克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题07_09
国际经济学第十版课后答案
国际经济学第十版多米尼克.萨尔瓦多着P16页练习题6.1根据消费者需求理论,当其他条件不变时,一种商品价格的提高如由于税率的上浮所致,会带来需求量的什么变化答:根据消费者需求理论,当其他条件不变时,一种商品价格的提高,则该商品的需求量将会下降;2根据消费者需求理论,一种进口商品价格的提高如由于进口关税的上浮所致,会带来需求量的什么变化答:根据消费者需求理论,一种进口商品价格的提高,则该商品的出口量将会下降;7.1一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字答:一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收,来消除或者减少预算赤字;2一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差答:一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有:对进口商品增税、补贴出口,借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券,降低该国的国民收入水平; 8.1国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别答:在国际经济关系下,国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素,不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动,此外,国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通;而在地区经济关系下,就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素,它们经常是在同样的语言环境下,在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的,这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比;2它们在哪方面相似答:国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点:两者都跨越了空间距离,事实上,它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物,把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点,这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分;10.如果说一个国家可以从国际贸易中获益,那么你如何解释为什么许多国家又要对国际贸易施加某些限制答:国际贸易给本国消费者带来的是更低的价格,这样就会对本国的同种商品的生产商造成不利,挤兑了本国生产商的销售份额;通常在这种情况下,本国的生产商就会失去大量的订单,并且向政府提议限制进口;而由于消费者很多,平均每个消费者只有非常小的进口商品利益,政府就会根据生产商的要求,施加一些进口限制;第二章比较优势原理P45页练习题1.表列出了在4中假定下,英美两国1劳动小时可生产的小麦与布匹的数量;支出每种情况下,美、英两国具有绝对优势或劣势的商品;答:在A情形下,美国具有绝对优势的商品是小麦;英国具有绝对优势的商品是布匹;在B情形下,美国在小麦和布匹都有绝对优势;在C情形下,美国在小麦和布匹生产商都具有绝对优势,而英国在这两种商品的生产中都不具有绝对优势;在D情形下,美国在小麦、布匹这两种商品具有的绝对优势都比英国明显;2.指出表中每个国家有比较优势与比较劣势的商品;答:在A情形下,美国具有相对优势的商品是小麦;英国在布匹生产上具有相对优势;在B情形下,美国在小麦具有相对优势;英国在布匹生产具有相对优势;在C情形下,美国在小麦具有相对优势;英国在布匹生产具有相对优势;在D情形下,美国、英国在小麦、布匹这两种商品生产上没有相对优势; 3.指出表中每种情况下,贸易的可能性贸易基础;答:在A情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是绝对优势;在B情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是相对优势;在C情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是相对优势;在D情形下,没有贸易的可能性,因为美国在这两种商品的生产上都比英国具有绝对优势;4. 假设在表中的B 情况下,美国用4单位小麦与英国用的4单位布交换: (1) 美国获利多少 (2) 英国获利多少(3) 互惠贸易的范围有多大(4) 如果改用4单位小麦与6单位布交换,两国分别获利多少 答:1美国获利1C 2英国获利3C 3 3C<4W<8C4美国获利3C,而英国获利1w;5. 表中的B 情况下,假设劳动是唯一生产要素而且是同质的即只有一种类型: (1) 用劳动测度,美、英两国生产小麦和布的成本是多少 (2) 如果工资率为6美元,则小麦和布在美国的价格是多少 (3) 如果工资率为1英镑,则小麦和布在英国的价格是多少答:1在劳动测度下,生产小麦的成本在美国是1/4,在英国为1;而生产布匹的成本在美国是1/3,在英国为1/2.2在美国,小麦的价格w P =美元,而布匹的价格c P =美元; 3在英国,小麦的价格w P =英镑,而布匹的价格c P =英镑;6. 参考第5题回答:(1) 若美元、英镑的外汇比价是1英镑=2美元,则小麦与布在英国的美元价格是多少在此汇率下,美国会想英国出口小麦吗在此汇率下,英国会想美国出口布吗(2) 当汇率是1英镑=4美元时情况如何 (3) 当汇率是1英镑=1美元时又如何(4) 允许美国向英国出口小麦和允许英国向美国出口布的汇率范围是多少 答:1在英国,当美元、英镑的外汇比价是1英镑=2美元时,美国会出口小麦到英国,而英国会出口布匹到美国;2当汇率是1英镑=4美元时,在英国:$4.00w P =,$2.00c P =,因此美国会出口小麦到英国,而英国不会出口布匹到美国;3当汇率是1英镑=1美元时,在英国,$1.00,$0.50w c P P ==,因此英国会都出口小麦、布匹这两种商品到美国;4$1.50£1.00$4.00<< 7. 假设表中B 情形的数据单位是百万蒲尔式小麦和百万码布: (1) 画出英美两国的生产可能线(2) 美、英两国的小麦相对价格为多少即c /w P P (3) 美、英两国的布匹相对价格为多少即/c w P P答:12小麦相对价格:在美国,w /3/4c P P =,在英国w /2c P P =; 3布匹相对价格:在美国,w /4/3c P P =,在英国w /1/2c P P =; 9.1如果图左图中的w()US UK D +向上移1/3,则小麦的均衡价格是多少此时,美、英国生产多少单位小麦和布21中的答案对右图的()c US UK D +意味着什么答:1此时小麦的均衡价格会从1/3上升到w /4/3c P P =;因为更高的w()US UK D +会和()W US UK S +曲线交叉,美国会继续专门生产小麦180W,而英国会继续专门生产布匹120C.2由于布匹的均衡价格是小麦的均衡价格的倒数,所以如果小麦的均衡价格是4/3,则布匹的均衡价格是3/4.这就意味着图中右图的()C US UKD +将会向右下移1/3;11.画一张与图类似的图,表明英国现在是一个小国,为图中右图所示的一半,并在c /w P P =2/3时用20单位布与美国的30单位小麦交换;第三章 国际贸易的标准理论P66页 练习题1. 在一个坐标系中,画一条凹向原点的生产可能性曲线(1) 从生产可能性曲线的中点开始,用箭头表示该国在生产更多X 纵轴表示的商品和更多Y 时所发生的机会成本递增情况;(2) 当生产更多的X 时,生产可能性曲线的斜率如何变化生产更多的Y 呢这种变化反映了什么答:12当生产更多的X时,则Y 的产量将减少,生产可能性曲线的斜率会增大;当生产更多的Y时,X的产量也会减少;这种变化反映了随着生产更多的X或者Y,机会成本是递增的,即:一个国家每多生产以单位该种商品,就必须放弃越来越多的另一种商品的生产以提高足够的资源;2.在另一个坐标系中,画出三条社会无差异曲线,并令最高两条相交:(1)社会无差异曲线为什么向下倾斜,或者说斜率为负(2)曲线的斜率代表什么为什么每条无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小呢(3)考虑相交的两条无差异曲线,在交点右边的那一条曲线表示的满意程度较高吗在交点左边呢为什么和无差异曲线的定义不一致你可以得出什么结论答:1社会无差异曲线向下倾斜是因为:在无差异曲线上,当消费者购买更多的X时,他们会放弃部分Y;2曲线的斜率代表社会或国家在获得相同的满足程度下,多消费一单位X的同时,必须减少Y 的消费量;无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小是因为:随着X的增大,Y减小,则从一单位的X得到的满足程度降低,而从一单位Y所得到的满足程度将增大; 3当在交点在右边时,满意程度:C>B;当交点在左边是:B>C;这种不一致是因为无差异曲线反映的是一个给定的满足程度的两种商品的不同组合,因此无差异曲线不能相交;、而一组特定的无差异曲线拜师的是一国国内一种特定的收入分配,一种不同的收入分配会导致一组全新的无差异曲线,而它很可能与先前的无差异曲线相交;例如一国开始贸易或扩大外贸规模时,无差异曲线的相交就会发生;3.在一个坐标系内,画一条生产可能性曲线,再画一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较平坦的地方;在另一个坐标系内,画另一条生产可能性曲线,再画另一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较陡直的地方;(1)画一条表示各国在孤立情形下的均衡想多商品价格的直线;(2)各国具有比较优势的商品分别是什么(3)在什么情况下,两国之间不存在比较优势或比较劣势答:12国家1在商品X上具有比较优势,而国家2在Y商品具有比较优势;3当两国的这两种商品的相对价格线具有相同的斜率时,两国不存在比较优势; 4.1在第3题图中,用箭头表示在贸易条件下各国专业化生产的方向,标出各国均衡的产量和消费2各国相对自给自足状态有什么额外所得哪个国家所得更多为什么答:12对于国家1,在E点到A点的右上方获利,而国家2从E'超过A'获利;国家1将从贸易中获得额外所得,因为X的相对价格比贸易前差别更大;5.在一个坐标系内,画出国家1对于X 的出口供给曲线,/X Y P P =1/4,X 的共给量X QS =0;/X Y P P =1/2时,X QS =40;/X Y P P =1时,X QS =60;/X Y P P =112时,X QS =70.在同一坐标系内,画出国家2对于国家1出口商品X 的需求曲线;/X Y P P =112时,对X 的需求X QD =40; /X Y P P =1时, X QD =60; /X Y P P =1/2时, X QD =120. 1确定出口X 的贸易均衡的相对商品价格;2如果/X Y P P =112,会发生什么3如果/X Y P P =1/2,又会发生什么 答:1S 是国家1的出口商品X 的供给曲线,而D 是国家2的出口商品X 的需求曲线,而需求和供给曲线在E 点相交,决定了X 的出口贸易均衡的相对价格为/B X Y P P P ==1,和均衡出口量是60X;2如果/X Y P P =112,将出现一个30R R X '=的出口供给过剩,而相对价格/X Y P P 将会降低至/X Y P P =1.(3) 如果/X Y P P =1/2,将出现一个80H HX '=的出口需求过剩,而相对价格/X Y P P 会升至/X Y P P =1.7.在一坐标系内,画一条凹向原点的生产可能性曲线,再画一条社会无差异曲线与其相切于平坦的部分;标出该国在自给自足状态下的均衡相对商品价格,记为A P ,假设该曲线表示一个小国,其对贸易并不影响世界市场的相对价格W P ,在图上标出分工的过程、贸易量和贸易所得;答:该小国的生产会从A点移动到B点,出口商品X来交换商品Y以达到最佳点E>A;9.在两个坐标系中,画两条相同的凹向原点的生产可能性曲线;再画两条分别与其相切的社会无差异曲线;1指出各国自给自足状态下的均衡相对价格;2指出生产分工的过程及互利贸易的过程;答:1211.在固定成本条件下,如果生产可能性曲线相同而无差异曲线不同,会发生什么情况画一条曲线来表示这种情况;答:在固定成本条件下,如果生产可能性曲线相同而无差异曲线不同,但持续的机会成本,使这两个国家之间不存在互利贸易的可能;第一章供给、需求、提供曲线与贸易条件P87页练习题5.一国的提供曲线与下列曲线有哪些相似之处1需求曲线 2供给曲线 3提供曲线与普通的需求曲线和供给曲线有哪些差异答:1一国的提供曲线与需求曲线的相似之处是它们都表示一国的进口需求;2一国的提供曲线与供给曲线的相似之处是它们都表示一国的出口供给;3提供曲反映的是一国为了进口其需要的某一数量的商品而愿意出口的商品的数量;而普通的需求曲线和供给曲线反映的是供给和需求的相对数量;7.为了说明两国如何不平均分配贸易所得:(1) 画一幅图,一国的提供曲线的曲率远大于其贸易伙伴国提供曲线的曲率;(2) 哪个国家在贸易中获益更大(3) 解释原因答:12提供曲线的斜率越大,则该国家获利越大;3提供曲线越大的国家越能从贸易中获利,这是因为斜率越大,该提供曲线反映的国家对外国出口商品的需求越弱;8..从图中左图推导国家2对于商品Y 的出口供给曲线;从图的左图推导国家1对于国家2出口商品Y 的供给曲线与需求曲线;用你所得到的供给曲线与需求曲线表示如何确定Y 的贸易均衡相对价格;答:从教材图的左图可以看出,在/=4X Y P P 的相对价格下,国家2并没有出口任何数量的商品Y,令为国家2出口商品Y 的供给曲线S 上的A 点,同时也可知,/X Y P P =2是,国家2出口40单位的Y,得到S 曲线上的H 点;从教材左图,在//X Y Y X P P P P =1时,国家1需要国家2出口60单位的Y,这就在国家1的需求曲线D 上找到了点E,我们还可以估计国家1在/Y X P P =3/2时D 曲线上的H 点,需要40单位的Y,在/Y X P P =2时D 曲线上的H '点,需要120单位的Y;商品Y 的相对均衡价格是/Y X P P =1,这就决定了D 曲线的交点;在/Y X P P =3/2时,存在一个过度供给R R '=30Y 且/Y X P P 降至/Y X P P =1.在/Y X P P =1/2时,则存在=1个过度需求H H '=80Y,且/Y X P P 升至/Y X P P =1;9.1为什么第8题所使用的是局部均衡分析2为什么图的分析是一般均衡分析3局部均衡分析和一般均衡分析之间有什么关系答:1原因:利用传统的供给需求曲线,这两种曲线涉及到从经济体中所有的与商品Y 相关联的其他市场相分离,这只是对这个问题探索的大概分析;2图的分析是建立在提供曲线的基础上的;这些联系是发生在这两个国家的这两种商品的需求、供给里的,因此才能从每个国家、每种商品的供给和需求方面分别分析;这中分析法对这个问题的解释将比局部均衡分析更为全面、清晰,也更复杂;10.绘制国家1和国家2的提供曲线,国家2是一个小国,在国家1的贸易前的相对商品价格水平上进行贸易,贸易所得在两国之间如何分配为什么答:贸易在两国之间的分配:由于国家2是一个小国,在原点附近放大国家1的部分,意味着国家2可以进口充分小的商品X 就可以影响到国家1 的相对价格/X Y P P ,因此国家2是一个价格决定者;只要国家1维持不变的机会成本,且不是专门生产商品X,则在贸易中国家2将获得所有的利益,即使国家2不是一个小国,结果也是一样的; 11.画一幅图表示两个生产机会成本不变的国家的贸易均衡点;答:两国都的机会成不变,这是不可能的事件;两国的提供曲线都是直线直到两国在产品上完全专门化生产;之后,提供曲线会以正常形状相交于E点,并在E点得到相对价格/=P P P;X Y E12.假设在某一时间内,一国的贸易条件由100增长至110:1该国贸易伙伴国的贸易条件恶化了多少2从什么角度可以说贸易伙伴国由于这个变化,其贸易状况发生了恶化能认为贸易伙伴国的社会福利一定降低了吗答:1在某一时间内,一国的贸易条件由100增长至110,则该国贸易伙伴的贸易条件恶化了9%;2贸易国的贸易条件恶化了,则其贸易伙伴国必须为该国的商品进口支付更高的价格;而这并不意味着贸易伙伴国的社会福利一定降低了,因为这时期的贸易恶化可能是由于生产力比其他国家增加的更高效;第二章要素禀赋与赫克歇尔—俄林理论P123页练习题1.画两个坐标系分别表示国家1和国家2,横轴代表劳动,纵轴代表资本;(1)用通过远点的直线表示前两国生产Y时的资本/劳动比率高于生产X时的这一比率,以及国家2生产两种商品时的资本/劳动比率均高于国家1生产相应商品时的这一比率;(2)在国际贸易条件下,当国家2的利率/工资比率上升时,表示国家2每一种上平的资本/劳动比率的直线的斜率如何变化(3)在国际贸易条件下,当国家1的利率/工资比率下降时,表示国家1的资本/劳动比率的直线的斜率如何变化(4)根据2和3的结果说明,与贸易前的情况相比,国际贸易叩打还是缩小了两国生产每一商品的资本/劳动比率的差异呢答:12国家2的每一种商品的资本/劳动比率会下降;3国家1的每一种商品的资本/劳动比率会上升;4国际贸易缩小了两国生产每一种商品的资本/劳动比率差异;2.1画出与相似的图,说明在自给自足的条件下各国的均衡点以及贸易条件下各国的生产和消费点2解释是什么因素决定了两国的比较优势3为什么在无贸易条件下,两国消费两种商品的数量不同而在贸易条件下,两国消费两种商品的数量相同答:12在相同生产条件下的差异决定了两国的比较优势3因为无贸易条件下,两国的同种商品分别在本国的价格不同,因此其消费数量也不同;但是一旦有了贸易,则价格就相同了,因此消费两种商品的数量也相同;6.要素禀赋的差异会使两国的生产可能性曲线的形状产生不同:1还有什么其他因素会导致两国的生产可能性曲线有不同的形状2在赫—俄模型中,赫克歇尔和俄林做了哪些假设来防止1中的情形发生3在无贸易条件下,还有什么其他可能的原因会导致两国的相对商品价格产生差异答:1生产前沿也会导致两国的生产可能性曲线有不同形状;2为了防止要素禀赋的差异会使两国的生产可能性曲线的形状产生不同,赫克歇尔和俄林假设:两国的生产前沿不同是因为这两国的技术水平不同;3在无贸易条件下,导致两国的相对商品价格产生差异的其他可能原因有:两国的相关商品的价格不同;7.在两国需求偏好不同的条件下,作与图相似的直线,表明赫克歇尔—俄林模型仍然使用;答:12.1讨论里昂惕夫之谜的含义和重要意义;2概括说明克拉维斯、基辛、肯恩、鲍德温利用人力资本解决里昂惕夫之谜的经验检验的结果;3利墨尔、斯特恩、马斯库斯、萨瓦尔多和巴拉扎什是如何解释里昂惕夫之谜的答:1里昂惕夫之谜的含义:里昂惕夫用1947年美国数据对赫克歇尔—俄林模型做了第一个经验性检验;发现美国进口替代品的资本密集程度比美国出口商品的资本密集程度高出大约30%,由于美国是世界是上资本最密集的国家,这意味着美国进口的是资本密集型商品,出口的反而市劳动密集型商品;这与赫—俄理论的预测完全相反;里昂惕夫之谜的意义:里昂惕夫对赫——俄学说的验证,不仅开创了用投入——产出法这类经验手段检验理论假说的先河,大大推动了国际贸易的实证研究,而且第一个指明该理论学说与事实相悖逆,从而促进了战后各种各样贸易理论和见解的涌现;可见,里昂惕夫之谜的发现已成为战后国际贸易发展的基石;对该谜的种种解释,也没有从根本上否定赫——俄学说,而只是试图改变该学说的某些理论前提以适用实际情况;这表明,比较利益说仍是这些理论解释的内核;2科维拉斯得出正确结论:美国出口行业的高工资反映了美国出口行业比美国进口替代行业有较高的劳动生产率和较多的人力资本;肯恩实际估计了美国进出口竞争商品中人力资本的含量,并把其加载实物资本需求之上重新计算美国出口和进口替代品的资本/劳动比率;发现,利用%的收益率时比较保守估计,并不能彻底消除里昂惕夫悖论;但是,利用9%的收益率时,则可以完全消除里昂惕夫悖论,于是成功解释和消除了里昂惕夫之谜;1987年,鲍恩、利墨尔、思威考斯卡斯使用27个国家12种要素资源和多种商品的更完整的1967年贸易、要素投入需求和要素禀赋的剖面数据进行考察,发现赫克歇尔—俄林贸易模型只在部分情况下成立;3利墨尔、斯特恩、马斯库斯、萨瓦尔多和巴拉扎什对里昂惕夫之谜的解释方式是:由于美国劳动不必外国劳动含有更多的人力资本,把人力资本这一部分加到实物资本上就会使美国的出口相对于进口替代品的资本密集程度要大,从而解释了里昂惕夫之谜;14.解释为何在存在要素密集度颠倒的条件下,资本价格的世界性差异会缩小、上升、不变;答:要素密集度颠倒是指:一种给定商品在劳动丰裕的国家是劳动密集型产品,在资本密集型国家是资本密集型产品;例如:如果商品X在国家1低工资国家是劳动密集型商品,同时在国家2高工资国家是资本密集型产品,要素密集度的颠倒就发生了;要素密集度颠倒一旦发生了,则H—O理论和要素价格均等理论不再成立;原因是:国家1分工生产商品X,从而需要更多的劳动,国家1的相对和绝对工资就会上升;另一方面,由于国家2不能像国家1出口X,它就不得不分工生产和出口商品Y,而在国家2,Y是相对劳动密集的商品,故国家2对劳动需求以及工资也会上升,两国相对工资和绝对工资之间的差异如何变化取决于各国工资上涨的快慢程度;在贸易条件下,两国的相对和绝对工资差异会缩小、扩大或保持不变,要素价格均等理论不成立;第三章规模经济、不完全竞争与国际贸易P157 练习题1.画一张与相似的图,表示在规模经济下,生产可能性曲线相同而偏好不同的国家之间是如何进行互利贸易的答:2.如果两国生产可能性曲线不同,需求不同,其他条件同上题,重做第1 题;答:3.如果两国生产可能性曲线及偏好均不同,需求不同,其他条件同上题,重做第 1题;答:6.使用与图相同的AC曲线和MC曲线,运用与图相似的图显示一个厂商可以在其他厂商模仿其市场份额之前获得超额利润答:AC曲线和MC曲线和教材图相同;但是假定在其他企业尚未开始生产该企业的产品,市场份额减少或者失去竞争优势,该需求曲线D和MR曲线边际收益曲线更高;在上图中的E点,MR=MC,所以该企业的最优产出水平是5个单位,价格是$;由于在Q=5,AC=$30时,该企业的利润为每单位AB=$和总利润10$;7.1垄断竞争和垄断有什么相同之处2他们之间有什么区别3为什么在我们的产业内贸易模型中,垄断竞争与完全垄断之间的差别对于消费者的福利十分重要。
曼昆宏观经济学第10版课后答案和笔记
曼昆宏观经济学第10版课后答案和笔记XXX的《宏观经济学》第10版是一本经典的宏观经济学教材。
本书是该教材的研究辅导书,包括复笔记和课后题详解。
第1篇导言第1章介绍了宏观经济学的科学性,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第2章讨论了宏观经济学的数据,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第2篇古典理论:长期中的经济第3章讨论了国民收入的来源和去向,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第4章介绍了货币系统的作用,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第5章讨论了通货膨胀的起因、影响和社会成本,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第6章介绍了开放的经济,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第7章讨论了失业问题,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第3篇增长理论:超长期中的经济第8章介绍了经济增长中的资本积累和人口增长,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第9章讨论了经济增长中的技术、经验和政策,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第4篇经济周期理论:短期中的经济第10章介绍了经济波动,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第11章建立了IS-LM模型,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第12章应用了IS-LM模型,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第13章介绍了XXX模型和汇率制度,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第14章讨论了总供给和通货膨胀、失业之间的短期权衡,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第5篇宏观经济理论和政策专题第15章介绍了经济波动的动态模型,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第16章讨论了稳定化政策的不同观点,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第17章介绍了政府债务和预算赤字,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第18章讨论了金融系统的机会和危险,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
第19章介绍了消费和投资的微观基础,本书提供了该章的复笔记和课后题详解。
附录列出了指定XXX《宏观经济学》教材为考研参考书目的院校列表。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解(国民收入核算与国际收支平衡)【圣才出品】
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解(国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡)【圣才出品】⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台第12章国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡12.1 复习笔记1.国民收⼊账户(1)GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是⼀国的国民⽣产总值(GNP),它是⼀国的⽣产要素在⼀定时期内所⽣产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。
GNP是宏观经济学家研究⼀国产出时所⽤的基本度量⼿段,由花费在最终产品上的⽀出的市场价值量加总⽽得到。
GNP的⽀出与劳动、资本以及其他⽣产要素紧密相连。
根据购买最终产品的四种可能⽤途,GNP可以分解为以下四个部分:消费(国内居民私⼈消费的数额)、投资(私⼈企业为进⾏再⽣产⽽留下的⽤于购买⼚房设备的数额)、政府购买(政府使⽤的数额)和经常项⽬余额(对外净出⼝的商品和服务的数额)。
(2)国民收⼊国民收⼊等于GNP减去折旧,加上净单边转移⽀付,再减去间接商业税。
即:国民收⼊=GNP-折旧+净单边转移⽀付-间接商业税在实际经济中,要使GNP和国民收⼊的恒等关系完全成⽴,必须对GNP的定义作⼀定调整:①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使⽤过程中由于磨损⽽引起的经济损失。
这部分经济损失称为折旧,折旧减少了资本所有者的收⼊。
为了计算⼀定时期的国民收⼊,必须从GNP 中减去这⼀时期资本的折旧。
GNP减去折旧后称为国民⽣产净值(NNP)。
⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台②⼀国的收⼊可能会包括外国居民的赠与,这种赠与称为单边转移⽀付。
单边转移⽀付的例⼦包括向居住在国外的退休公民⽀付养⽼⾦、赔偿⽀付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。
净单边转移⽀付是⼀国收⼊的⼀部分,但不是⼀国产出的⼀部分,因此,净单边转移⽀付,必须加到NNP中以计算国民收⼊。
③国民收⼊取决于⽣产者获得的产品价格,GNP则取决于购买者所⽀付的价格。
但是,这两组价格并不是完全⼀致的,例如,销售税会使得购买者的⽀付⼤于销售者的收⼊,导致GNP被⾼估,超过了国民收⼊。
克鲁格曼国贸理论第十版课后习题答案-CH06
Chapter 6The Standard Trade Model⏹Chapter OrganizationA Standard Model of a Trading EconomyProduction Possibilities and Relative SupplyRelative Prices and DemandThe Welfare Effect of Changes in the Terms of TradeDetermining Relative PricesEconomic Growth: A Shift of the RS CurveGrowth and the Production Possibility FrontierWorld Relative Supply and the Terms of TradeInternational Effects of GrowthCase Study: Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing Countries Hurt Advanced Nations?Tariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RDRelative Demand and Supply Effects of a TariffEffects of an Export SubsidyImplications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?International Borrowing and LendingIntertemporal Production Possibilities and TradeThe Real Interest RateIntertemporal Comparative AdvantageSummaryAPPENDIX TO CHAPTER 6: More on Intertemporal Trade⏹Chapter OverviewPrevious chapters have highlighted specific sources of comparative advantage that give rise to international trade. This chapter presents a general model that admits previous models as special cases. This “standard trade model” is the workhorse of international trade theory and can be used to address a wide range of issues. Some of these issues, such as the welfare and distributional effects of economic growth, transfers between nations, and tariffs and subsidies on traded goods, are considered in this chapter.28 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth EditionThe standard trade model is based upon four relationships. First, an economy will produce at the point where the production possibilities curve is tangent to the relative price line (called the isovalue line). Second, indifference curves describe the tastes of an economy, and the consumption point for that economy is found at the tangency of the budget line and the highest indifference curve. These two relationships yield the familiar general equilibrium trade diagram for a small economy (one that takes as given the terms of trade), where the consumption point and production point are the tangencies of the isovalue line with the highest indifference curve and the production possibilities frontier, respectively.You may want to work with this standard diagram to demonstrate a number of basic points. First, an autarkic economy must produce what it consumes, which determines the equilibrium price ratio; and second, opening an economy to trade shifts the price ratio line and unambiguously increases welfare. Third, an improvement in the terms of trade (ratio of export prices to import prices) increases welfare in the economy. Fourth, it is straightforward to move from a small country analysis to a two-country analysis by introducing a structure of world relative demand and supply curves, which determine relative prices.These relationships can be used in conjunction with the Rybczynski and the Stolper-Samuelson theorems from the previous chapter to address a range of issues. For example, you can consider whether the dramatic economic growth of China has helped or hurt the United States as a whole and also identify the classes of individuals within the United States who have been hurt by China’s particular growth biases. In teaching these points, it might be interesting and useful to relate them to current events. For example, you can lead a class discussion on the implications for the United States of the provision of forms of technical and economic assistance to the emerging economies around the world or the ways in which a world recession can lead to a fall in demand for U.S. exports.The example provided in the text considers the popular arguments in the media that growth in China hurts the United States. The analysis presented in this chapter demonstrates that the bias of growth is important in determining welfare effects rather than the country in which growth occurs. The existence of biased growth and the possibility of immiserizing growth are discussed. The Relative Supply (RS) and Relative Demand (RD) curves illustrate the effect of biased growth on the terms of trade. The new termsof trade line can be used with the general equilibrium analysis to find the welfare effects of growth. A general principle that emerges is that a country that experiences export-biased growth will have a deterioration in its terms of trade, while a country that experiences import-biased growth has an improvement in its terms of trade. A case study argues that this is really an empirical question, and the evidence suggests that the rapid growth of countries like China has not led to a significant deterioration of the U.S. terms of trade nor has it drastically improved China’s terms of trade.The second area to which the standard trade model is applied is the effects of tariffs and export subsidies on welfare and terms of trade. The analysis proceeds by recognizing that tariffs or subsidies shift both the relative supply and relative demand curves. A tariff on imports improves the terms of trade, expressed in external prices, while a subsidy on exports worsens terms of trade. The size of the effect depends upon the size of the country in the world. Tariffs and subsidies also impose distortionary costs upon the economy. Thus, if a country is large enough, there may be an optimum, nonzero tariff. Export subsidies, however, only impose costs upon an economy. Internationally, tariffs aid import-competing sectors and hurt export sectors, while subsidies have the opposite effect.The chapter then closes with a discussion of international borrowing and lending. The standard trade model is adapted to trade in consumption across time. The relative price of future consumption is defined as 1/(1 r), where r is the real interest rate. Countries with relatively high real interest rates (newly industrializing countries with high investment returns for example) will be biased toward future consumption and will effectively “export” future consumption by borrowing from established developed countries with relatively lower real interest rates.Chapter 6 The Standard Trade Model 29Answers to Textbook Problems1.If the relative price of palm oil increases in relation to the price of lubricants, this would increase theproduction of palm oil, because Indonesia exports palm oil. Similarly, an increase in relative price of lubricants leads to a shift along the indifference curve, towards lubricants and away from palm oil for Indonesia. This is because Palm oil is relatively expensive, hence reducing palm oil consumption in Indonesia.Expensive palm oil increases the relative income of Indonesia. The income effect would induce more for the consumption of palm oil whereas the substitution effect acts to make the economy consume less of palm oil and more of lubricants. However, if the income effect outweighs the substitution effect, then the consumption of palm oil would increase in Indonesia.2.In panel a, the re duction of Norway’s production possibilities away from fish cause the production of fish relative to automobiles to fall. Thus, despite the higher relative price of fish exports, Norway moves down to a lower indifference curve representing a drop in welfare.In panel b, the increase in the relative price of fish shifts causes Norway’s relative production of fish to rise (despite the reduction in fish productivity). Thus, the increase in the relative price of fish exports allows Norway to move to a higher indifference curve and higher welfare.3. The terms of trade of the home country would worsen. This is because a strong biased productiontowards cloth would increase the home country’s supply of cloth and shifts the supply curve to the right. At the same time, the production of wheat would decline relative to the production of cloth. An increased supply of cloth would reduce the price at the domestic and at the international market. The reduction in international price of cloth would worsen the terms of trade of the home country as the home country exports. On the other hand, if the home country’s production grows in favor of wheat, the terms of trade would improve in favor of the home country. This is because wheat is imported by the home country.30 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth Edition4. The difference from the standard diagram is that the indifference curves are right angles rather thansmooth curves. Here, a terms of trade increase enables an economy to move to a higher indifference curve. The income expansion path for this economy is a ray from the origin. A terms of tradeimprovement moves the consumption point further out along the ray.5. The terms of trade for Japan, a manufactures (M) exporter and a raw materials (R) importer, is the worldrelative price of manufactures in terms of raw materials (p M/p R). The terms of trade change can be determined by the shifts in the world relative supply and demand (manufactures relative to raw materials) curves. Note that in the following answers, world relative supply (RS) and relative demand (RD) are always M relative to R. We consider all countries to be large, such that changes affect the worldrelative price.a. An oil supply disruption from the Middle East decreases the supply of raw materials, whichincreases the world relative supply of manufactures to raw materials. The world relative supplycurve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deterioratingJapan’s terms of trade.b. Korea’s increased automobile production increases the supply of manufactures, which in creasesthe world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price ofmanufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of trade.c. U.S. development of a substitute for fossil fuel decreases the demand for raw materials. Thisincreases world RD, and the world relative demand curve shifts out, increasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and improving Japan’s terms of trade. This occurs even if no fusion reactors are installed in Japan because world demand for raw materials falls.d. A harvest failure in Russia decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the world RS.The world relative supply curve shifts out. Also, Russia’s demand for manufactures decreases,which reduces world demand so that the world relative demand curve shifts in. These forcesdecrease the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorate Japan’s terms of trade.e. A reduction in Japan’s tariff on raw materials will raise its internal relative price of manufactures(p M/p R). This price change will increase Japan’s RS and decrease Japan’s RD, which increases the world RS and decreases the world RD (i.e., world RS shifts out and world RD shifts in). The worldrelative price of manufactures declines, and Japan’s terms of tr ade deteriorate.6. The declining price of services relative to manufactured goods shifts the isovalue line clockwise sothat relatively fewer services and more manufactured goods are produced in the United States, thus reducing U.S. welfare.Chapter 6 The Standard Trade Model 31 7. These results acknowledge the biased growth that occurs when there is an increase in one factor ofproduction. An increase in the capital stock of either country favors production of good X, while an increase in the labor supply favors production of good Y. Also, recognize the Heckscher-Ohlin result that an economy will export that good that uses intensively the factor which that economy has in relative abundance. Country A exports good X to country B and imports good Y from country B. The possibility of immiserizing growth makes the welfare effects of the terms of trade improvement due to export-biased growth ambiguous. Import-biased growth unambiguously improves welfare for the growing country.a. The relative price of good X falls, causing country A’s terms of trade to worsen. A’s welfare mayincrease or, less likely, decrease, and B’s welfare increases.b. The relative price of good Y rises, causing A’s terms of trade to improve. A’s welfare increases,and B’s welfare decreases.c. The relative price of good X falls, causing country B’s terms of trade to improve. B’s welfareincreases, and A’s welfare decreases (they earn less for the same quantity of exports).d. The relative price of good X rises, causing country B’s terms of trade to worsen. B’s welfare mayi ncrease or, less likely, decrease, and A’s welfare increases.8. Immiserizing growth occurs when the welfare deteriorating effects of a worsening in an economy’sterms of trade swamp the welfare improving effects of growth. For this to occur, an economy must undergo very biased growth, and the economy must be a large enough actor in the world economy such that its actions spill over to adversely alter the terms of trade to a large degree. This combination of events is unlikely to occur in practice.9. India opening its markets to world trade should be good for the United States if the change reducesthe relative price of goods that China sends to the United States and hence increases the relative price of goods that the United States exports. Obviously, any sector in the United States hurt by trade with China would be hurt again by India, but on net, the United States wins. Note that here we are making different assumptions about what India produces and what is tradable than we are in Question 6. Here we are assuming India exports products that the United States currently imports and China currently exports. China will lose by having the relative price of its export good driven down by the increased production in India.10. An import tariff makes the imported goods more expensive in the domestic market as compared tothe world market. In a two commodity system e.g. food and cloth, an imposition of import tariff on cloth makes the cloth more expensive for people in the domestic market. Eventually, the internal price of food is cheaper than the relative price in the external market. This pushes the domesticproducers to produce cloth as the relative price is higher. The home consumers shift theirconsumption from cloth to food. Hence, the relative supply of food will fall and the relative demand will increase. With an increase in the world’s relative price for food the homes terms of trade also increases.Similarly, an export subsidy on food makes the opposite effect on the relative supply and demand than the import tariff on cloth. The effect is that the relative supply of food rises while the relative demand for the world declines. Hence, this reduces the home’s terms of trade as the relative price of food falls in the world market.32 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth EditionThe parties emphasize on the reduction of tariff to increase its trade with the partner country under the free trade agreements. When a tariff is reduced by both the partner countries, it increases the trade volume between the two countries. The reduction of tariff and free flow of commodities between the partner countries reduces the market price of the commodity and increases the purchasing power of the consumers in both countries. The agreement on the reduction of tariff is bilateral, meaning both countries agree to reduce the tariff, which ultimately increases the terms of trade for both.11. When a country borrows for the present consumption, it is liable to make the payment in future bysacrificing its future consumption. This means, in future the country has to return the principalborrowing amount with some interest rate. If a country borrows 1 unit at present, it has to return (1+ r) times in future, where r is the real interest rate. Hence, the relative price of future consumption is1/(1+r). This shows there is an inverse relation between the interest rate and the relative price offuture consumption. Higher the real interest rate, lower will be the relative price of futureconsumption and vice-versa.12. Comparative advantage in international borrowing and lending is driven by the relative price of futureconsumption and, more specifically, the real interest rate. As the real interest rate rises, the relative price of future consumption 1/(1 r) falls. Effectively, a country with a high real interest rate is one that has high returns on investment. Such a country will prefer to borrow today and take advantage of the high return on investment and enjoy the fruits of current investment with high returns in the future.a. Countries like Argentina and Canada should have high real interest rates as there are largeinvestment opportunities that have yet to be exploited. These countries will have a low price offuture consumption and will be biased toward exporting future consumption, preferring toborrow today.b. Countries like the United Kingdom in the 19th century or the United States today will haverelatively lower real interest rates as they already have a high level of capital and limited returnson new investments. As a result, the relative price of future consumption is high, and they will be biased toward exporting present consumption, preferring to lend today.c. The discovery of large oil reserves that do not require a significant investment to extract will causereal interest rates in Saudi Arabia to fall (large increase in wealth). This will cause the relativeprice of future consumption to rise, making it more likely that Saudi Arabia will have a PPFbiased toward exporting present consumption. Saudi Arabia will increase their current lending as a result of these oil discoveries.d. Oil discovered in Norway that requires a significant investment to extract will have the oppositeeffect as in answer c. This oil cannot turn into wealth until a significant investment is made, soreal interest rates in Norway will rise with this increased demand for investment funds. Higher real interest rates drive the relative price of future consumption down. As a result, Norway will bemore likely to export future consumption, borrowing today.e. High levels of productivity in South Korea imply that South Korean real interest rates are highgiven the lucrative investment opportunities in the country. As in answer d, higher real interestrates should drive the relative price of future consumption down and bias South Korea’sintertemporal PPF toward exporting future consumption.。
国际经济学第十版答案
国际经济学第十版答案【篇一:国际经济学复习课后答案】1.为什么说生产和消费只取决于相对价格?答:经济主体的经济行为考虑的是所有商品的价格,而不是单一价格因素。
3.在只有两种商品的情况下,当一个商品达到均衡时,另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡?试解释原因。
答案:是4.如果生产可能性边界是一条直线,试确定过剩供给(或需求)曲线。
答案提示:5.如果改用y商品的过剩供给曲线(b国)和过剩需求曲线(a国)来确定国际均衡价格,那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致?答案提示:不一定一致,x商品的价格是px/py,而y商品的价格是py/px.7.如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间,那么贸易后,国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平?答案提示:贸易后,国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
8.根据上一题的答案,你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些?答案提示:小国。
第二章答案1.根据下面两个表中的数据,确定(1)贸易前的相对价格;(2)比较优势型态。
表1 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入x y表2 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入ab 5 5a 6 2b 15 12x 10 y4答案提示:首先将劳动投入转化为劳动生产率,然后应用与本章正文中一样的方法进行比较。
(表2-2(a)和表2-2(b)部分的内容) 2.假设a、b两国的生产技术条件如下所示,那么两国还有进行贸易的动机吗?解释原因。
表3 x、y的单位产出所需的劳动投入x ya 4 2b 8 4答案提示:从绝对优势来看,两国当中a国在两种产品中都有绝对优势;从比较优势来看,两国不存在相对技术差异。
所以,两国没有进行国际贸易的动机。
3.如果一国在某一商品上具有绝对优势,那么也必具有比较优势吗?答案提示:不一定,比较优势的确定原则是两优取最优,两劣取最劣。
5.假设某一国家拥有20,000万单位的劳动,x、y的单位产出所要求的劳动投入分别为5个单位和4个单位,试确定生产可能性边界方程。
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题
Q 400 苹果的相对产量, Qa + Q*a
800
Qb + Q*b
2 特定要素 与
收入分配
问题一:题目 描述
一个国家用劳动和资本生产产品1,用劳动和土 地生产产品2,总劳动供给量是100个单位.在 资本供给量给定时,两种产品随劳动投入产出的 变化和边际生产量的变化如下表所示:
投入产 产品1 产品2 部门1
40 57.7 69.3 0.87 8.70 0.69 13.8 8.97
50 66.0 75.8 0.78 7.80 0.6 12 7.8
60 73.6 81.5 0.74 7.40 0.54 10.8 7.02
70 80.7 86.7 0.69 6.90 0.5 10 6.5
80 87.4 91.4 0.66 6.60 0.46 9 5.98
解答 2
世界相对供给和相对需求
苹果的相对价格Pa, / Pb
a*La/a*Lb =5
RS
aLa/aLb =3/2
(1/2,,2) RD
横轴:苹果数量/香蕉数量,即 Qaw/Qbw;纵轴:苹果的相对 价格,即Pa/Pb
供给曲线:起点从纵轴3/2处水 平向右到横轴400/800(该点为 本国专业化生产苹果,外国专 业化生产香蕉的相对产量,即 本国在苹果价格为3/2下苹果的 最大生产量),然后垂直向上 到纵轴为5处水平一直向右
2.假定世界相对需求的表示为:对苹果的需求/对香蕉的需求 =香蕉价格/苹果价格 ① 画出世界的相对供给曲线和相对需求曲线。 ② 苹果的世界均衡相对价格是多少? ③ 描述本题的贸易模式。 ④ 说明本国和外国都可以从贸易中获利。
3. 假设本国有2400名工人,画出世界相对供给曲线,并确
国际经济学(克鲁格曼)课后习题答案1-8章
第一章练习与答案1.为什么说在决定生产和消费时,相对价格比绝对价格更重要?答案提示:当生产处于生产边界线上,资源则得到了充分利用,这时,要想增加某一产品的生产,必须降低另一产品的生产,也就是说,增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本(或社会成本)的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现,但究竟选择哪一点,则还要看两个商品的相对价格,即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时,生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以,在决定生产和消费时,相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2.仿效图1—6和图1—7,试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示:3.在只有两种商品的情况下,当一个商品达到均衡时,另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡?试解释原因。
答案提示:4.如果生产可能性边界是一条直线,试确定过剩供给(或需求)曲线。
答案提示:5.如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线(B国)和过剩需求曲线(A 国)来确定国际均衡价格,那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致?答案提示:国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
6.说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示:一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品,有利于此国贸易利益的获得,不过,出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加,有损于出口国的贸易利益;与此类似,出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加,但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲,贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
7.如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间,那么贸易后,国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平?答案提示:贸易后,国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
8.根据上一题的答案,你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些?答案提示:小国。
9*.为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸?答案提示:第二章答案1.根据下面两个表中的数据,确定(1)贸易前的相对价格;(2)比较优势型态。
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题
Q 400 苹果的相对产量, Qa + Q*a
800
Qb + Q*b
2 特定要素 与
收入分配
问题一:题目 描述
一个国家用劳动和资本生产产品1,用劳动和土 地生产产品2,总劳动供给量是100个单位.在 资本供给量给定时,两种产品随劳动投入产出的 变化和边际生产量的变化如下表所示:
投入产 产品1 产品2 部门1
P2xMPL2=1.3xMP L2
P1xMPL1=1xMPL1
解答 4
产品2价格由2下降为1.3,使得产品1的产量由 48.6上升为66;产品2的产量由86.7下降为75.8 ,产品1行业的特定要素资本收益由于产量的增加 而上升;而产品2行业的特定要素土地的收益由于 产出的减少而减少
问题二:题目 描述
2.假定世界相对需求的表示为:对苹果的需求/对香蕉的需求 =香蕉价格/苹果价格 ① 画出世界的相对供给曲线和相对需求曲线。 ② 苹果的世界均衡相对价格是多少? ③ 描述本题的贸易模式。 ④ 说明本国和外国都可以从贸易中获利。
3. 假设本国有2400名工人,画出世界相对供给曲线,并确
解答 1
图 3-1: 本国的生产可 能性边界
3.发展 (1)原因: ①甲午战争以后列强激烈争夺在华铁路的 修。筑权 ②修路成为中国人 救的亡强图烈存愿望。 (2)成果:1909年 京建张成铁通路车;民国以后,各条商路修筑 权收归国有。 4.制约因素 政潮迭起,军阀混战,社会经济凋敝,铁路建设始终未入 正轨。
术完全相同,每个国家劳动的边际产量取决于
所雇佣的工人数量,具体如下:
新雇佣的工人数量
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11 01
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题03-04
解答 3
世界相对供给和相对需求
苹果的相对价格, Pa/Pb
a*La/a*Lb =5
RS
aLa/aLb =3/2
• 单一要素模型中不存在利润,每小时工资率等于1个工人在1小时内创造 的价值P/L
• 当Pa/aLa>Pb/aLb,即Pa/Pb>aLa/aLb时,苹果部门的工资率高于香蕉部门, 工人会专业化生产苹果,否则专业化生产香蕉,只有当Pa/Pb=aLa/aLb时, 即苹果相对价格等于苹果的机会成本时,一国才会同时生产两种产品
Q 400 苹果的相对产量, Qa + Q*a
800
Qb + Q*b
2 特定要素与 收入分配
问题一:题目描述
一个国家用劳动和资本生产产品1,用劳动和土地生产产品2, 总劳动供给量是100个单位.在资本供给量给定时,两种产品随劳 动投入产出的变化和边际生产量的变化如下表所示:
投入产品 产品1的 产品2的 的劳动 产出Q1 产出Q2
0
0.0
0.0
部门1
MPL P* MPL
(P=10)
部门2
MPL
P* MPL
(P=20) (P=13)
10
25.1
39.8
1.51 15.1 1.59 31.8 20.67
20
38.1
52.4
1.14 11.4 1.05 21
13.65
30
48.6
61.8
1.00 10.0 0.82 16.4 10.66
克鲁格曼《国际经济学:理论与政策》(第10版)学习辅导书-第9~15章【圣才出品】
第9章贸易的政策工具一、概念题1.从价关税答:从价关税是指按课税对象,以一定的价格实现的收入为计量单位征收的税,即按照进口货物的价值征收一定百分比的税。
从价税额的计算公式为:从价税额=货物价值×从价税率。
从价税一般适用于工业制成品,与商品价格的涨落成正比关系。
从价税的特点是:课税对象的价格越高,其征收税额就越多;课税对象的价格越低,其征收税额就越少。
事实上这是按纳税人实际收入的比例征收的税。
我国的营业税、消费税等属于从价税。
2.消费者剩余答:消费者剩余是指对于一件商品消费者所愿意做出的最大支付与他的实际支付之间的差额。
消费者剩余的产生是由于消费者对同一种商品的不同数量评价不同,他对这种商品的不同数量所愿意做出的最大支付也就不同。
在厂商不能对消费者索取差别性价格的条件下,决定市场价格的是边际购买者(或边际购买量),他正是对这一产品评价最低的消费者。
这样,那些非边际购买者(或边际购买量)就可以获得额外的“津贴”,这就产生了消费者剩余。
消费者剩余由产品需求曲线以左和市场价格之上的那块面积表示。
把所有消费者剩余加起来,就得到总消费者剩余。
3.消费扭曲损失答:消费扭曲损失是指一国因征收关税造成消费下降而导致的损失。
如图9-1所示,关税的净福利影响等于b+d-e。
其中,关税的负面影响(效率损失)由三角形b和三角形d构成。
三角形b表示生产扭曲损失,这是由于关税会导致国内过多地生产该种产品造成的;三角形d表示本国的消费扭曲损失,来自于因为关税而造成的消费下降。
与这两块损失相反的是由矩形e表示的贸易条件改善所得,它来自于关税造成的外国商品出口价格的下降。
图9-1 关税的社会福利净影响4.有效保护率答:有效保护率是指整个关税制度(和有效保护措施)对某类产品在其生产过程中给予净重增值的影响,也就是由于整个关税制度而引起的国内增值的提高部分与自由贸易条件下增值部分相比的百分比。
有效保护不但注意关税对成品价格影响,也注意投入品(原材料或中间产品)由于征收关税而增加的价格,因此有效保护率计算的是某项加工工业中受全部关税制度影响而产生的增值比,是对一种产品的国内、外增值差额与其国外增值的百分比。
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题
1 资源与贸易: H-O模型
问题一:题目描述
回顾本章要素不可替代的例子,其生产可能性边界如下图:
问题
a. 如果一国既生产棉布又生产粮食,那么棉布相对价格的变化范围是什么 如果相对价格 超出这一范围,生产哪一种产品
b.将生产1码棉布和1卡路里粮食的单位成本写成1机时的价格r和1工时的价格w的函数, 在竞争市场中,上述单位成本就等于棉布和粮食的价格,解出要素价格r和w,
解答
• 要素价格均衡是基于自由贸易将会导致这些国家之间工资趋同的事实上,这个理论认 为当两国开始贸易,货物相对价格的趋同造成了资本和劳动力相对价格的趋同,就是说, 当两个国家从事货物贸易时,这两个国家实际上是间接地交易生产要素, 换言之,劳动力 丰富的一国用生产的劳动密集型货物去交易资本密集型的货物, 这意味着这个国家出 口劳动力,进口资本,贸易导致了两国要素价格均衡,
解答
• 将养牛定义为土地密集型产业,这是通过比较其生产中所使用土地与所 使用劳动的比率得到的结论,而不是看养牛产业中投入的土地的绝对数 量或者该国土地与人口的总体比例,我们认为养牛在美国相对于小麦种 植是土地密集型产业,是因为养牛产业中投入的的土地—劳动比率大于 小麦生产中投入的土地—劳动比率,
• 其他国家如果养牛使用的土地与劳动比率超过了该国小麦生产中使用 的土地—劳动比率,那么在这个国家养牛就同样是土地密集型产业,
问题五:题目描述
最近一些发展中国家 如印度 的计算机程序人员已经开始做原来只 在美国完成的工作,这种转移无疑导致美国程序员收入实质下降,请 回答以下问题:在美国技术工人的工资普遍上涨的情况下,为何会 出现这一情况 把削减工资作为防止计算机编程外包的理由,对此, 贸易经济学家会提出什么论据加以反驳
克鲁格曼 国际经济学第10版 英文答案 国际贸易部分krugman_intlecon10_im_09
Chapter 9The Instruments of Trade PolicyChapter OrganizationBasic Tariff AnalysisSupply, Demand, and Trade in a Single IndustryEffects of a TariffMeasuring the Amount of ProtectionCosts and Benefits of a TariffConsumer and Producer SurplusMeasuring the Costs and BenefitsBox: Tariffs for the Long HaulOther Instruments of Trade PolicyExport Subsidies: TheoryCase Study: Europe’s Common Agricultural PolicyImport Quotas: TheoryCase Study: An Import Quota in Practice: U.S. SugarVoluntary Export RestraintsCase Study: A Voluntary Export Restraint in PracticeLocal Content RequirementsBox: Bridging the GapOther Trade Policy InstrumentsThe Effects of Trade Policy: A SummarySummaryAPPENDIX TO CHAPTER 9: Tariffs and Import Quotas in the Presence of Monopoly The Model with Free TradeThe Model with a TariffThe Model with an Import QuotaComparing a Tariff and a Quota© 2015 Pearson Education Limited46 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth EditionChapter OverviewThis chapter and the next three focus on international trade policy. Students will have heard in the media various arguments for and against restrictive trade practices. Some of these arguments are sound, and some are clearly not grounded in fact. This chapter provides a framework for analyzing the economic effects of trade policies by describing the tools of trade policy and analyzing their effects on consumers and producers in domestic and foreign countries. Case studies discuss actual episodes of restrictive trade practices. An instructor might try to underscore the relevance of these issues by having students scan newspapers and magazines for other timely examples of protectionism at work.The analysis presented here takes a partial equilibrium view, focusing on demand and supply in one market, rather than the general equilibrium approach followed in previous chapters. Import demand and export supply curves are derived from domestic and foreign demand and supply curves. There are a number of trade policy instruments analyzed in this chapter using these tools. Some of the important instrumentsof trade policy include specific tariffs, defined as taxes levied as a fixed charge for each unit of a good imported; ad valorem tariffs, levied as a fraction of the value of the imported good; export subsidies, which are payments given to a firm or industry that ships a good abroad; import quotas, which are direct restrictions on the quantity of some good that may be imported; voluntary export restraints, which are quotas on trading that are imposed by the exporting country instead of the importing country; and local content requirements, which are regulations that require that some specified fraction of a good is produced domestically.The import supply and export demand analysis assumes a large country tariff, in which the imposition of a tariff drives a wedge between prices in domestic and foreign markets, and increases prices in the country imposing the tariff and lowers the price in the other country by less than the amount of the tariff. This contrasts with most textbook presentations, which make the small country assumption that the domestic internal price equals the world price plus the tariff. The chapter also discusses how the actual protection provided by a tariff may not equal the tariff rate if imported intermediate goods are used in the production of the protected good. The proper measurement, the effective rate of protection, is described in the text and calculated for a sample problem.The analysis of the costs and benefits of trade restrictions require tools of welfare analysis. The text explains the essential tools of consumer and producer surplus. Consumer surplus on each unit sold is defined as the difference between the actual price and the amount that consumers would have been willing to pay for the product. Geometrically, consumer surplus is equal to the area under the demand curve and above the price of the good. Producer surplus is the difference between the minimum amount for which a producer is willing to sell his product and the price that he actually receives. Geometrically, producer surplus is equal to the area above the supply curve and below the price line. These tools are fundamental to the student’s understanding of the implications of trade policies and should be developed carefully.The costs of a tariff include distortionary efficiency losses in both consumption and production. A tariff provides gains from terms of trade improvement when and if it lowers the foreign export price. Summing the areas in a diagram of internal demand and supply provides a method for analyzing the net loss or gain from a tariff. The gain from a tariff is larger the greater is the decrease in foreign export price from the tariff (as the tariff-imposing country is able to pass some of the costs of the tariff on to foreign exporters). Because large countries will have a larger influence on export prices than small countries, a large country is more likely to gain and, therefore, impose an import tariff.Other instruments of trade policy can be analyzed with this method. An export subsidy operates in exactly the reverse fashion of an import tariff. For example, Europe’s common agricultural policy has raised the price European farmers receive so much that Europe ends up exporting agricultural goods despite very high labor and land costs. The net cost of this shift to consumers is about $30 billion a year.An import quota has similar effects as an import tariff upon prices and quantities, but revenues, in the form of quota rents, accrue to the quota license holders, who are often foreign producers. For example, a quota on sugar imported into the United States has greatly increased the fortunes of foreign sugar producers (many of which are owned by American sugar refiners), at a significant cost to American consumers. Estimates place the cost of each job in the American sugar industry “saved” by protection at $1.75 million. Voluntary export restraints are a form of quotas in which import licenses are held by foreign governments. For example, Japan voluntarily limited exports of cars to the United States to forestall any import tariffs on cars from Japan in the wake of the oil price spike of 1979. The net result of these VER’s was to raise the price of Japanese cars, with the gains accruing directly to Japanese manufacturers. A similar story is happening now with voluntary export restraints on solar panels exported from China to the European Union.Another trade instrument is to mandate local content requirements. These raise the price of imports as well as domestic goods competing with imports but do not yield either tariff revenue or quota rents. The recent construction of the new Bay Bridge linking San Francisco and Oakland is used as a case study. Federal funding was available for this project but would have required the state of California to use a much more costly American contractor as opposed to the significantly cheaper Chinese bid. In the end, the bridge was built through local bonds rather than federal funding because of the local content requirement of federal funding.The Appendix discusses tariffs and import quotas in the presence of a domestic monopoly. Free trade eliminates the monopoly power of a domestic producer, and the monopolist mimics the actions of a firm in a perfectly competitive market, setting output such that marginal cost equals world price. A tariff raises domestic price. The monopolist, still facing a perfectly elastic demand curve, sets output such that marginal cost equals internal price. A monopolist faces a downward-sloping demand curve under a quota. A quota is not equivalent to a tariff in this case. Domestic production is lower and internal price higher when a particular level of imports is obtained through the imposition of a quota rather than a tariff.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The import demand equation, MD, is found by subtracting the Home supply equation from the Homedemand equation. This results in MD= 80 - 40 ⨯P. Without trade, domestic prices and quantities adjust such that import demand is 0. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2. a. Foreign’s export supply curve, XS, is XS=-40 + 40⨯P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b. When trade occurs, export supply is equal to import demand, XS=MD. Thus, using the equationsfrom Problems 1 and 2a, P= 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.© 2015 Pearson Education Limited48 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth Edition3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 ⨯ (P+ t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: Insolving these problems, you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD= 80 - 40 ⨯ (1 + t)P. The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged.MD=XS80 - 40 ⨯ (P+ 0.5) = 40P- 4080 - 20 - 40P= 40P- 4080P= 100P World= 1.25P Home=P World+t= 1.25 + 0.5 = 1.75Trade =MD=XS= (40 ⨯ 1.25) - 40 = 10D Home= 100 - (20 ⨯ 1.75) = 65S Home= 20 + (20 ⨯ 1.75) = 55D Foreign= 80 - (20 ⨯ 1.25) = 55S Foreign= 40 + (20 ⨯ 1.25) = 65b. andc. The welfare of the Home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 9-1.Figure 9-1where the areas in the figure are:a.55(1.75 - 1.50) - 0.5(55 - 50)(1.75 - 1.50) = 13.125b. 0.5(55 - 50)(1.75 - 1.50) = 0.625c. (65 - 55)(1.75 - 1.50) = 2.50d. 0.5(70 - 65)(1.75 - 1.50) = 0.625e. (65 - 55)(1.50 - 1.25) = 2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+ b+ c+ d) =-16.875. Producer surplus change: a= 13.125.Government revenue change: c+ e= 5. Efficiency losses b+ d are exceeded by terms of tradegain e. (Note: In the calculations for the a, b, and d areas, a figure of 0.5 shows up. This is because we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.)4. Using the same solution methodology as in Problem 3, when the Home country is very small relativeto the Foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much smaller. The small country is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now 36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal Home price is $1.545, Home demand is 69.10 units, Home supply is 50.90, and the volume of trade is 18.20. When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of 0.5 by Home lowered world price by25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internalHome price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+ d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example, the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is that the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff because the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. Dumping is a situation of selling the product at a lower price in the international market compared tothe domestic market. An anti-dumping shows that the companies sell the product lower than the cost of production. When companies follow the dumping and anti-dumping activities, the consumerpurchases the product at a lower price in the dumped country. This leads to the increase in thepurchasing power and welfare of the consumer. The increased competition forces the domesticproducer to cut prices and the overall market price falls.6.An imposition of tariff increases the price of the product at home. This leads to a decrease in quantitydemanded, hence a decrease in import. As demand decreases the income of the exporting country also falls. A decline in income of the export country leads to a reduction in demand for foreign goods.This means, the export of the home country also declines. An imposition of protective tariff increases domestic employment, competing with the foreign industries. This is because, a low import of commodity results in higher demand for the domestic product hence increasing employment.Yes, there might be indirect employment losses in other sectors. The countries which imposes tariff are also unable to export more. This is because an imposition of protective tariff reduces the income of the foreign country, hence reducing demand. Similarly, the domestic industries that use the imported goods as input, also find it expensive to use those imported goods due to the imposition of tariff. This might reduce the employment in other sectors.7. We first use Foreign’s export supply and Home’s import demand curves to determine the newworld price. The Foreign supply of exports curve, with a Foreign subsidy of 0.5 per unit, becomes XS=-40 + 40(1 + 0.5) ⨯P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2, and the internal Foreign price is 1.8.The volume of trade is 32. The Foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2)⨯ 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producer surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output.Foreign consumer surplus falls due to the higher price by 7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 ⨯ 0.3 +0.5 (6⨯ 0.3) = 21.9, while Home producer surplus falls by 44 ⨯ 0.3 + 0.5(6 ⨯ 0.3) = 14.1, for a netgain of 7.8 units of output.© 2015 Pearson Education Limited50 Krugman/Obstfeld/Melitz •International Economics: Theory & Policy, Tenth Edition8. a. False, unemployment has more to do with labor market issues and the business cycle than withtariff policy. Empirical estimates suggest that the cost to society of jobs saved through tariffs isexorbitantly high, and tariffs may actually increase unemployment in nonprotected industries.b. False, the opposite is true because tariffs by large countries can actually reduce world prices,which helps offset their effects on consumers.c. This kind of policy might reduce automobile production and Mexico but also would increase theprice of automobiles in the United States and would result in the same welfare loss associatedwith any quota.9. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting theimport of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. Set MD= 50 to find the post-quota price: 350 - 15P= 50. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) ⨯ 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is 0.5 ⨯ 100 bags ⨯ $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is 0.5 ⨯ 50 bags ⨯ $10 per bag = $250.10.An export subsidy would reduce the supply of sugar in Brazil and hence raise the domestic price. Therise in domestic price is less than 20%. The terms of trade will worsen for Brazil. This is because it lowers the price of sugar in the foreign market due to the increased supply. This leads to an additional loss in the terms of trade, equal to the price difference, due to the increased supply in the importing country.The government can impose countervailing import duties to protect the domestic producers and the price in the importing country.11. It would improve the income distribution within the economy because wages in manufacturingwould increase, and real incomes for others in the economy would decrease due to higher prices for manufactured goods. This is true only under the assumption that manufacturing wages arelower than all others in the economy. If they were higher than others in the economy, the tariffpolicies would worsen the income distribution.。
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题共65页PPT
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61、奢侈是舒适的,否则就不是奢侈 。——CocoCha nel 62、少而好学,如日出之阳;壮而好学 ,如日 中之光 ;志而 好学, 如炳烛 之光。 ——刘 向 63、三军可夺帅也,匹夫不可夺志也。 ——孔 丘 64、人生就是学校。在那里,与其说好 的教师 是幸福 ,不如 说好的 教师是 不幸。 ——海 贝尔 65、接受挑战,就可以享受胜利的喜悦 。——杰纳勒 尔·乔治·S·巴顿
文 家 。汉 族 ,东 晋 浔阳 柴桑 人 (今 江西 九江 ) 。曾 做过 几 年小 官, 后辞 官 回家 ,从 此 隐居 ,田 园生 活 是陶 渊明 诗 的主 要题 材, 相 关作 品有 《饮 酒 》 、 《 归 园 田 居 》 、 《 桃花 源 记 》 、 《 五 柳先 生 传 》 、 《 归 去来 兮 辞 》 等 。
谢谢!
克鲁格曼国经第十版课后习题
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克鲁格曼国际经济学第十版重点笔记
克鲁格曼国际经济学第十版重点笔记《国际经济学》(第10版)保罗·R·克鲁格曼重点笔记第三章劳动生产率与比较优势:李嘉图模型1.机会成本:利用一定资源或时间生产一种商品时,而失去的利用这些资源生产其他最佳替代品的机会。
2.比较优势:如果一个国家在本国生产一种产品的机会成本(用其他产品来衡量)低于在其他国家生产该种产品的机会成本,则这个国家在生产该种产品上就具有比较优势。
比较优势和国际贸易的基本原理:如果每个国家都出口本国具有比较优势的商品,则两国之间的贸易能使两国都受益。
英国经济学家大卫·李嘉图提出的国际贸易模型。
他指出,国际劳动生产率的不同是国际贸易的唯一决定因素。
该理论被称为李嘉图模型。
3.单一要素经济单位产品劳动投入(a L):生产率的倒数,用来表示劳动生产率。
生产可能性边界(PPF):一个国家的资源是有限的,它所能生产的产品也是有限的,因此就存在着产品替代的问题:多生产一种产品就意味着要牺牲另一种产品的产量。
一个经济体的生产可能性边界(PPF)显示了其固定数量资源所能生产的商品的最大数量。
本国资源对产出的限制:a LC Q C + a LW Q W≤ L(斜率的绝对值等于横轴商品的机会成本)Q W = L/a LW– (a LC /a LW )Q C,k= - a LC /a LW =奶酪的机会成本相对价格与供给简化模型中,劳动是唯一的生产要素,奶酪和葡萄酒的供给是由劳动力的流向决定的,而劳动力总会流向工资比较高的部门。
单一要素模型中不存在利润,奶酪部门每小时的工资率等于一个工人在1小时内创造的价值P C/a LC,葡萄酒部门每小时的工资率等于P W/a LW。
当P C /P W > a LC /a LW时,奶酪部门的工资率就比较高,该国会专业化生产奶酪;当P C /P W < a LC /a LW时,葡萄酒部门的工资率就比较高,该国会专业化生产葡萄酒;当P C /P W = a LC /a LW 时,该国会生产奶酪和葡萄酒两种产品。
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a. 我们在问题2中得出的条件是n =[(1/b)xS/F]1/2。
• 首先看价格方程,我们知道that 1/b= 150,插入相关参数,得到在美国和欧盟的平 衡时的厂家。
• nUS= [150x300,000,000/5,000,000,000]1/2= [9]1/2= 3 • nEU= [150x533,000,000/5,000,000,000]1/2= [16]1/2= 4
九、题目描述
• 下列哪种商品或服务最有可能遵循外部规模经济和动态收益递增? 说明原因
a. 软件技术支持服务 b. 柏油或水泥生产 c. 电影业 d. 癌症研究 e. 木材采伐
解答
a. 存在外部规模经济,因为对于技术而言需要劳动力的聚集;动态的收益增长来自于持续的创新 与学习
b. 外部经济是不太可能的,因为,即使大量工厂聚集在一起,单一的工厂的成本降低也是很难看 得出的;这些行业的动态收益增长也是很难存在的,因为一旦建成生产就比较稳定并且学习曲 线很低
价格, 成本
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八、题目描述
在劳动力市场共享的讨论中,我们强调在同一地区有两家公 司的优势:如果某公司扩张而另一家公司收缩,对于公司和 工人而言可以利用单一劳动共享是一个优势。但是若两家共 同扩张或共同收缩的情形发生了,这是否会引起反对地理集 中的讨论?
2 出口决定、外包 与跨国公司
一、题目描述
在完全竞争市场,厂商销售价格等于边际成本。 当存在内部规模经济时,厂商为何不如此选择?
解答
• 在完全竞争市场,每个厂商都是市场价格 的被动接受者。从行业整体来看,只要销 售价格不等于边际成本,就会有厂商不断 进出行业,直到最终达到均衡,此时 P=MC
• 内部规模经济通常发生在不完全竞争市场 中,当市场被较少的厂商控制,厂商会在 MR=MC处生产,此时存在超额利润。电 信行业就是一个显著的例子
解答
b. 在美国和欧盟,没有贸易时的价格: PUS= 17,000 + (150/3) = 17,050 PEU= 17,000 + (150/4) = 17,037.5
c. 贸易后,新市场的规模是S=300,000,000 +533,000,000=833,000,000 在问题 (a)的均衡中加入新的市场: n= [150x833,000,000/5,000,000,000]1/2=[25]1/2=5 P= 17,000+(150/5)=17,030
解答
• 从新考虑两种不同的场景:场景一,同一个地点有两个公司,两个公司共享 200个当地劳动力提供;场景二,两个公司距离较远,每个公司给予100个 当地劳动力。现在假设两家公司都要扩张,增加劳动力需求到150个。在第 一个情况下,两家公司共有100个劳动力的短缺,可能存在一家公司雇佣到 更多的劳动力而另一家公司出现更大的劳动力短缺的情况;在第二个情况下, 每个公司面临着相同的50个劳动力的短缺的情况。因此,位置较近的公司 比起较远的公司在扩张时会有一些矛盾。同样,如果两家公司同时收缩,位 置较集中的情况下劳动力剩余情况会更加严重
成本, C and 价格, P
PM AC
垄断利润
MC MR
QM
AC D
产量, Q
二、题目描述
在正文的数字例子中,假设两个国家将汽车市场与第三个国 家进行一体化,第三国的市场容量为每年375万辆汽车。求 出厂商数量、每个厂商的产出、在贸易发生后的一体化市场 中的汽车单价
解答
• 要解决这个问题,我们需要在在三个国家整合的市场中找到一个均衡,通
解答
• 案例a与d代表了外部经济规模案例,当工业生产集中于仅有的某一地区或 几个地点。地理聚集的优点是,包括了种类多样的专业服务以支持性工业生 产,有利于形成更大的专业劳动力市场以及知识外溢
• 案例b和c代表了内部市场规模,因为一个公司或工厂提供了整个行业的供 给,当一个工厂的输出增加时,平均成本降低。当只有仅有的几个工厂存在 时,就产生了不完全的竞争
• 但其他国家有可能受损,福利水平可能比贸易之前下降,因为先建优势意味 着生产可能会集中在“错误”的地点,这种情况下进口国可能不得不为其消 费的产品付出更大的代价,此时受损国就有了保护本国产业的动机
三、题目描述
举出两个在国际市场进行贸易的具有动态收益递增的 产品例子。在每个例子中,说明创新和“干中学”在 产业中对动态收益递增的重要性
c. 外部经济有很高的的可能性,因为有大量的制造商作为支持,并且存在有价值的技术劳动力聚 集,这对于电影的生产是很重要的;动态收益也有较高的可能,因为电影制作中学习很重要
d. 外部经济有一定的可能,因为知识外溢效应会比较明显;动态的回报有较大可能,因为研究中 存在边做边学的情况
e. 外部经济有一定的可能,如果木材行业有一系列的独特的技术,这将聚集一大批木材公司与木 材工人;动态收益可能性不大,因为木材收割的技术是很稳定的
二、题目描述
人们经常说收益递增的存在是国家之间产生摩擦的根 源之一,因为每个国家都希望扩大具有规模经济的行 业的生产。依据外部经济规模评述这一观点
解答
• 通过把具有规模经济的产品的生产集中在一个国家,而不是把它们分散在几 个国家中,整个世界将用同样的劳动生产出更多的产品
• 生产集中可以使生产国获得外部经济带来的成本降低的好处,如果在垄断竞 争模型中,同时该国还可以获得垄断租金
• 本章给出的数值为:
• F= 750,000,000 c= 5,000 b= 1/30,000 • SHome= 900,000, SForeign= 1,600,000, SCountry 3= 3,750,000
解答
• 现在将本国、外国、第三国家的数值相加,以计算总市场,
• S=SHome+SForeign+SCountry3= 900,000 + 1,600,000 + 3,750,000 =
解答
a.在两国具有相同的生产成本,供给曲线相同的情况 下,如果由于历史偶然原因,一国首先开始生产该 产品,那么该国将成为领先者,生产所有该产品并 向他国出口
b. 当贸易使规模经济最大化,成本的降低使得所有国 家的消费者都可以支付较低的价格。因为两个生产 成本相同,没有一个国家具有天然优势,因此无论 哪个国家生产该产品,贸易都不会使任何一个国家 的福利恶化
六、题目描述
相当普遍的是,当产业技术不再迅速进步时,产业集群会解 体,同时生产会转向低工资的地方。所谓技术不再迅速进步 表现为:绝对先进的设备不再是至关重要的;对高技术工人 的需求下降;前沿创新的优势不再明显。请用积极的外部性 解释产业集群解体的原因
解答
• 产业集群的形成很大程度上取决于外部规模经济,而专业供应商、劳动力市 场共享、知识外溢促成了外部规模经济效应,当这3种力量减弱时,地理聚 堆的成本优势也会减弱。对于生产企业来说,当外部规模经济效应逐渐减弱 甚至消失,企业就会意识到集中生产并不能为自己带来好处,为了生存就会 转而到劳动力更低廉的地区进行生产
• 这个价格比只有两个国家控制时低
三、题目描述
假设在汽车行业中的公司固定成本(工厂建立成本、资本设备等)是50亿美元,单位汽车可 变成本是17000美元。由于厂商增多导致市场竞争加剧,随着更多厂商的进入,市场价格下 降,或明确表示为P=17000+(150/n),此处n代表市场厂商数量。假设美国和欧洲初始 市场规模分布是3亿人和5.33亿人 a. 计算美国和欧洲展开贸易前的厂商均衡数量 b. 如果汽车市场不存在对外贸易,美国和欧洲的汽车均衡价格是多少? c. 先加上美国决定和欧洲进行自由贸易,和欧洲的贸易协定使汽车市场除美国3亿人外增加
了5.33亿人。美国和欧洲联合后有多少厂商?新的汽车市场均衡价格是多少? d. 在(b)和(c)中,美国价格为何不同?自由贸易改善了消费者境况吗?如何实现?
解答
我们得到以下信息:
• F= 5,000,000,000 • c= 17,000 • SUS= 300,000,000 SEU= 533,000,000 • P=c+ (1/bxn) = 17,000 + (150/n)
四、题目描述
• 评价下述情形中规模经济与比较优势的相对重要性:
a. 世界上的大部分铝是在挪威或加拿大冶炼的 b. 世界上一半的大型喷气式飞机是在西雅图组装的 c. 绝大部分半导体是在美国或日本生产的 d. 世界上大部分最好的酒产自法国
解答
a. 体现了规模经济。相对少的生产地区说明生产中存在外部规模经济。如果这些企 业产量足够大,那么生产中也可能有较大的内部规模经济
过设定一个平均成本均衡。我们设定平均成本:AC = (nxF/S) + c,价格: P = c + (1/bxn),n是厂商的数量,F是固定成本,S是市场规模,c是边际成
本,b是一个常数量,平均价格均衡可以有以下的表达:
• (nxF/S) +c=c+ (1/bxn) • n2= (1/b) xS/F • n= [(1/b) xS/F]½
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
解答
• 在具备外部经济的行业中,成本依赖于当前产量。随着累积产量的增加,成 本不断下降时,动态收益就产生了,累计产量意味着经验。换句话说,学习 曲线在已成立的生产者而不是创业者中存在着
• 以生物科技产品生产和飞机设计为例。生物科技领域是创造新能源产品的领 域,不过如何成功的创造一个可盈利的新产品,是需要实践的;飞机设计是 以创造更舒服或者更有成本效率的飞机为目标,新产品的产生也是需要对以 前的旧产品进行精密的修改,是一个依赖于以前模型经验的行业