词语例话[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2005.。
语用学论文 Pragmatic Vagueness in Verbal Communication
Pragmatic Vagueness in Verbal CommunicationAbstract:Pragmatic vagueness is a common phenomenon in verbal communication. Combined with the existing achievements, the thesis attempts to analyze the phenomenon of pragmatic vagueness, pragmatic vagueness as a strategy in verbal communication and its pragmatic functions in verbal communication from the perspectives of cognitive pragmatics and sociolinguistics, in English examples, in order to prove the necessity of pragmatic vagueness as a communicative strategy. That is, for its pragmatic functions, the communicators make widely use of pragmatic vagueness in order to realize their communicative intentions and achieve successful communication.Key words: pragmatic vagueness, pragmatic functions ,strategyⅠ. IntroductionAs the research on pragmatics is deepened, many scholars conducted research on pragmatic vagueness. Pragmatic vagueness is an important pragmatic strategy. The research on pragmatic vagueness in verbal language is intriguing, realistic and useful. Verbal language is not only useful for its parishioners but also for English learners.In daily communication, people sometimes use precise language to express their ideas, but more often people prefer to use vague language to convey information. Vagueness is completely intrinsic in human language and the frequent use of hedges just fully testifies this inborn nature of language. The use of hedges is a common phenomenon in language communication. Therefore, the appropriate use of hedges in interaction can enhance the expressive force and communicative effect of language, making the expressions more natural, decent, polite, flexible, and effective. Moreover, the right use of hedg es can send people’s emotion and ideas more properly thereby helps to maintain a good interpersonal relationship between the two parties in communication and achieve the communicative goal successfully.Ⅱ. Pragmatic VaguenessCommunication falls into three categories in terms of conversational analysis: literal talk, loose talk and metaphorical talk. Indeed, most people’s conversation in daily life is loose in verbal communication, to some extent, carrying approximation,fuzziness, generality, ambiguity, ambivalence. In addition, daily conversation usually carries connotative expression such as metaphor, meiosis, irony and hyperbole. (He Ziran, 2000:8) The peripherical meaning or range error manifested in pragmatics is called generality or vagueness. (He Ziran, 1990:8) From what these scholars discussed above, we know that pragmatic vagueness in communication is very important.(a)Being a strategy of communication, pragmatic vagueness relies on various linguistic structures to realize its functions. Thus, the addressor needs to manipulate her language so as to choose a proper linguistic structure which can carry out her strategy. Through careful observation of the data, we generalize three ways of linguistic manipulation involved in the strategy of pragmatic vagueness, namely, enhancing the context-dependency of the utterance, broadening the interpretative range of the utterance, widening the distance between the idea and its way of expression. Furthermore, some specific linguistic devices are included in each category. Thus, the variability of pragmatic vagueness is demonstrated through its ways of linguistic manipulation.Ⅲ.Pragmatic Vagueness as a Strategy in Verbal CommunicationAs we all know, verbal communicative activities requires linguistic technique and diction of words. Due to different ideology and value, there are always different views on the same issue which is a common phenomenon. Therefore, verbal language is a vital strategy to achieve success in communicative activities.Vagueness is a traditionally focused topic of the study of epistemic theory as well as semantic theory about which there have appeared a large quantity of articles, and among which semantic factors are highly involved and consequently cognitive factors are seldom taken into account. Couched within Sperber and Wilson’s (1986/1995) Relevance Theory, the thesis makes the claim that pragmatic vagueness is a linguistic choice and a communicative strategy chosen by interlocutors to achieve optimal relevance.(b) The author, based on the relevant discussions on vagueness at home and abroad in recent years, makes a systematic analysis of pragmatic vagueness in the new light of cognitive pragmatics with passing comments on the limitations of the explanations provided by epistemic theory,semantic theory, speech act theory and Co-operative Principle. Linguistic devices at different levels such as phonology, lexicon, rhetoric and speech act work as pragmatic vagueness triggers to facilitate the search for optimal relevance. The conclusion is that pragmatic vagueness conforms to the Principle of Relevance in that it can achieve the greatest cognitive effects with the least processing efforts. The communicative functions of pragmatic vagueness include giving right amount of information, expressing the addresser’s propositional attitude, manipulating the focus of the addressee’s attention and achieving humorous and polite effects. Appropriate use of pragmatic vagueness as a communicative strategy is of positive significance to the development of learners’pragmatic competence and the avoidance of pragmatic failure.IV. Communicative functions of vaguenessLanguage is for communication, whereas vagueness may lead to better communication. Using vagueness can avoid being presumptuous in language communication. When we have to touch some topics that are unpleasant, we tend to choose more vagueness expressions to refer to those painful topics so as not to hurt the hearer’s fee ling. We can find the theoretical foundation for this motivation in Leech’s Politeness Principle. Vagueness just minimize the impoliteness and maximize the politeness in communication. The functions of vagueness are in agreement with those of Politeness Principle too, as they both offer more benefit to the hearer and leave more cost to the speaker, with the purpose that both of the two sides will feel respected and have favorable impression of each other. As politeness is usually regarded as the manifestation of human civilization, euphemism is one of the most effective strategies to display politeness while modulating interpersonal relationship in human communication.SubstitutionAccording to the definitions of vagueness and we know that a great number of English vagueness serve as the substitutions for verbal taboos. The term taboo ( ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”) of Polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden.(c) Taboo refers to the situation in which a word or name can be used in a community only under special conditions, whether only by certain persons or only in certain circumstances. Just as violating a cultural taboo can be quite offensive, so is it with a verbal taboo in pressc onferences. The “word” has been and continues to be in most societies perceived as a powerful instrument that may evoke evil spirits, make bad things happen and instigate to violence and revolution and numerous other activities. While taboo of words occurs when a particular topic is considered valid for discussion, vagueness expression or terms are required. Diplomatic vagueness has a very serious reason for being. They can conceal the things people fear most —death, the dead or the supernatural. Euphemisms can also eliminate unhappiness, embarrassment and fear etc. so as to relieve people psychologically.PolitenessPoliteness is another very important function that vagueness serve in social life. “Some of the vagueness is used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation”. (d) Grice formulated Cooperative Principle of utterance in which the Maxim of Manner was defined as “Be perspicuous and specific; To avoid obscurity; To avoid ambiguity; To be brief and to be order ly.”(e)The roundabout nature of vagueness goes against the Maxim of Manner, which can only be fairly explained well by Leech’s Politeness Principle “Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other”. (f) In other words, euphemisms are to minimize impolite expressions and maximize polite expressions.DisguiseBesides the two functions of vagueness mentioned above, there is still another one more important function at work in vagueness communication, namely, the Disguise Function. Here we mean that because of the vagueness of, vagueness it has become a very important tool for political leaders or the diplomats or statesmen to distort the facts or and present a false picture of peace and prosperity and to beautify whatever the authority have do ne. For example, in the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military invasion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc.(g) and we may find many such kind of these vagueness in press conferences. The most important and ultimate function or purpose of the use of diplomatic vagueness in press conferences is to disguise or beautify their invasive essence or other evil actions or the separation of words from truth. In American and British societies nowadays, diplomatic vagueness are always purposely devised to disguise scandals in wars and politics, deliberately invented to beautify lowly occupations and excessively inflated to promote sales in advertisement.V. ConclusionAs we stated earlier, vagueness is one of the important and universal linguistic phenomena. Due to the special characteristics like substitution, indirectness etc. it is becoming one of the main communicative approaches. The thesis has attempted to study the vagueness expressions used in the question-answer patterns from the perspective of pragmatics.The article is an overview of the functions and communicative functions of vagueness, and from the pragmatic analysis of the materials, it can be seen clearly that the use of vagueness basically violate the Quality Maxim, the Quantity Maxim, and the Manner Maxim of the Cooperative Principle and the frequency of violating the Quality Maxim is the highest among the three ones. That is to say, the vagueness used in the question-answer patterns generally does not violate the Relation Maxim of the Cooperative Principle.There is an old saying in English: Necessity is the mother of invention. The creation of vagueness also cannot depart from people’s needs of them. People need vagueness for social communication, to vagueness the taboo, to show their politeness and to disguise. As a sociolinguistic phenomenon, the formation of vagueness is the result of the combination of various social psychological factors and pragmatic factors.Studies on vagueness from a pragmatic perspective reveal how vagueness flout the Cooperative Principle so as to obey the Politeness Principle in communication and how factors from their socio cultural and communicational context influence their application in communication. Any change of one or more factors of a communication event, will have an effect on our decision of whether to use vagueness. The expressive vagueness plays a non-fungible role in communication. It is vagueness that makes language more powerful, magical and pleasant. People’s speech does reflect their background, their activities, and the values they hold, therefore, we can learn much about the English people by looking at their use of vagueness. The studies on English vagueness can not only help to develop intercultural communicative competence, but also enlighten English language learning and teaching. Therefore, multidisciplinary, multi-angle, and multi-level studies on vagueness are necessary for English learners to understand the English history and society and communicate with native English speakers better. There are still a lot in this field waiting to be explored, and vagueness deserve more attention and comprehensive studies.References:1.Brown, P and Levinson,S.1978. “Universals in language Usage: Politeness Phenomena”. In Goody, E, N. (ed.): Questions and Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 56-310.2.Channell, J. 1994 Vague Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.3.Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.4.Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In Cole, P＆Morgan, J, L, (eds,) Syntax and Semantics, V ol, 3: Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press.5.Hubler, A. 1983. Understatements and Hedges in English. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA:John Benjamins. /koff, G. 1972. “Hedges: A Stu dy in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts”. Papers from the Eighth Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society 1972. 183—228 Reprinted in: Journal of Philosophical Logic. 1973.4: 2.458—508.Corpus(a) Daily conversation usually carries connotative expression such as metaphor, meiosis, irony and hyperbole. (He Ziran, 2000:8) The peripherical meaning or range error manifested in pragmatics is called generality or vagueness. (He Ziran, 1990:8) (b) Cou ched within Sperber and Wilson’s (1986/1995) Relevance Theory, the thesis makes the claim that pragmatic vagueness is a linguistic choice and a communicative strategy chosen by interlocutors to achieve optimal relevance.(c) The term taboo ( ta meaning “mark”, boo meaning “exceedingly”) of Polynesian origin denotes anything linguistic and nonlinguistic, which is prohibited or forbidden.(d)Some of the vagueness is used to avoid crudeness and indecency for the sake of a polite conversation.(e) Be perspicuous and specific; To avoid obscurity; To avoid ambiguity; To be brief and to be orderly.(f) Approbation Maxim: minimize dispraise of other, maximize praise of other.(g) I n the Iraq War, they use “Operation Iraqi Freedom” for beautifying their military inva sion, “possible movement” refers to military attack, “air operation” or “air strikes” for air attack, “enter the war” to show their reluctance to fight the war etc.。
语用学翻译研究概略论文
语用学翻译研究概略论文语用学翻译研究概略论文论文摘要：语用学翻译研究思想源于20世纪九十年代，经过近二十年的蓬勃发展，在国内和国外都形成了一定的规模。
文章从陈述语用学翻译研究的发展历程入手，首先追溯了语用学翻译研究的起源，并对其发展现状进行了总结，继而探讨了将语用学与翻译研究进行交叉的可能性和可行之路，最后指出了语用学翻译研究的发展方向。
研究发现，语用学与翻译研究有着广阔的交叉面，因此语用学翻译研究必将有宽广的发展前途；按照分相论和综观论的框架构建自己的学科体系，能够作为其发展的可借鉴之路；最后，研究指出：语用学翻译研究未来的发展重心在于理论体系的构建、重大理论的创立、研究领域的拓展和研究重心的转移上。
论文关键词：语用学翻译研究,发展历程,分相论,综观论,发展方向翻译是一种语际间的交际活动，对于这一活动进行研究的翻译学具有跨语言、跨文化和跨学科研究等主要特征。
因此，从多学科和跨文化的角度对翻译学进行研究已成为当前国际学术界的一个趋向。
语用学翻译研究则是被一发展趋势催生出来的一个关于翻译学研究的新范式。
1.语用学翻译研究发展历程一览1.1语用学翻译研究的由来最早用语用学来研究翻译的学者及其论著有Hatim和Mason的DiscourseandtheTranslator(1990)以及Gutt的两本著作：TranslationandRelevance:CognitionandContext(1992年第一版)；RelevanceTheory:AGuidetoSuccessfulCommunicationinTranslati on(1992)。
Hatim和Mason在DiscourseandtheTranslator(1990)一书中所提到的中心思想是:语篇作为“一整套相互关联的功能”，是“为了对某一特定环境作出反映，并因此达到一个整体的修辞目的”;而Gutt在TranslationandRelevance:CognitionandContext中明确提出了关联论翻译观，由于这一理论对于翻译交际有着较强的解释力，因此自其提出起至今在国内外翻译界的影响较大。
语用学论文
语用学作业修辞中的反语“修辞”一语通常有两种含义：一是指修辞现象本身，一是指修辞学。
作为修辞现象，如上所述，它是一种伴随语言运用活动的客观存在。
作为修辞学，它是关于修辞现象的学问，是对于修辞这种客观对象的主观认识。
反语是一种修辞格，用以表达说话人的某种主观情态意义：讥讽、蔑视、不赞、戏谑、愤怒、威胁等等。
汉语修辞学对反语的解释一般为：借助语言环境，运用与说话人本意相反的词语或句子来表达本意。
一般而言，反语有表里两层意义，表面上一层是词语本身固有的，而骨里的一层是由它的特定上下文所赋予的，而作者或说话人真正的表达意图就在骨子里这层意义上。
因此反语常被用于讽刺和自嘲，它是一种富有幽默感或精妙的挖苦或自嘲的表达方式。
适当地将其运用于文学作品或日常会话中可以因其独特的艺术魅力使语言变得更为深刻，富有感染力。
关于反语的分类有多种不同的标准。
常见的有按意义分类：即反意正说，正意反说；有按功能分类：即褒贬反语、讽刺反语、趣味反语、亲热反语和强调反语；按语言形式分类：有词语反语、情景反语和引语辞反语等等。
不同的分类标准自然各有侧重，各有所长。
下面我们就按意义分类探究下反语的作用。
(一)反意正说，即以褒代贬的反语。
例（1）：张三的确是个好朋友。
如果说话者被自己的朋友张三出卖而说出这样的话，这句话就明显可以看出事不与事实相符的，说话者想要表达的真实命题其实是与话语相反的：“张三实际上不是好朋友。
”因此，听者必须顺话反听或反话顺听才能理解言者的真实交际意图。
例（2）：妈妈叫儿子去把自己烂糟糟的房子收拾好，但儿子一直沉浸在连环画中没理会。
过了一会，妈妈发现儿子的房子还是老样子，有些生气地对儿子说：“这房间真是干净极了！”很显然，妈妈的话语使用了反语，因为她说的与真实的情况相矛盾，她当然不会认为自己的真正意思就是她所说的字面含义。
按照这个逻辑，如果一句话的直义是真实的，它就不是反语；反之，如果直义与事实相悖，它就是反语。
国内语用学研究综述论文
国内语用学研究综述论文摘要：语用学研究在中国历经20多年的发展，从最初对西方语用学理论的简单引进、介绍到结合汉语实际开展理论和应用的研究，取得了一定的成果。
本文首先回顾了语用学在西方的发展历史，然后指出了当代语用学研究的两大流派，最后展望了语用学在宏观层面的发展趋势。
关键词：语用学；历史；现状；流派；趋势语用学产生于上世纪30年代，但是直到70年代才把它看作一门学科。
语用学把语言、现实和人类自身联系起来，展示出强大的生命力。
现在，语用学已成为语言研究的一个重心，是语言科学中一个富有生气的领域。
一、语用学在西方的发展历史语用学渊源于哲学家对语言的探索。
上世纪30年代，美国逻辑学家莫里斯（CharlesW。
Morris）在《符号学理论基础》一书中，提出了符号学三分说：句法学、语义学和语用学。
从50年代初至60年代末，语用学领域的探索有了突破性进展，这一时期语用学研究的成就应归功于另三位哲学家的理论建树。
他们是英国哲学家奥斯汀和美国分析学家赛尔、格莱斯。
奥斯汀“不满意语言哲学对所指、意义、陈述的真实和谬误的传统研究”（Leech，1981：321），首先提出了言语行为理论，向逻辑实证主义提出了挑战。
70年代后，在研究了奥斯汀的间接施为句基础上，他又提出了间接言语行为（indirect speech acts）——话语的形式不直接反映出这句话的交际意图。
赛尔甚至提出“语言理论是行为理论的一部分”。
现在言语行为理论已成为语用学研究的重要内容之一。
进入70年代，语用学异军突起，成为语言学的一门独立学科。
1970年在波士顿召开的《自然语言的语用学》国际学术研讨会标志着语用学研究时代的开始，成为其蓬勃发展的契机。
1977年，《语用学杂志》在荷兰正式出版发行，标志着语用学作为一门新兴学科已得到承认，确立了它在语言学研究中的地位。
这个时期的研究表现出下面几个特点：（1）人们从各种观点（哲学、心理学、社会学、人类文化学等）、各个方面（指示语、会话含意、言语行为等），围绕语言使用的各方面问题进行研究，形成了多元化的研究趋势；（2）语用学吸引了众多语言学家的兴趣，形成了一支庞大的研究队伍，冲破了哲学家的一统天下，已成为语言学研究的一个中心领域。
研究论文：语用学中语境理论与中学语文教学
69735 学科教育论文语用学中语境理论与中学语文教学一、语用学介绍（一）语用学概念。
语用学来源于哲学家对语言的探索。
“语用学”（pragmatics）这个术语由美国哲学家莫里斯（Morris）1938 年在他的《符号理论基础》（Foundations of the Theory of Signs）一书中首先提出。
他指出符号学（semiotics）包括三个部分：句法学（syntactics or syntax）、语义学（semantics）和语用学（pragmatics）。
语用学研究的是“符号和解释者的关系”。
在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。
通俗地说，语用学是研究语言运用及其规律的科学，它关注使用语言的人（包括说写者和听读者），从说写者和听读者的不同角度以及相互关系上，研究人们的言语行为，研究特定语境中的特定话语，并探求语境的种种功能，研究话语的种种言内之义和言外之义及其相应的条件。
（二）语境理论。
语境是人们运用自然语言进行言语交际的言语环境。
它包括语言因素，也包括非语言因素。
上下文、时间、空间、情景、对象、话语前提等与语词使用有关的都是语境因素。
我们可以把语境分成“上下文语境”、“情景语境”和“民族文化传统语境”。
上下文语境指的是交际过程中某一话语结构表达某种特定意义时所依赖的各种表现为言辞的上下文，它既包括书面语中的上下文，也包括口语中的前言后语;情景语境指的是交流过程中某一话语结构表达某种特定意义时所依赖的各种主客观因素，包括时间、地点、场合、话题、交际者的身份、地位、心理背景、交际目的、交际方式、交际内容所涉及的对象以及各种与话语结构同时出现的非语言符号（如姿势、手势）等;民族文化传统语境的是交流过程中某一话语结构表达某种特定意义时所依赖的各种历史文化背景、社会规范和习俗、价值观背景。
所有这些语境因素，在对言语行为发生影响时，是综合起来发生作用的。
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浅析语用学
指示是指利用语言进行指点或标示。
语言中存在这一语言现象充分说明了语言和使用语言之间的语境之间的密切关系。
指示语作为语用学研究的一个重要课题，一直受到语言学家们的重视。
本文将着重从语用学中的指示语角度来分析在对外汉语教学中的造成学生学习汉语语用失误的原因。
一、语用学基本概念
顾名思义，语用学（pragmatics）就是关于语言使用的实用学。
简言之，语用学就是研究话语在使用中的语境意义，或话语在特定语境条件下的交际意义，包括意义的产生与理解，也包括交际中语言形式或策略的恰当选择与使用。
（冉永平，2006.）
二、语用学中的指示语
何自然先生认为：“我们把表示语言指示信息的词语称为指示语，归入语用学的范畴，因为指示语是一些不能单用语义学的真假条件衡量的词语，它们的意义只有结合语境才可能得到正确的解释”。
指示（dexis）这一术语来自希腊语，它的意思是利用语言进行指点或标示。
指示语可以分为五类，分别是人称指示语、时间指示语、地点指示语、话语指示语和社交指示语。
三、对外汉语教学中语用学之指示语
历来的对外汉语教学，内容基本上只包括语音、词汇、语法等语言项目。
但通过实际教学，我们发现，外国人在掌握以上汉语基本语言项目后仍然出现话语不当的现象。
这就要求我们在研究汉语语音、词汇、语法的同时，还要研究汉语的语用。
而语用学之指示语应该是我们研究的一个重要内容。
1、对外汉语教学中指示语的影响
外国人学习汉语在语用方面的失误不是因违反语法规则或用词不当而引起的，而是在指示语上没有很好理解汉语的不同才导致出现语法正确但语用错误的现象。
这些指示语不同的使用就体现了在使用汉语语言形式或词语时因思维方式和习惯的不同或观察事物的角度、范围有差异。
根据指示语的性质，指示语的使用有两个必不可少的阶段：先要确定以言语行为中的哪一要素为参照点，下面从人称指示、时间指示、地点指示三个方面举例加以说明。
四、结语
在语用学中，指示语是说话人通过语言结构营造语境产生“言外之意”达到交际目的的重要手段。
对指示语系统的研究尚处于起步阶段，还有待进一步深入。
同时, 我们不难发现语用学在对翻译领域中有很大的应用价值。
在翻译教学中，培养学生的语言能力，提高学生的翻译水平，仅仅注重学生理解和分析规范的语句，满足于讲究遣词造句的正误或只要求学生多听多说是远远不够的，必须高度重视语用学，加强学生语用能力的培养和训练。
同时感谢郭永生老师的指导。
姓名：白莉
班级：英语1302班
指导老师：郭永生。