语言学第四章chapter4 Syntax
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax
Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别，〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别，〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。
word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词〔N〕： student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕： like red go形容词〔adj〕： tall lovely red副词〔adv〕： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。
《语言学》Chapter 4 Syntax 习题兼答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, andadjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements beingconjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PP d) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。
Chapter 4 Syntax
4.3.1 The linear(线性) word order of a sentence When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that structure of a sentence is linear as in the following examples:
Visiting professors can be interesting.
a. Professor who are visiting can be interesting.
b. To visit profess can be interesting. Such cases of ambiguity can be dealt with by use of tree diagrams:
Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接 成分分析法) (IC analysis for short)
Definition of IC Analysis
It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents (最终成分) are reached. The first divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents (ICs), and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents (UCs)
Chapter_4_syntax
Syntax
Here we deal with Syntax that studies how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, etc. As we know, every language has its particular ways to form correct clauses, phrases and other syntactic units. Therefore we can define syntax as the ‘study of the structure of phrases, clauses and sentences’. By defining Grammar we may say that it is the overall pattern of a language that clearly includes the basic subfield of linguistics such as Morphology, Syntax and certainly other features.
Brazil defeated Germany.
Germany defeated Brazil.
However, sometimes a change of word order has no effect on meaning:
The Chief Justice swore in the new President.
The little young red cat.
The red little young cat
Joseph gave a rose to Edith.
Edith a rose Joseph gave.
Chapter 4 语言学-Syntax
2
Teaching Focus
Four
representative approaches to syntax: 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
9
The
relations between classes and functions: Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation.
A class item can perform several functions. A function can be fulfilled by several classes.
8
Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis. It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that relate to the subject.
Names of functions are expressed in terms of
subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.
6
How
can we describe “subject”? What characteristics do subjects have? of subjw some examples.
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
(1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up. (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
❖ Indocentric construction (内心结构): An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents which serves as a head or a center of the whole, for example, NP, VP, AP and AdvP are typical endocentric constructions.
❖ Number: Number is inflectional category basically distinguishing reference to one individual from reference to more than one. It is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun. In English there are two terms of number: singular and plural. But languages like classical Greek and Arabic have a third number: dual, something like the English “both”. And Fijian has a fourth: trial.
First, it must be an animate noun, nouns like book, desk are not possible choices.
Secondly, even within the type of animate nouns, only those which have a semantic component of human are most naturally used with the verb smile.
简明语言学教程第4章Syntax解析
degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).
2. What are the criteria to determine a word’s categories? ① meaning; ② inflection; ③distribution. Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 3. What are major/minor lexical categories?
3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派). American linguists A. N. Chomsky (1928-)
Category (P42) refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
语言学第四章chapter4
▪ Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events. run, walk, seem
▪ For example, a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article (a, an and the) and can take inflections for possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Of course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
精选ppt
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Word Classes
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
4.4 The Descriptive Approach
4.4.1 Structural analysis
精选ppt
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
▪ (1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.
b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. ▪ (2) a. Jack looked up the word.
简明语言学教程第4章Syntax
Since Sentence is regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the centre of grammatical study. Different linguistics theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structure. 1. the traditional approach (传统学派)； 2. the structure approach (结构主义学派)；
Chapter 4 Syntax
The word Syntax, derived from Greek, is made up of 2 morphemes: {syn} and {tax}. together ”, and the The former means “_________ to arrange ”. latter “___________
structures ---the
(并列规则)
Coordination has four important properties: There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction. A category at any level can be coordinated. Coordinated categories must be of the same type. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. 1. sing, dance, read…or watch TV 2. sing sweet songs or draw beautiful pictures 3. apples, bananas, oranges / singing, dancing 4. optimistic and passionate
语言学导论第四章
XP rule:
XP
specifier the seldom very
(1) categories: ategories: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Kate likes classical music.(sentence) classical music (noun phrase) like (verb)
S Infl VP
Hale Waihona Puke Det Will theN train e
V arrive
Do insertion: insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. CP CP C NP N birds S Infl VP C NP S Infl VP V fly
three criteria for determining a word’s category
meaning inflection distribution
2.phrase categories: The category of phrases is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built. [NP a poor boy] boy] [VP run quickly, like music] [AP extremely cold] cold] [PP mainly about] about]
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis
(Bloomfield: 直接成分分析法)
Language is linear and hierarchical. We can analyze language from its largest level to the smallest level, that is from its construction to its constituents by means of substitutability and expansion. The first divisions or cuts of a construction are called immediate constituents and the final cuts as the ultimate constituents.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
Definition: An approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century England, who lay down rules for the correct or “proper” use of English by following Latin.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction 4.2 Word Classes 4.3 The Prescriptive Approach 4.4 The Descriptive Approach 4.4.1 Structural analysis 4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis 4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar 4.6 Transformational Grammar 4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar
语言学导论第四章
Decide how the following pairs of sentences are related with and different from each other:
1.John is easy to please.
2.John is eager to please. 3.客来了。 4.来客了。
Kate likes classical music.(sentence) classical music (noun phrase) like (verb)
1.word-level categories
Major lexical categories Examples
Noun (N)
Specifiers: Determiners serve as the specifiers of nouns:
the boy, that house, an apple Qualifiers function as specifiers of verbs:
always get up late, often work overnight Degree words act as specifiers of adjectives:
relation 选择关系) e.g. The ____ smiles.
man
boy
girl
(1) categories: a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
语言学_Chapter 4_Syntax
The structural approach regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (system), not as isolated bits. This approach to grammar, based on Saussure’s ideas of language, studies the interrelationships between words.
Chapter contents
4.2 how to define each word in the sentence? 4.3, 4.4 How to describe the phrases involved? 4.5 How is the sentence formed?
形式主义对句子结构描述：简单的操作、雅致的 描写、严格、清晰的逻辑。
Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.
Structural approach
Generative approach
Traditional approach
Functional approach Rule-governed sentence formation
ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้Word
Sentence
Traditional approach
英语语言学Chapter 4 Syntax
❖ IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets: ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)). It may also be more easily shown with a tree diagram: Poor John ran away.
❖ Concord: also known as agreement, may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
1. The traditional approach
The classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in terms of subject, predicate, etc. 1) Number, gender and case 2) Tense and aspect 3) Concord and government
Chapter 4
Syntax
Syntax
Syntax: The study of the rules governing the
ways words and phrases are combined to form sentences. 1. The traditional approach 2. The structural approach 3. The generative approach 4. The functional approach
语言学第四章
Constituent: component elements in a construction.
Immediate constituents: constituents immediately, directly, below the level of construction.
Ultimate constituent: the smallest grammatical unit obtained through segmentation.
The structural approach: regards linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure or system.
Structuralism or structural linguistics is a term used in linguistics referring to any approach to the analysis of language that pays explicit attention to the way in which linguistic features can be described in terms of structures and systems.
She gave him a book; She gave a book to him.
? (the governor/ the governed)
4.2 The structural approach
The origin: the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, “father/founder of modern linguistics” ; The beginning of the 20th century, Course in General Linguistics.
自考英语语言学Chapter4Syntax
⾃考英语语⾔学Chapter4SyntaxChapter 4 Syntax句法学⼀、本章纲要⼆、本章重点Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. (2002，判断；2003名词解释；2007，4选择)1. Syntax as a system rules句法规则系统As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence. (2005，33名词解释)The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.A major goal of linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. A theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic utterances(⾔语)that speaker implicitly consider well-formed, or grammatical, sequences.1）语⾔学中，句法学是和语⾳学，⾳系学，形态学，语义学等并列平⾏的次系统，主要是来分析研究语⾔的句⼦结构。
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter-4-Syntax
Number
singular plural
Noun
man men
Pronoun
He They
Verb (agreement)
works work
性 (Gender)
❖ Many inflectional languages have three meaning-related gender distinction: masculine, feminine and neuter.
❖ 许多屈折语言里有三种和意义相关的性：阳性、 阴性、中性。
❖ In English gender contrast can be only observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns which shows the biological gender.
❖ The categories of the noun, include number, gender, case and countability;
❖ 名词的范畴包括数、性、格和可数性；
❖ The categories of the verb, for example, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice, etc.
❖ 英语中有被动语态，用“分词”表示。主动 态句子中的施动者在被动态句子中省略，或 用“by短语”
❖ Active voice Jim caught the ball.
❖ Passive voice TБайду номын сангаасe ball was caught.
❖ Passive voice with “by-phrase”
❖ SYNTAX is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language , or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.
Chapter 4syntax语言学
Chapter IV. Syntax1 . Traditional approachnumber(singular and plural), gender( masculine, feminine, neuter) and case(in English, 3 cases: nominative/I,he,she, accusative/me, him, her, genitive/my, his, her)tense and aspecttense is time-related, it relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance(the time of utterance being “now”).-past and presentaspect:has to do with whether an action was completed or not, whether it happened once or frequently, whether it occupied a point in time or a stretch of time. English has two co-existent choices of aspect, namely (1).continous denoted by the presence of –ing, I’m writing, and non-continuous, I write. (2). Perfect denoted by the presence of –en. I have written, and noe-perfect, I write.concord and governmentConcord: (agreement) or requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.This man. These men. He speaks. They speakGovernment: a type of control over the form of some words byother words in certain syntactic constructions. She gave him the book. She gave the book to him.2. the structural approach: started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in the 20th century. They regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationssyntagmatic/horizontal, chain relation组合关系：is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. The words in a syntagmatic relation must meet some syntactic and semantic conditions. (see P120)Structure: the sequence which a sign forms with those it is in a syntagmatic relationparadigmatic relation / vertical, choice(聚合关系/associative): is a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. .system: the class of signs which are in a paradigmatic relation.the ____ is smilingConstraints:: noun, animate noun, human, in singular(singular human nouns), such as boy, girl, man, woman, student, which are in a paradigmatic relation. They can replace each other without violating syntactic rules.Notes: the constraints are only syntactic, not semantic. immediate constituent analysis:the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. (stop at the level of word).construction/construct: (in gerneral sense), it refers to the overall process of internal organization of a grammatical unit – how a phrase, a clause or a sentence is constructed out of a set of morphemes by following a set of rules. It can further refer to the syntagmatic result of such a process. (a relationship between constituents: endocentric construction & exocentric construction) In the analysis of a text, construction refers to a token of a constructional type. The girl is giggling is recognized as sub. + Pred. Type, which is realized in a string “ the + girl + is + giggling”. Since construction is composed of several parts (single words, groups of words. Etc.), the small units are know as its immediate constituents. Even the small units themselves can be constructuions of specific types. The girl = nominal phrase (the girl is construction of nominalphrase), whereas the + girl are its constituent.endocentric and exocentric constructionsA construction is a relationship between constituents, whichare divided into two types: endocentric constructions and exocentric constructions.Endocentric construction (headed constucution):is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalent, to that of one or more of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head of the whole. (If the total construction [head + modification or modification + head] has the same distributuonal characteristics as the head constituent, it is usually called endocentric construction).For example: they left because they were tired. They left = head. Because…=modifier.Subordinate construction: those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependant.e.g. the student at the back.A subordinating construction contains a subordinator, which is a prep. Particle, or a subordination conjunction such as in, over, to, after, because, and a dependent unit.Coordinate construction: there are more than one head, which are of equal syntactic status, no one is dependant on the other:e.g. boys and girls / John sings but Jack dancesA coordinate construction contains a marker or coordinator andtwo or more independent units (word, phrases or even whole sentences)Exocentric construction: /3. The generative approachIn 1957, the American linguist Chomsky proposed the transformational-generative grammar(TG), thus providing a model for the description of human languages. The goal of TG is to find out a system of rules to account for the linguistic competence of native speakers of a language to form grammatical sentences. It is called TG because it it attempts to do two things:to provide the rules that can be used to generate grammatical sentencesto show how basic sentences can be transformed into either synonymous phrases or more complex sentences4.3.1 deep and surface structuresTG 产生的背景：Because of its insistence on binary divisions and failure to reveal structural ambiguities, certain problems arise in immediate constituent analysis. It is in this context that TG comes into existence.TG 的内容：According to TG, human beings possess twogrammars as part of their linguistic competence.⏹ A phrase structure grammar which consists of the rulesgoverning idealized sentence formation⏹ A transformational grammar, which enables us tomanipulate(use) sentences to produce the full range ofsentence types . TG grammarAs a result , every sentence has a surface structure (post-transformational stage) and deep structure ( a pre-transformational stage).Deep structure:Text book: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.Tragott(1980:141): deep structure shows the basic form of a sentence with all necessary information to derive a well-formed sentence, and to give it a phonological representation and a semantic interpretation. It reveals the underlying structure of a linguistic utterance and specifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements, as well as the linguistic meaning of the constituents.Surface structure:Text book: The final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.Tragott(1980:141): actually produced structure .Bussman (1996:465-466): it is the directly observable actual form of sentences as they are used in communication, and from the perspective of transformational grammar, surface structure is a relatively abstract sentence structure resulting from the application of base rules and transformational rules.Relationship between SS and DS: is that of transformation (Wardhaugh’s, 1997: 118-119) cf: p113-114(杨信彰)4.3.2 the standard theory and after （cf. P135）In 1965, Chomsky published his second important book Aspects of the Theroy of Syntax, in which he introduced some modifications to his 1st model, that is, he added a semantic component to it.Now the language is seen as consisting of three major parts: syntax, semantics and phonology.The base component categories and lexiconContains rules with feature specification for the words to be inserted (cf.P136)Aspects of the Theory of Syntax: more comprehensive and maturecompared with the 1st model, thus is known as the standard theory.4.3.3 government, binding, etc.In 1979: Lectures on Government and Binding.A grammar is now said to have 2 systems.: a rule system(lexicon, syntax, phonetic form component, logical form component), a principle system ( bounding theory, government theory, .θ-theory, binding theory; case theory, control theory) (see figure 6, P140) C-command:refers to the relation between an element and another of the same level and under the same node in a tree diagram, and any others under the latter element as well. (see P142).Condition: An element governs another if the two are under the same node directly, and the former is the head of the construction.Binding theory: (see P144)4.4 The functional approach1. functional sentence perspective (FSP)FSP is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. It is created to describe how information is distributed in sentences, it deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information is discourseTheme:that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds. （the point ofdeparture话语的出发点）Rheme: What the speaker states about , or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance”(the goal of discourse话语的核心).Mathesius thought that it is natural for the speaker to start from the known to the unknown, and the theme-rheme order is the usual one in unemotional narration (objective order), in emotional narration, it may be possible to reverse the order rheme-theme order (subjective order).Communicative Dynamism(another version of the same analysis, in short CD): The extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.This notion is based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static phenomenon, but a dynamic one. CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence.2.systemic-functional grammar (has been developed byHalliday)Systemic part (comes from Firth): language elements form into systems.Functional part (comes from Malinowski who attached great importance to the social function of language).Classification of language functions:Karl Buhler: representative, expressive, appellativeRoman Jakobson: referential, emotive, conative, metalinguistic, poetic, phaticHalliday: ideational, interpersonal,textual, which are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.。
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 4 Syntax
式(Mood)
Mood involves a choice between indicative , imperative and subjunctive forms of the verb on the semantic basis of the factuality. “式”牵涉到在直陈式、祁使式、虚拟式动 词词形间做出选择，这种选择以语义为依据， 视动词所描述的事件真实与否而定。
4.2 Categories
Category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense ,e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.
Grammatical Categories
The term “grammatical category” is used by some linguists to refer to word classes. In TG grammatical categories are syntactic units indicated by “category symbols” such as S, NP, VP, Det , A, etc.
体(Aspect)
Aspect deals with how the event described by a verb is viewed. English has two aspect constructions, the perfective and the progressive, realised by “have +ed participle” and “be+-ing participle” respectively.
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英语语言学：第4章
▪ Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now
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英语语言学：第4章
4.2 Word Classes
▪ Nouns are words used to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena and abstract ideas as if they were all things. cats, dogs, war, wedding, courage, beauty, rain, love, hatred
▪ Pronouns are words which may replace nouns or noun phrases.
▪ Conjunctions are words used to connect and indicate relationships between events and things.
▪ Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
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英语语言学：第4章
▪ Syntax: study of the internal structures of sentence and the rules for the combination of words. Difference between morphology and syntax
▪ Morphology: the internal structure of words Syntax: the combination of words
b. Jack looked the word up. ▪ (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the.
Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
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英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
▪ (1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds.
b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. ▪ (2) a. Jack looked up the word.
英语语言学：第4章
Chapter 4 Syntax
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英语语言学：第4章
outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Word Classes
4.3 The Prescriptive Approach
4.4 The Descriptive Approach
4.4.1 Structural analysis
▪ For example, a noun can be defined as a form that comes after an article (a, an and the) and can ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱake inflections for possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Of course, not all nouns (eg. information and mud) have all these characteristics.
4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis
4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar
4.6 Transformational Grammar
4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar
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英语语言学：第4章
4.1 Introduction
▪ Articles, Exclamations, Numerals
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英语语言学：第4章
▪ The definitions above are useful for identifying most forms, but they are never completely accurate. A different approach might focus on some other properties of the word classes.
▪ Adjectives are words that describe the thing, quality, state or action which a noun refers to. beautiful, red
▪ Verbs are words used to refer to various actions and states involving the “things” in events. run, walk, seem
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英语语言学：第4章
Phrase structure rules