《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示
语言学概论重难点提示
Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《语言学概论》重、难点问与答注:这个文件是根据语言学教程修订版总结出来的要点问答,请同学们注意第四章(句法)与现行第三版的不同。
《语言学概论》重、难点问与答 (1)Chapter 1 Invitation (4)1. What is language? (4)2. What are the design features of language? (4)3. What is arbitrariness? (4)4. What is duality? (4)5. What is productivity (creativity)? (5)6. What is displacement? (5)7. What is cultural transmission? (5)8. Why do linguists say language is human specific? (5)9 The origin of language (5)10. What functions does language have? (6)11 What is the informative function? (6)12 The Interpersonal function (6)13 The Emotive function (6)14. What is the phatic communion? (6)15. What is the performative function? (6)16. What is linguistics? (7)17. What makes linguistics a science? (7)18. What are the major branches of linguistics? (7)19 Important distinctions in linguistics (7)20. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches (linguistics)? (7)21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies (linguistics)? (7)22. What is speech and what is writing? (8)23. What is the difference between langue and parole? (8)24. What is the difference between competence and performance? (8)25. The difference between sentence and utterance (8)26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior? (8)27. In what way do langue, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And theircounterparts? (9)Chapter 2 Speech Sound (9)28. What is phonetics? (9)29. How are the vocal organs formed? (9)30. What is place of articulation? (9)31. What is the manner of articulation? (9)32. What is a vowel? And a consonant? (9)33. How do phoneticians classify consonants? (10)34. How do phoneticians classify vowels? (10)35. What is IPA? When did it come into being? (10)36. What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription? (10)37. What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? (10)38. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone? (10)41. What is complementary distribution? (11)42. What is the assimilation rule? (11)43. What is suprasegmental (prosodic) phonology? What are suprasegmental features? (11)44. What is the syllable structure like? (11)Chapter 3 Lexicon (11)45. What is morphology? (12)46. What is inflection/inflexion? What is derivation? (12)47. What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph? (12)48. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme? (12)49. What is a root? What is a stem? What is an affix? (12)50. What are open classes? What are closed classes? (12)51. What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? (12)52. How words change through history? (13)53. What is affixatio n? And conversion? and compounding? (13)54. What is blending? And abbreviation? And back formation? (13)55. What is collocation? (14)Chapter 4 Syntax (14)56. What is syntax? (14)57. What is a sentence? (14)58. How is sentences classified? (14)59. What is category? (14)60. What is a subject? A predicate? An object? (14)61. What is number? What is gender? What is case? (15)62. What is concord? What is government? (15)63. What are syntactic relations? (15)64. What is immediate constituents (IC) analysis? What are immediate constituents (and ultimate constituents)? (15)65. What are endocentric constructions and exocentric constructions? (16)66. What is a phrase? What is a clause? (16)67. What is conjoining (coordination)? What is embedding (subordination)? What is recursiveness? (17)68. What is hypotactic relation? What is paratactic relation? (17)69. What are phrase structure rules? (17)70. X-bar theory---a more abstract description of phrasal structure rules (17)71. What are kernel sentences? What are transforms? (17)72. What are deep structures? What are surface structures? (18)73. What is the Functional Sentence Perspective? (18)74. What is communicative dynamism? (19)75. What is the ideational function? And the interpersonal function? And the textual function? (19)76. What is systemic-functio nal grammar’s view on sentence? (19)Chapter 5 Meaning (19)77. What is semantics? (20)78. What is meaning? (20)79. What is the difference s between meaning, concept, connotation, sense, implication, denotation, notation,reference, implicature and signification? (20)80. What is the referential theory? (20)83. What is synonymy? (21)84. What is Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there? (21)85. What is hyponymy? What is a hyponym? What is superordinate? (22)86. What is polysemy? What is homonymy? (22)87. What is semantic component (feature)? What is componential analysis? (22)88. How to decide a sentence meaning? (22)89. What is the principle of compositionality? (22)90. What is the integrated theory? (22)91. What is propositional logic? What is a proposition? (23)92. What is predication analysis? What is a one-place predicate? What is a two-place predicate? What is ano-place predicate? What are down-graded predications? (23)93. What is entailment(蕴含)? (23)94. What is presupposition（预设）? (23)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind (24)95. What is psychology? (24)96. What is language acquisition? (24)97. What is linguistic acquisition device (LAD)? (24)98. What is the critical period hypothesis (CPH)? (24)Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society (24)99. What is sociolinguistics? (24)100. What is culture? (24)101. What is communicative competence? (24)102. What is linguistic determinism? What is linguistic relativity? What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? (24)103．What is speech community? (24)104. What is speech variety? (25)105. What is registers? (25)Chapter 8 Language in Use (25)106. What is pragmatics? (25)107. What is context? (25)108. What is sentence meaning? And utterance meaning? (25)109. What is speech act theory? What are locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act? (25)120. What is the cooperative principle (CP)? (25)121. What is conversational implicature(CI)? (26)Chapter 1 Invitation1. What is language?“L anguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by the members of a speech community for human communication, social interaction, cultural transmission, and cognition.It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Language elements are arranged according to grammar rules.It is arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word (like “book”) and what it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, 书in Chinese.It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. Animals do not have this honor that we call language.(For more information, see P.3)2. What are the design features of language?“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability, etc. (For more information, see P.3-9)3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). This results in the different words which can refer to the same thing in the natural world such as book, livre,书.Language is almost entirely arbitrary at the sound level. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type”and “write”are unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree. At the sound level, language is arbitrary except for a very small number of words such as onomatopoeia which bear less arbitrary connection. At the syntactic level, language is not arbitrary because if we change the word order of a sentence, the meaning will be changed. It is conventionality that makes sound and meaning combined together.(For more information, see P.4-5)4. What is duality?“By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two level s has its own principles of organization”(Lyons). Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning, namely, phonemes or sound segments. According to Hu Zhuanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words) and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).“Stratification”, “I nfinite use of finite means”Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication systemenjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.(For more information, see P.6-7)5. What is productivity (creativity)?Productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).(For more information, see P.7-8)6. What is displacement?Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events, and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2000 years and the second is situated far away from us.Or: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for s ome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.(For more information, see P.8-9)7. What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has the “design features” such as arbitrariness, duality, displacement, creativity, and cultural transmission, which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taugh t “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child” in the above item 7.)9 The origin of languageThere are many speculations about the origin of language. A combination of the following theories can describe the origin of language.God created Adam and speech simultaneously, for God spoke with Adam and Adam answered him. The language they were said to have spoken was Hebrew. The bow-wow (摹声说) The pooh-pooh theory (感叹说): The dingdong theory (本能论): Just as in nature every object, when struck by a solid body, gave off its own peculiar sound like a be;; when it is struck), so man’s mind gave off a particular response to the various impact which the would made upon it. The yo-he-ho theory(劳动喊声说): The ta-ta theory or the gesture theory (手势说): The sing-song theory or the music theory (唱歌说): The contact theory(接触说): To sum up, the origin of language still remains a mystery. But the origin oflanguage does involve sociological, psychological and biological factors related to human’s evolution.(For more information, see P.9-10)10. What functions does language have?For Jacobson, language has six functions: referential (to convey massage and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others though commands and entreaties), phatic (to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear you intentions, words and meanings).M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.HU Zhuanglin et al, in his book, have listed seven functions: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic communion, recreational, and metalingual functions.Maybe the most important functions are informative, interpersonal and emotive functions.(For more information, see P.10-16)11 What is the informative function?For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud as when they are working on a math problem. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. This is indeed an important function of language. Or: ideational function (Halliday): language serves for the expression of ‘content’: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. In serving this function, language also gives structure to experiences and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us.”12 The Interpersonal functionPeople have the purpose of maintaining social relationships with one another by means of communication. So, language is used as a means of constructing and maintaining social relationships within a community. Without language, it is hard to imagine that people can live and work together and cooperate to achieve their different purposes.13 The Emotive functionAccording to some investigation, though the conveying of some information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication (Nida, 1998: 17). People have emotions when they convey information.Or: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.14. What is the phatic communion?The “phatic communion” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?”, “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literal ly, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.15. What is the performative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions or change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. Thejudge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well.(See Hu Zhuanglin, et. al., P247-249).16. What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities(See Hu Zhuanglin et al., P16-17)17. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.18. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: Phonetics, phonology, morphology, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics, applied linguistics, computational linguistics, stylistics, etc.(For definitions, see Hu Zhuanglin et al P.17-22)19 Important distinctions in linguisticsThey are: descriptive vs. prescriptive linguistics, synchronic vs. diachronic description of language, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance, linguistic potential and linguistic behavior, sentence and utterance, etic and emic(For more information, see P.23-27)20. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches (linguistics)?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also. (For more information, see P.23-24)21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies (linguistics)?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through the course of its history is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE; and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., P24).22. What is speech and what is writing?Language has two basic forms, speech and writing. Speech is the spoken form of language and writing is the written form of language. Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken form of language—speech for the following reasons: firstly, Speech is primary because it existed long before writing systems came into being; Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or are just a record of speech; Thirdly, speech, in terms of function, is used for a wider range of purposes than writing and carries a larger load of communication than writing; Fourthly, Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.23. What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual use of language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation; langue is not actually spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event; langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(For more information, see P.24-25)24. What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while hi s performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycho linguistically.(For more information, see P.25-26)25. The difference between sentence and utteranceSentence is a grammatical unit which is considered as a self-contained or independent unit in isolation. The meaning of a sentence is abstract or decontextualized (free from context). Linguists analyze a sentence in terms of its grammatical structure and meaning in itself regardless of the context.Utterance is the unit that people utter in the course of communication. It is what a speaker says in a certain situation with a certain purpose. The meaning of and utterance is decided by both its conceptual meaning and its contextual meaning. For example, an utterance can be a full sentence, an incomplete sentence, sentence fragment, or none of them, such as “Good morning, Hi, Ouch, etc. so the meaning of an utterance is determined by the context of use.26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?。
语言学概论考试重点
一、名词解释:⒈组合关系符号和符号组合起来的关系成为符号的组合关系。
聚合关系语言链条上的某一环节能够互相替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群的关系叫聚合关系。
⒉语流音变音位和音位组合的时候，由于受邻音的影响,或者说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同，可能发生不同的变化，叫做语流音变。
分析例子常见的语流音变有同化、异化、弱化、脱落四种。
1、同化：两个不同的音位，其中一个受另一个的影响，变成跟它相同或相近的音位。
如books的s发成/s/，可是dogs的s却变成了/z/,因为/g/是浊音，/s/受/g/的影响也变成了浊音/z/。
2、异化：指两个本来相同或相近的音位，其中一个由于某种原因变得跟另一个不同。
如普通话两个上声相连，第一个上声要变成阳平.“你好、语法、粉笔、雨伞、土改”3、弱化：在语流中,有些音的发音可能变弱，不那么清晰,这种现象叫做弱化。
如英语冠词a、an、the的语音弱化.4、脱落：弱化音往往会进一步脱落。
如北京话“你们”常发成/nim/，“我们"常发成/wom/,“豆腐”/toufu/说成/touf/。
⒊音位变体一个音位常常是一组音，其各个音之间没有区别意义的作用，属于同一个音位的多个音素，都是这个音位的变体.⒋非音质音位语音中，音高、音强、音长也是区别语言单位的语音形式,也能起区别意义的作用,也能构成音位。
有区别词的语音形式的作用的音高、音强、音长等叫做非音质音位。
⒌音素是构成音节的最小单位或最小的语音片段，是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位。
⒍义素是义位的组成部分，是由分解义位而得到的比义位低一层的语义单位。
如“哥哥"这个义位可分解为四个义素：亲属、同胞、年长、男性。
⒎义项是传统词汇学—-词典学中常用的术语。
现代语义学中的“义位”基本上对应于传统词汇学中的“义项”.⒏词法语素组合成词的规则叫构词法,它和词的变化规则合在一起叫做词法。
句法词组合成词组或句子的规则叫做句法.⒐内部屈折即“屈折”，指词内部的语音形式的变化。
《语言学概论》教学大纲汇总
《语言学概论》课程教学大纲一、基本信息课程编号：10601100540课程名称：语言学概论英文名称： Linguistics课程性质：必修课程总学时：64 学分：4理论学时：64 实验学时：0实践学时：0 指导自学学时：0适用专业：英语专业（医药贸易方向）适用层次：本科先修课程：英语语法，精读等承担院部：人文学院学科组：英语专业学科组二、课程介绍（一）课程目标及地位本课程是高等院校英语专业必修课程之一，一般安排在第七学期，向学生介绍语言学领域的重要研究成果，包括语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学的基本理论以及语言与文化、社会、思维等的关系。
通过本课程的学习，学生将具备语言学的基本知识，并通过所获得的知识加深对英语的理解及增强对英语中一些语言现象的观察和分析的能力。
本课程的教学目的有两个，即：掌握英语语言学的基础知识、以及应用英语从事语言学方面研究的能力。
1、掌握语言学的基础知识本课程以英语为主要研究对象，重点介绍英语语言的内部结构、表现形式和意义以及与人的心理、社会、文化艺术、信息科学、教育等的关系，要求学生通过听讲与自学，对英语语言学、语言学分支、流派及其发展等有一个比较全面地了解，掌握英语语言学的基本概念、研究方法及其应用等，提高对英语的理性认识，初步具备发现问题和解决问题的能力。
2、应用英语从事语言学研究的能力作为语言学方面的专门课程，本课程的最终目的是培养学生应用英语从事英语语言学或一般语言学研究的能力。
因此，本课程要求那些对语言学有兴趣并有意从事这方面研究的学生，能够运用英语和所学的语言学知识从事语言学或英语语言学方面的研究，用英语进行表达或撰写论文。
（二）教学基本要求1．“语言学概论”是汉语言文学专业的一门专业基础课程，是语言理论基础课。
它从理论上探讨人类语言的本质、结构和演变的规律。
学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。
语言学概论课程重难点分析(4)
《语言学概论》课程重难点分析（4）一、怎样认识语法意义？语法意义是同词汇意义相对而言的，是语法单位在组合中所产生的关系意义。
语法意义只有在相关的语法单位进入某个组合结构以后才会产生，比如一个词，孤零零地是很难说明它具有什么样的语法意义。
比如英语单词work，单独看很难说它有什么语法意义，可是它与别的单位组合，进入具体的结构，就产生了相应的语法意义。
又如：“大高楼”和“高楼大”，前者是偏正结构，表示修饰关系，大修饰高楼，说明是什么样的高楼，后者是主谓结构，表示陈述关系，是陈述高楼，说明高楼具有大的属性。
这些关系，都是在语法单位的组合中产生的关系意义，像“大”、“高楼”，在独立存在时，无所谓修饰，也无所谓陈述，就说不上有什么样的语法意义。
所以，语法意义是和一定的语法结构紧密联系在一起的。
分析句子，说这个词是主语，那个词是谓语，这个词是定语，那个词是状语，等等，这些意义都是在组合结构中产生的语法意义。
而反过来说，词与词之间的关系，也要通过词的语法意义表现出来，如果一个词在语句结构种没有相应的语法意义，那么这个词在结构中是站不住脚的。
例如“She read a book”中的read，在这里是中性的，没有体现出人称的差异来，因而是不正确的。
二、什么是语法形式？同语法意义是什么关系？任何意义，都需要一定的形式才能表现出来，表现语法意义的形式就是语法形式。
语法形式是语法意义在语言中的外部表现，是语法意义的外部标志，是表达语法意义的物质外壳或外部的标志部分。
例如英语表示复数的语法意义，就是通过在词干后面附加上词尾s表示出来的，这里的词尾s就是复数这个语法意义的语法形式。
下列句子中be的不同语法形式，体现了不同的语法意义。
I am a teacher.（普通体、现在时、第一人称单数）He is a worker.（普通体、现在时、第三人称单数）We are readers.（普通体、现在时、第一人称复数）She was a peasent.（普通体、过去时、单数）They were teachers.（普通体、过去时、复数）She has been a peasent.（完成体、现在时）The book is being read by him.（进行体、现在时）语法意义和语法形式是互相依存的关系，二者各以对方为存在的条件。
《语言学概论》教学重,难点及其分解X
《语言学概论》教学重、难点及其分解Ξ柳春燕 罗耀华 郝 琴(华中师范大学文学院语言学系,湖北武汉430079)摘 要: 《语言学概论》是汉语言文学专业的主干课程之一,本文结合教学实践,着重对整体结构的把握,对重难点的分解,为成教学生的自学扫清障碍,让他们尽快掌握其中的精要内容。
关键词: 义素分析法;层次分析法;述谓结构;关系义场中图分类号: H0 文献标识码: A 文章编号: 1007-2187(2003)003-0030-05一、教材特点由邢福义、吴振国主编的《语言学概论》既具有一般语言学教材基本理论条分缕析的优点,又吸取了语言研究和语言教学的最新成果。
在使用本教材的过程中,我们发现对于成教学生来说,自学本教材有较大难度,从以下几个方面着手把握这本教材的特点将有助于化难为易。
1.注重语言学知识结构的系统性语言是一个复杂的符号系统,语言符号之间存在着复杂的系统关联。
故要把握语言的本质特征,应重点把握语言的系统性。
语言的系统性是指系统元素之间的联系性。
每个子系统又由更小的子系统构成,语音系统可以分为音段系统;音段系统又可以分为元音系统和辅音系统等。
《语言学概论》高屋建瓴的总论部分初步建立起本学科的框架,我们将其图示为:2.注重“类”与“例”的关系本课程是揭示语言学普遍规律的学科,既涉及语言的共性,同时也涉及语言的个性。
以乔姆斯基的语言观为例,将语法分为普遍语法和个别语法,有公式为:PG =α・U G ,其中PG 指Personalgrammar ,U G 指Universalgrammar ,α是参数。
乔姆斯基将语言分为语言能力(competence )和语言运用(performance ),前者表现为语言知识,是人类共有的普遍语法知识,是以人脑的物质结构为基础的某种属性,是先天具备的人类遗传机制;另一部分是个别的语言知识,是通过后天经验获得的知识。
作为“类”与“例”,涉及语言的结构类型分类,以世界上的所有语言作为关照对象,将其分为:词根语,以汉语、越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等为代表;屈折语,以俄语、德语、阿拉伯语等为代表;粘着语,以土耳其语、哈萨克语、芬兰语、维吾尔语以及蒙古语等为代表;编插语,以各种印第安语、爱斯基摩人的语言、古亚细亚语系的楚克奇语等为代表。
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示_百度文库
英语语言学概论》重、难点提示整理人:宁强县第一中学陈宁第一章语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性;语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为;语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说等。
第二章语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观;语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为;普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义;;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调等。
第五章词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生;词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干等。
第六章词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格;一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用;里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义;句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化;第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为;合作原则。
语言学概论重难点
语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defin ing properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed wi th an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can h ardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems donot have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is use d to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demandno answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use o f language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Y angtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant tothe study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexic ology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The des cription of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The des cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the des criptive and the pres criptive approaches?A linguistic study is “des criptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “pres criptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly des criptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs innatural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize gr ammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribu te of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, andlinguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the heare r‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,];(4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow trans cription and what is broad trans cription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet m ade a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” trans criptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or trans cription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]‟s, readily making possible the “narrow trans cription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme ar e called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these wordstogether constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may no t be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring i n different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[…imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.。
英语语言学概论知识点总结
英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。
英语语言学关键词及重难点
Plosive 破裂音 p b t d 等
Trill 颤音 tap of flap 悬垂，阻塞 lateral fricative 侧摩擦 lateral approximant 无擦通音
娱乐功能 recreational 语言中那些纯粹因为主意本身好听而说出的话语
元语言功能 metalingual
Linguistics is a branch of science ,which takes language as its object of investigation.
语音学phonetics： studies speech sounds, including the production fo speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made ,transmitted and received ,the description and classification of speech sounds.
概述
一．什么是语言：language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication 人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统
二．语言的普遍特征：(design features): 任意性arbitrariness：saussure,语言所表达的概念与其相应的声音符号之间的关系是任意的 the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning
英语语言学概论笔记
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲一、课程说明:《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。
《语言学概论》研究始于20世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。
现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。
语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。
对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。
本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第６学期和第７学期开设。
其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。
二、教学目的及要求:本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。
本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。
在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。
本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。
应鼓励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点:本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。
本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。
四、与其它课程的关系:本课程是一门主干性课程。
与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。
五、学时与学分:学时：７２学时学分：４学分六、教学内容：第一章绪论本章主要教学内容:1．语言学习的意义。
2．语言的定义。
3．语言的定义特征。
4．语言的起源。
5．语言的功能。
6．语言学的定义。
考证-语言学概论-难点分析
词组的聚合分类词组的聚合类有两种分法：一种是分为“体词性词组”和“谓词性词组”，另一种是分为“向心词组”和“离心词组”。
1.体词性词组：指整个词组的功能相当于体词的词组，都可以承担名词的作用，用做主语、宾语。
例如联合词组（名+名）、偏正（定中）词组、的字词组、数量词组等。
2.谓词性词组：指整个词组的功能相当于谓词的词组，例如偏正（状中）词组、动宾词组、联合词组（动+动）、主谓词组、动补词组、介词词组。
词组的聚合分类3.向心词组：指整个词组的功能相当于词组中心语功能的词组，例如偏正词组、动宾词组、动补词组、联合词组。
“仔细看”——“看”；“木头房子”——“房子”4.离心词组：指整个词组的功能不等于词组中任何成分的功能的词组，例如汉语的“的”字词组、主谓词组、介词词组等。
语用的性质（1）情境性：语言运用离不开具体的使用环境，包括交际双方言辞构成的上下文语境和非言辞的主客观因素构成言语环境。
（2）社会性：语言运用本质上说是一种与他人密切相关的社会行为，具有社会性。
交际双方不论是在表达内容，还是表现形式方面，都要遵从社会习惯和使用规范，而且彼此要相互配合。
（3）规约性：语言运用过程必须遵从语言使用的社会习惯和表达规则，按照社会的行为规范行事。
语境1.语境指言语活动的环境。
语言学家关注的“语境”是从具体的言语交际活动中抽象出来的，能够对人们的话语结构、意义、表达方式和表达效果产生影响的因素和条件。
2.语境的构成涉及语言要素和非语言要素。
语言要素会产生一般的、稳定的语义，非语言要素则在特定的交际场合和知识背景作用下产生个别的、临时的意义，通常叫做语境意义。
一般的语义学研究中只研究一般、稳定的语言意义。
言语1.言语行为指说话人通过语言来实施的行为，包括“言有所述”和“言有所为”两类。
前者以言叙事，构成叙述句；后者以言行事，构成施为句。
2.言语行为可以分为言内行为、言外行为和言后行为三种主要类型，这既是三种不同的言语行为，实际上也是一个言语过程的三个阶段。
《语言学概论》教学大纲
《语言学概论》教学大纲课程英文名称：General course of linguistics 课程编号：总学时：32 先修课程：英语精读、英语泛读、现代汉语、英美概况等适用专业：英语专业本科学生一、课程性质与任务1．课程性质：本课程是英语专业的专业必修课。
2．课程任务：学习完本大纲规定的内容后，应达到下列基本要求：掌握英语语言学的基础知识、英语语言的性质、结构、特征和功能，以及它们与外语教学的关系，从而加强英语语言的学习和英语教学法的研究，提高英语语言水平和英语语言教学能力。
了解语言在时空中的变异及其与社会、文化、语境、思维等外部因素的关系，同时了解部分主要语言学流派。
学生通过对该课程的学习，既能借助语言学理论整理和吸收语言知识，又能运用正确的观点评价语言。
二、课程教学内容、形式和结业标准1. 教学内容：本课程由7章构成（1）导论：导论：语言学的概念和意义，语言学的概念和意义，语言学的概念和意义，语言的区别性特征和语言学里一些重要区别性概语言的区别性特征和语言学里一些重要区别性概念。
（2）语音学：语音学的概念和范畴，辅音的发音方式和发音部位。
了解发音器官和国际音标。
（3）音系学：音位学的定义，音素的区别性特征以及跟音素相关的几个重要概念。
超语段特征：音节、重音、音高等。
（4）形态学：形态学相关的基本概念和词素的类型，构词法种类。
（5）句法学：短语结构规则和转换生成规则；直接成分分析法，句法功能和范畴。
（6）语义学：语义学的研究范畴吗，各种意义关系以及意义分析的方法，历史上不同的意义观和研究语义学的方法。
（7）语用学：语用学的概念，意义和语境的关系、言语行为理论，会话合作原则，了解会话含义，礼貌原则。
了解会话含义，礼貌原则。
（8）语言和文化：）语言和文化： 语言、文化和社会的关系，语言的变体，Sapir -Whorf 假说。
2. 教学形式：本课程采用课堂讲授与课后作业相结合的方式进行。
：本课程采用课堂讲授与课后作业相结合的方式进行。
英语语言学概论Phonetics
The articulatory apparatus of a human being, are contained in three important areas or cavities: thepharyngeal cavity--- the throat, theoral cavity--- the mouth, and thenasal cavity ---the nose.
教学内容（要点）
1. The definition of Phonetics
2. Sub-branches of Phonetics
3. Speech organs
4. Classification of sounds
5. Consonants
6. Vowels
7. Phonetic featuresAir coming from the lungs and through the windpipe passes through the glottis, a part of the larynx, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe. Lying across the glottis are the vocal cords. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants. such as [ b ], [ z ], and [m]. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sounds. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition arevoiceless, such as [t], [s], and [f] in English.
《语言学概论》期末复习重点难点
《语言学概论》期末复习重点难点语言学概论第一章语言的本质语言与言语的关系1.言语是指说话这一行为以及说出来的话；语言是指说话时使用的材料和规则。
2.语言是一个封闭的系统，而言语是开放的；语言具有有限性，言语具有无限性。
语言材料和规则都是有限的。
但使用这些词和语法规则能造出多少汉语的句子确实无法计数的。
3.语言属于社会全体成员，言语属于讲话者个人。
不同的人在不同的语境、根据不同的意图讲出的每句话都已经具有了即时即地的色彩。
因此，语言属于个人。
但不同人所使用的语言材料和规则却属于讲这种语言的社会全体成员。
4.语言存在于言语之中，言语是对语言的具体运用；语言规则和材料是一种抽象的体系，人所听到的是具体的言语。
语言符号有哪些符号属性每种属性用一句话说明要点。
1.任意性（根本属性）。
人们选择哪一个具体语音形式和哪一个具体语义内容所结合成一个语言符号是完全任意的，是无可论证的。
2.线条性。
语言符号在使用中必须按时间先后顺次排列出现，人们不可能同事使用或说出多个符号。
3.相对稳定性。
语言不是一成不变的，它还是会发生变化的，只不过这种变化的过程是非常缓慢的，因此具有相对稳定的特点总结（语言的组成要素）两种说法的出发点不同，认识问题的角度不同。
语音、词汇、语法三要素的说法是从组织语言的角度出发的；语音、语义、语法三要素的说法是从分析语言的角度出发的。
两种说法在理论上都有纠结的方面。
1.前一种说法的问题主要在语音与词汇两个因素之间有交叉，因为词的构成的一个方面就是语音；2.后一种说法的问题主要在语法同语义之间有交叉，因为语法内容中包括语法范畴，而语法范畴是由一定语法形式表达的语法意义，比如books中的-s表示复数的语法意义，而语法意义也是语义中的一种。
语言的几层体系的特点（从底层到上层的变化特点）1.语言是由语音、语义、语法三要素组成的系统。
这个系统可以再分为两个层级：帝层和上层。
底层是由一套音位组成的，构成语言的形式系统，不涉及语义。
词组和句子有哪些差别
《语言学概论》重难点分析（3）一、词组和句子有哪些差别？语法的四级单位其实功能是完全不平衡的，语素、词、词组是静态的备用单位，而句子则是使用单位，是动态单位，是传递信息的基本单位。
就拿形式上和句子最接近的词组说，二者也有本质上的不同。
首先，作为备用的静态单位，词组和语境没有关系，而句子则是和一定语境紧密结合的，是一定的人在一定的场合因为一定的目的而用来传递某种信息的。
因此同样的内容，词组和句子的意思可能相差很远。
例如“严禁吸烟”，作为词组，可以说是泛泛地指禁止吸烟这种行为，而作为句子，比如在加油站、候车室贴着这个标语，则是特指在这个地方不准吸烟，而不是在进行禁烟宣传。
又如“禁止停车”，词组的意思是车不能停，而作为句子，是特指在贴这个标语的地方不能停车，不然，车岂不是要永远不停得开着！其次，正是因为有语境，有上下位的提示，句子中非重要信息内容的结构成分是可以省略的。
例如“你什么时候去看电影？”回答一定是“明天”或“后天”或别的什么具体的时间，一般不会说“我明天去看电影”这样的完全句，交际中，我们常见的都是不完全主谓句，无论是询问还是回答。
而作为词组，是不可能有这样的省略的。
可见，句子的结构在一定的语境中是比较灵活的。
第三，句子传递信息，有一定的语气，相应地有一定的语调，而词组作为静态的备用单位，不代表任何观点，不表示任何感情，因此是没有语调的。
句子是表述单位，因此，凡是句子，总是要体现说话人的某种目的，要表达某种语气。
人们说话，不外乎陈述事实，提出问题，发出感叹，发出请求，因此句子总是要体现出陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹的语气来，在形式上，就有相应的语调作为标志。
而词和词组作为静态的语言单位，是没有任何目的的，因此也就没有特定的语气和语调。
第四，词组的意义是不确定的，没有具体的内容，而句子的所指是确定的，一定有具体内容，而不仅仅是有意义。
具体地说，句子中的名词，都是有指称的，句子中的动词，都是有所叙述的。
重庆三峡学院外国语系《英语语言学》课程教学重点、难点及安排
重庆三峡学院外国语学院《英语语言学》课程教学重点、难点及安排第一章语言本章是语言的导论，通过学习了解语言的本质，掌握其定义和功能，促使学生产生对语言及语言研究的兴趣。
一、教学要点语言概述及语言的起源二、教学重点和难点1. 语言的功能2. 语言的结构特征三、教学重点和难点指导1.课外查阅: 比较不同的语言学家对“语言” 所下的定义, 并结合课堂所学内容加以比较、分析、讨论2.课堂讨论：人类语言和动物交流之间的区别3.通过语言实例领悟语言的功能第二章语言学本章是语言学概述，要求学生掌握语言学的定义和语言学研究的微观框架和宏观框架,初步了解语言学各分支的研究内容，熟悉并掌握语言学的重要基本概念的区分。
一、教学要点语言学的分支及其主要研究内容; 宏观语言学;二、教学重点和难点1. 语言学的定义2. 语言学里的一些重要的基本概念的区分:描写与规定、共时与历时、语言和言语、语言能力与语言应用三、教学重点和难点指导1．课堂知识扩展: 通过介绍语言科学研究的步骤和原则使学生理解语言作为一门科学所具有的一些基本特征；2．基于语言主要要素即语音、符号形式和语义，概括引出语言学的分支，并利用多媒体手段和借用实例对语言学的分支做形象地介绍。
3．课下查阅+课堂讨论：现代语言学和传统语法的区别4．重要的基本概念课下导读：索绪尔和乔姆斯基的语言观及比较第三章语音学本章探讨语言学的分支——语音学，重点学习语音学的一个重要分支：发声语音学。
要求学生掌握人类语音共有的一些物理属性和生理属性，如发音部位和发音方式，同时也要掌握元音和辅音的特点及区别。
学生要熟悉语音学里的很多基本术语，达到能熟练地对英语里的发音进行准确地描述，并知道国际音标、严式标音、宽式标音和运用一些常见的严式标音的附加符号。
一、教学要点“语音学”的界定及其三大分支; 发声器官; 元音和辅音;二、教学重点和难点1. 语音学的定义2. 发音部位和发音方式3. 元音和辅音的特点、区别及描述4.严式标音、宽式标音和协同发音三、教学重点和难点指导1．利用教学图片对人体的发声部位进行介绍和归类，让学生找出自己的发音问题；2．课堂上要加强学生对术语的理解和记忆；多进行语音的实例描述；3．课下导读Jones D. 1956, An Outline of English Phonetics, Cambridge: W. Heffer & sons Ltd. 一书中的部分章节内容第四章音系学本章主要学习语言的音位系统的基本知识，包括音位、音位变体、音位过程、区别性特征理论、超音段特征。
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《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示
第一章语言的性质
语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学
语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学
发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学
音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等.
第五章词法学
词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学
词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法
句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学
语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化
语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；
第十章语言、思维与文化
语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学
语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原
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