美国印象主义
国外刻板印象的例子
国外刻板印象的例子当我们谈到国外刻板印象时，往往涉及到一些普遍存在的、片面的观点和想法。
这些刻板印象可能来自于媒体、文化交流、个人经历等多方面因素。
然而，这些印象往往过于简化和夸大，容易导致误解和偏见。
本文将介绍一些常见的国外刻板印象，并分析它们的真实情况，以期能够消除误解，促进跨文化交流和理解。
首先，我们来谈谈对于欧洲人的刻板印象。
许多人认为欧洲人普遍优雅、热情好客、善于享受生活。
然而，这些印象很大程度上源于欧洲的旅游宣传和艺术作品的描绘。
事实上，欧洲是一个多元化的大陆，每个国家和地区都有自己独特的文化和社会风貌。
比如，北欧国家的人们可能更加保守和内敛，而地中海沿岸国家的人们可能更加热情和开放。
因此，我们不能将欧洲人的特点一概而论。
接下来，我们来看看对于美国人的刻板印象。
很多人认为美国人热爱自由、个人主义和民主。
这种印象很大程度上源于美国媒体的宣传和好莱坞电影的影响。
然而，美国是一个多元化的国家，不同地区和不同社会群体的人们有着不同的价值观和生活方式。
而且，个人主义并不意味着自私和冷漠，美国人也有着丰富的社交圈子和互助精神。
因此，我们应当超越刻板印象，去了解真实的美国社会和人民。
此外，对于亚洲人的刻板印象也是普遍存在的。
许多人认为亚洲人勤奋、聪明、有着强烈的家庭观念。
然而，这种印象往往过于简化和片面。
亚洲是一个包括多个国家和地区的大陆，每个国家和地区都有自己独特的文化和特点。
比如，东亚国家的人们可能更加注重教育和职业发展，而东南亚国家的人们可能更加注重社交和家庭生活。
因此，我们不能将亚洲人的特点一概而论。
最后，我想强调的是，刻板印象是建立在片面和不全面的观察基础上的，它们往往忽略了国外文化的多样性和复杂性。
要想真正了解一个国家和一个文化，我们需要进行深入的学习和交流，去除偏见和误解。
通过互联网和全球化的交流平台，我们有更多的机会接触到不同国家和文化的人们，这为我们消除刻板印象提供了更广阔的空间。
印象主义、新印象主义、后印象主义
• 印象派在相当程度上贯注了理性的思考，它继承 了浪漫主义对色彩的研究和现实主义对现实的表 现，而它把这种真实看作是在不同光的作用下不 断变化着的现实，最终实现了对现实主义艺术的 升华。 • 这种升华使艺术逐步走向自觉，即把艺术本身看 成是一种可以不依赖于现实的独立存在，成为自 文艺复兴以来的幻觉写实主义艺术观的结束和以 形式与结构为中心的新艺术观的开始。
《日出· 印象》
《 日 光 下 的 鲁 昂 主 教 堂 》
蛙塘﹝La Grenouillere﹞1869 年75 x 100 公分 大都會美術館，紐約﹝New York﹞，美國
《 睡 莲 》
坐在柳樹下的女人 ﹝Woman Seated under the Willows﹞
《 圣 德 尼 街 的 节 日 》
劳德累克
重要的印象派画家，其绘画追求潇洒流畅的 笔法，喜欢从舞厅、酒吧等等场所中选取题材， 其代表作为《费尔南多马戏团》、《红磨坊的舞 蹈》
毕沙罗
• 印象派元老之一，也是一位著名的风景画 家，以厚重的笔触在画布上精心摆放不同 的色彩，朴实地再现法国自然风光。
《 蒙 马 特 尔 大 街 的 傍 晚 》
浮世绘
• 浮世绘是起源于日本江户时代的一种绘 画风格，所谓“浮世”是“现实”的意 思,即描绘现实社会众生，在社会、传说、 历史、戏剧、故事等许多方面反映民俗 生活。浮世绘包括画家亲笔所绘和水印 木版画两种形式。其丰富的线条、简洁 的用色、自由的图案对十九世纪的欧洲 画家，如梵高、德加等，产生了重大的 影响。代表画家有喜多川歌摩、葛饰北 斋等。
鋼琴前的少女﹝Girls at the Piano﹞ 1892 年 油彩‧畫布，116 x 90 公分 奧塞美術館，巴黎﹝Paris﹞， 法國
后印象主义
后印象主义POST-IMPRESSIONISM（1890-1900）：也称“印象派之后”或“后期印象派”，是法国美术史上继印象主义之后的美术现象。
后印象主义一词是英国人和美国人用来描述文森特·梵高、高更和保罗·塞尚等为代表的一群画家以及画风的。
该词由英国艺术评论家并曾任纽约大都会博物馆馆长福莱（Roger Fry，1866－1934）提出的。
他想对保罗·塞尚立论，就需要一个新术语。
几十年来，法国人并没有将这三个人和印象主义加以区别，只是近期才用这一术语把他们和那些主要名家区分开来。
虽然保罗·塞尚一生中的大部分时间都和那群画家一起展出作品，但“后印象主义”仍是一个方便的术语用来突出这三位后来的画家，而且他们也确实与该群体十分不同。
所谓后印象主义是指塞尚、凡·高和高更的艺术观念和艺术创造。
他们三个人最初都是学印象主义。
塞尚和高更还参加过印象主义画展，凡·高虽然没有参加过印象主义展览，但他一直自称是印象主义。
后来他们三人都认为绘画不能仅仅像印象主义那样去模仿客观世界，而应该更多地表现画家对客观事物的主观感受，他们虽有共同的创作倾向又有各自鲜明的艺术个性：塞尚一生的创作活动都是为了追求心目中永恒性的形体和坚实的结构，以创造形象的重量感、体积感、稳定感和宏伟感，最后达到简单化和几何化的效果，这使他成为后来的立体主义和抽象主义的始祖。
高更主张不要面对实物，而凭记忆作画，提倡综合的和象征的美学原则。
凡·高的新画风，可以说是印象主义、新印象主义，日本的浮世绘版画融合在他个人气质中的产物，是东西方绘画合流的结果。
凡·高的画，一个突出的特点是强烈地表现了自己的个性。
有人说，他的画都是他的自画像。
这三位画家都是在去世后很久才得到社会的承认，他们三人共同开启了现代艺术的大门，在他们的创作思想、艺术观念影响下产生了野兽主义、立体主义、表现主义、抽象主义等，是他们彻底地改变了西方绘画面貌，由客观再现走向主观表现，并使之走向现代，他们被誉为现代艺术之父。
印象主义
马奈代表作
• 《吹短笛的男孩》 • 《女神游乐场的酒吧间》
马奈代表作
• 《白色牡丹花》
• 《奥林匹亚》
埃德加· 德加
• 埃德加· 德加(E.Degas 1834-1917) 法国画家、雕塑家，生于法国巴黎， 原名为埃德加· 依列尔· 日耳曼· 德加 （Edgar Hilaire Germain de Gas）。他曾在巴黎艺术学院 （École des Beaux-Arts）学习绘 画，受到安格尔（Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres）的很大影响。 德加富于创新的构图、细致的描绘 和对动作的透彻表达使他成为19世 纪晚期现代艺术的大师之一。他最 著名的绘画题材包括芭蕾舞演员和 其他女性、以及赛马。他通常被认 为是属于印象派，但他的有些作品 更具古典、现实主义或者浪漫主义 画派风格。
古斯塔夫· 卡耶博特代表作
音乐领域
• 创作特点：音乐并不以描述实物为主，但是一些音乐作品 却的确是应情应景而写的。这些音乐被称为标题音乐。而 印象主义音乐作品几乎都是标题音乐。这意味着这些作品 会以风景，诗歌或者是图像为题，例如德布西的《大海》， 《春天》。 • 代表人物：德彪西和拉威尔是公认的两位印象主义作曲家。 另外，法雅，席曼诺夫斯基，保罗· 杜卡，意大利的雷斯 皮基和英国的沃恩· 威廉斯也是该流派音乐的杰出代表。 • 代表作品：《佩利亚斯与梅丽桑德》《牧神午后》《春天》 《大海》《意象集》《库普兰之墓》
创作特点
• 印象派强调人对外界物体的光和影的感觉和印象，在创作技法上反对因循守 旧，主张艺术的革新。 • 绘画技巧方面，印象派对光和色进行了探讨，研究出用外光描写对象的方法， 并认识到色彩的变化是由色光造成的：色彩是随着观察位置，受光状态的不 同和环境的影响而发生变化。 • 印象派着重于描绘自然的霎那景象，使一瞬成为永恒，并将这种科学原理运 用到绘画中。印象派观察、直接感受表现色彩变化的微妙的画风，影响后来 的现代艺术非常深远。 • 早期印象派追求光的描写，把画架从室内搬到户外，在野外作画，因此又称 为外光派。 • 印象派脱离了以往艺术形式对历史和宗教的依赖，艺术家们大胆地抛弃了传 统的创作观念和公式。艺术家将焦点转移到纯粹的视觉感受形式上，作品的 内容和主题变得不再重要，和表现主义表现内心情感、忽视描绘对象的外在 形象不同。
美国意象派诗歌的多重美
美国意象派诗歌的多重美胡永近【摘要】The American Imagist Poetry established a new mode of poetry-writing with the innovation in language ,form and writing style and played an unparalleled role in the literature in 20 th.The imagist po-etry provides readers with visual and auditory enjoyment via the variation of language form and thus has multi-dimensional beatuy:visual beauty ,auditory beauty ,image beauty and moral beauty .%分析了美国意象派诗歌凭借在语言与形式方面的创举以及写作手法上的革新，开创诗歌创作的新模式，在二十世纪的世界文坛领一时之风骚。
该派作品通过精心构思的形式变异给读者提供视觉和听觉的多通道感官享受，具有视觉、听觉、意象、寓意方面的多维度的立体美，这种绚丽隽永的多重美使其成为世界诗坛一朵不可多得的奇葩。
【期刊名称】《蚌埠学院学报》【年(卷),期】2015(000)002【总页数】4页(P116-119)【关键词】美国意象派;视觉美;听觉美;意象美;寓意美【作者】胡永近【作者单位】宿州学院外国语学院，安徽宿州 234000【正文语种】中文【中图分类】I3/7.072深受达达主义和立体主义的影响，二十世纪初在欧美兴起的意象派，不满维多利亚时期诗歌的伤感空洞和无病呻吟以及象征主义的神秘莫测和虚无缥缈，主张抛弃传统诗歌的节奏与韵律，强调诗歌语言的凝练、意象的创新，为当时沉闷乏味的诗坛注入了一股清新的空气，开一代诗歌之先河。
印象派
印象主义、新印象主义、后印象主义、印象主义概念1 9世纪后半期～201919世纪下半叶法国画界有一部分青年画家反对官方学院派艺术的墨守成规，由于自己的创新作品不能在共同寻求艺术创新道路。
19世纪后1867～1886年期间一批持有相近的观点和采用相近技巧的画家的活动。
这些画家个性十分鲜明，非常讲究实际，没有确定的共同遵守的具体原则。
但印象主义最明显的特点则是，力图客观地描绘视觉现实中的瞬息片刻，主要是表现纯粹光的关系。
在广义上，印象主义一词有时也用于19世纪后期的其他艺术(通)(Alfred Sisley)、窦加(EdgarDegas)、摩里索(Berthe Morisot)、吉约曼(Armand Guillaumin)Bazille)，他们一起工作，相互影响，并一起独立展出作品，只有继续谋求官方赞许的马奈200年之久的种种清规戒律表示不满。
1860有史以来第一次把画家画艺术的组成部分－－颜色和形体上。
在大约同一时间内，莫奈、毕沙罗、雷诺瓦、西斯莱萃的敏锐目光一马当先。
当时这方面的科学研究表明∶颜色不是物体所固有的特性，而是物体反射出来的光线。
在这种观点影响下，这些画家努力探索一种有效的方法，以突破物体的单一的，表面看来一成不变的“固有”色；他们力图捕捉物体在特定时间内所自然呈现的那种瞬息即逝的颜色，那种受一时的气氛条件、距离和周围其他物体影响的颜色。
他们从画水开始，把水波反射出来的许多颜色完全按照他们亲眼目睹的那样表现出来。
他们把这一做法扩大到从建筑物到天空的所有其他物体，笔触简短明了，远看是一堆混合的颜色，其实是用启发下，他们努力寻找色彩最鲜明的题材，通常不再注意感情色彩和文学特性。
1874年，这批画家首次举行独立画展，以与法国美术学院的官方沙龙相抗衡，后者一再拒绝展出他们的大部分作品。
莫奈的《印象∶日出》一画(1872, 现藏巴黎马摩坦博物馆〔Musee Ma rmottan〕)，最初曾使人们用印象派这一名称讥笑这批画家。
美国文学名词解释
名词解释1.Impressionism(印象主义)Briefly, it is a style of literature characterized by the creation of general impressions and moods rather than realistic mood.2.American Realism (1865-1914)Realism was a reaction against Romanticism or a move away from the bias towards romance and self-creating fictions, and paved the way to Modernism. (书上P471 第一段)3.American Naturalism(自然主义）已改啦Naturalism is evolved from realism when the author’s tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more pessimistic. It is no more than a gloomy philosophical approach to reality, or to human existence. (书P476 第一段最后)4.Local colorism释义1：Local colorism as a trend became dominant in American literature in the 1860s and early 1870s，it is defined by Hamlin Garland as having such quality of texture and background that it could not have been written in any other place or by anyone else than a native. Stories of local colorism have a quality of circumstantial(详细的) authenticity(确实性), as local colorists tried to immortalize(使不朽) the distinctive natural, social and linguistic features. It is characteristic of vernacular(本国语) language and satirical(讽刺的) humor.释义2：Local colorism is a trend first made its presence felt in the late 1860s and early 1870s in America. It may be defined as the careful attention in speech, dress or behavior peculiar to a geographical locality.释义3：Local colorism is fiction and poetry that focuses on the characters, dialect, customs, topography, and other features particular to a specific region.5.The Lost generation释义1：It refers to a group of young intellectuals who came back from war，were injured both physically and mentally. Disillusioned and disgusted by the frivolous, greedy, and heedless way of life in America, they began to write and they wrote from their own experiences in the war. The best representative of the lost generation was Ernest Hemingway. (书P547)释义2：The lost generation is a term first used by Stein to describe the post-war I generation who are physically and psychologically scarred. (书P548)6.Imagism:释义1：It’s a poetic movement of England and the U.S. flourished from 1909 to 1917. The movement insists on the creation of images in poetry by “the direct treatment of the thing” and the economy of wording.释义2：Imagism came into being in Britain and U.S around 1910 as a reaction to the traditional English poetry to express the sense of fragmentation and dislocation.7.Free verseFree verse is poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme.A looser and more open-ended syntactical structure is frequently favored. Whiteman’s poetry is an example of free verse at its most impressive.8.Transcendentalism:Transcendentalism is a philosophic and literary movement.It is a reaction against Rationalism and Calvinism. It appeared after 1830, marked the maturity of American Romanticism and the first Renaissance in the American literary history.9.Jazz AgeJazz age describe the period of 1920s and 1930s, the years between WW1 and WW2. With the rise of the Great Depression, the values of theage saw much decline. The most representative literature work is The Great Gatsby highlighting what some describe as the decadence and hedonism, as well as the growth of individualism.10.I ceberg Principle ：It is a term used to describe the writing style of American writer Ernest Hemingway. The meaning of a piece is not immediately evident, because the crux of the story lies below the surface, just as most of the mass of a real iceberg similarly lies beneath the surface.11.M odernism(现代主义)：Modernism is comprehensive but vague term for a movement, which began in the late 19th century and which has had a wide influence internationally during much of the 20th century. It is a reaction against realism. It rejects rationalism, which is the theoretical base of realism.12.O riginal sinThe wrong doing of one generation lives into the successive ones. Human beings are basically depraved and corrupted, hence, they should obey God to atone for their sins.13.P sychological Realism(心理现实主义)It is the realistic writing that probes deeply into the complexities of characters’ thoughts and motivations. Henry James is considered the founder of psychological realism. His novel The Ambassadors is considered to be a masterpiece of psychological realism.14.C olloquialismA colloquialism is a word, phrase or paralanguage that is employed in conversational or informal language but not in formal speech or formal writing.In a word, naturalism is evolved from realism when the author’s tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more pessimistic.。
印象派与现代艺术发展的关系
印象派与现代艺术发展的关系印象派是现代艺术的开端。
在19世纪，艺术家们都在探寻着艺术的发展道路，印象主义绘画正是传统艺术与现代美术之间的分水岭。
印象主义作品的出现，标志着与传统艺术观念、艺术表现方法和艺术效果的决裂，印象主义是西方油画绘画史上一个划时代的艺术流派。
人们从印象派的发展中看到，对传统的继承不可能再像从前那样亦步亦趋了，而应是站在新的起点上的重新观照，而这个新的起点就是印象派。
(印象派莫奈《印象·日出》，1872，布上油画风景，48×63cm，巴黎马尔莫丹艺术陈列馆藏)正是因为有了印象派，人们对传统的观念改变了，也是因为印象派，西方艺术才可以重新认识传统和清理传统，并由此而迈入现代。
对于西方油画艺术来说，所谓迈入现代，就意味着彻底抛弃由文艺复兴建立起的三维错觉空间的观念（这种转变与西方艺术家对东方艺术的理解是分不开的，尽管也许这是一种错误的理解），使绘画逐步走向画的表平面，并进而进入真实三维空间，就意味着更大的创作自由度和由外部世界转入内心世界（排除了画面的具体指向，而更倾向于精神性，最后走向观念性），就意味着油画纯形式要素的独立（点、线、面、色、形、结构、空间等成为主要研究对象，这方面的研究成果，甚至为当代心理学所吸收）。
当然这一切在印象派那里还多多少少被蒙蔽在传统的阴影之下，而这使另一些人感到不满。
这些人进一步发展了印象派的某些方面，由此而产生了“新印象主义”和“后印象主义”。
(新印象主义修拉·《大碗岛星期天的下午》，1884—1886，布上油画人物，208×308cm，美国芝加哥艺术学院藏)我们将看到，20世纪的艺术，无论是赞成的还是反对的，都与印象派有关，而且它们将在印象派所引发的一套新的原则下从事创作。
“后印象主义”是法国美术史上继印象主义之后的美术现象，也称“印象派之后”或“后期印象派。
它不是一个确定的流派，而是一种思潮。
该词由英国艺术评论家并曾任纽约大都会博物馆馆长福莱（Roger Fry，1866－1934）提出的。
比较齐全的美国文学名词解释
Stream of consciousness(意识流)(or interior monologue);In literary criticism, Stream of consciousness denotes a literary technique which seeks to describe an individual’s point of view by giving the written equivalent of the character’s thought processes. Stream of consciousness writing is strongly associated with the modernist movement. Its introduction in the literary context, transferred from psychology, is attributed to May Sinclair. Stream of consciousness writing is usually regarded as a special form of interior monologue and is characterized by associative leaps in syntax and punctuation that can make the prose difficult to follow,tracing as they do a character’s fragmentary thoughts and sensory feelings.famous writers to employ this technique in the english language include James Joyce and William Faulkner.American realism ：（美国现实主义）Realism was a reaction against Romanticism and paved the way to Modernism;2).During this period a new generation of writers, dissatisfied with the Romantic ideas in the older generation, came up witha new inspiration. This new attitude was characterized by a great interest in the realities of life. It aimed at the interpretation of the realities of any aspect of life, free from subjective prejudice, idealism, or romantic color. Instead of thinking about the mysteries of life and death and heroic individualism, people’s attention was now directed to the interesting features of everyday existence, to what was brutal or sordid, and to the open portayal of class struggle;3) so writers began to describe the integrity of human characters reacting under various circumstances and picture the pioneers of the far west, the new immigrants and the struggles of the working class; 4) Mark Twain Howells and Henry James are three leading figures of the American Realism.American Naturalism(美国自然主义文学)：The American naturalists accepted the more negative interpretation of Darwin’s evolutionary theory and used it to accout for the behavior of those characters in literary works who were regarded as more or less complex combinations of inherited attributes, their habits conditioned by social and economic forces.2) naturalism is evolved from realism when the author’s tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more pessimistic. It is no more than a gloomy philosophical approach to reality, or to human existence.3>Dreiser is a leading figure of his school.Local Colorism(乡土文学)：Generally speaking, the writings of local colorists are concerned with the life of a small, weell-defined region or province. The characteristic setting is the isolated small town. 2) Local colorists were consciously nostalgic historians of a vanishing way of life, recorders of a present that faded before their eyes. Yet for all their sentimentality, they dedicated themselves to minutely accurate descriptions of the life of their regions, they worked from personal experience to record the facts of a local environment and suggested that the native life was shaped by the curious conditions of the local. 3) major local colorists is Mark Twain.Imagism(意象主义)：Imagism came into being in Britain and U.S around 1910 as a reaction to the traditional English poetry to express the sense of fragmentation and dislocation.2>the imagists, with Ezra Pound leading the way, hold that the most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of one dominant image.3>imagism is characterized by the following three poetic principles:A.direct treatment of subject matter;B.economy of expression;C. as regards rhythm ,to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of metronome. 4> pound’s In a Station of the Metro is a well-known inagist poem.The Lost Generation(迷惘的一代）：The lost generation is a term first used by Stein to describe the post-war I generation of American writers:men and women haunted by a sense of betrayal and emptiness brought about by the destructiveness of the war.2>full of youthful idealism, these individuals sought the meaning of life, drank excessively, had love affairs and created some of the finest American literature to date.3>the three best-known representatives of lost generation are F.Scott Fitzgerald, hemingway and John dos Passos.The Beat Generation(垮掉的一代):The members of The Beat Generation were new bohemian libertines. Who engaged in a spontaneous, sometimes messy, creativity.2> The Beat writers produced a body of written work controversial both for its advocacy of non-conformity and for its non-conforming style.3> the major beat writings are Allen Ginsberg’s howl.Howl became the manifesto of The Beat Generation.A J azz age(爵士时代):The Jazz Age describes the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the years between world war I and worldwar II. Particularly in north America. With the rise of the great depression, the values of this age saw much decline. Perhaps the most representative literary work of the age is American writer Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. Highlighting what some describe as the decadence and hedonism, as well as the growth of individualism. Fitzgerald is largely credited with coining the term” Jazz Age”.Feminisim(女权主义): Feminisim incorporates both a doctrine of equal rights for women and an ideology of social transformation aiming to create a world for women beyond simple social equality.2>in general, feminism is ideology of women’s liberation based on th e belief that women suffer injustice because of their sex. Under this broad umbrella various feminisms offer differing analyses of the causes, or agents, of female oppression.3> definitions of feminism by feminists tend to be shaped by their training, ideology or race. So, for example, Marxist and socialist feminists stress the interaction within feminism of class with gender and focus on social distinctions between men and women. Black feminists argue much more for an integrated analysis which can unlock the multiple systems of oppression.Hemingway Code Hero(海明威式英雄): Hemingway Code Hero ,also called code hero, is one who, wounded but strong more sentitive, enjoys the pleasures of life( sex, alcohol, sport) in face of ruin and death, and maintains, through some notion of a code, an ideal of himself.2> barnes in the sun also Rises, henry in a Farewell to arms and santiago in the old man and the sea are typical of Hemingway Code HeroImpressionism(印象主义):Impressionism is a style of painting that gives the impression made by the subject on the artist without much attention to details. Writers accepted the same conviction that the personal attitudes and moods of the writer were legitimate elements in depicting character or setting or action.2>briefly, it is a style of literature characterized by the creation of general impressions and moods rather that realistic mood.Modernism(现代主义)：Modernism is comprehensive but vague term for a movement , which begin in the late 19th century and which has had a wide influence internationally during much of the 20th century.2> modernism takes the irrational philosophy and the theory of psycho-analysis as its theoretical case.3> the term pertains to all the creative arts. Especially poetry, fiction, drama, painting,music and architecture.4> in england from early in the 20th century and during the 1920s and 1930s, in America from shortly before the first world war and on during the inter-war period, modernist tendencies were at their most active and fruitful.5>as far as literature is concerned, Modernism reveals a breaking away from established rules, traditions and conventions.fresh way s of looking at man’s position and function in the universe and many experiments in form and style.it is particularly concerned with language and how to use it and with writing itself.the gilded age: Plains Indians were pushed in a series of Indian wars onto restricted reservations.This period also witnessed the creation of a modern industrial economy. A national transportation and communication network was created, the corporation became the dominant form of business organization, and a managerial revolution transformed business operations. By the beginning of the twentieth century, per capita income and industrial production in the United States exceeded that of any other country except Britain. Long hours and hazardous working conditions, led many workers to attempt to form labor unions despite strong opposition from industrialists and the courts.An era of intense political partisanship, the Gilded Age was also an era of reform. The Civil Service Act sought to curb government corruption by requiring applicants for certain governmental jobs to take a competitive examination. The Interstate Commerce Act sought to end discrimination by railroads against small shippers and the Sherman Antitrust Act outlawed business monopolies. These years also saw the rise of the Populist crusade. Burdened by heavy debts and falling farm prices, many farmers joined the Populist party, which called for an increase in the amount of money in circulation, government assistance to help farmers repay loans, tariff reductions, and a graduated income tax.Mark Twain called the late nineteenth century the "Gilded Age." By this, he meant that the period was glittering on the surface but corrupt underneath. In the popular view, the late nineteenth century was a period of greed and guile: of rapacious Robber Barons, unscrupulous speculators, and corporate buccaneers, of shady business practices, scandal-plagued politics, and vulgar display. It is easy to caricature the Gilded Age as an era of corruption, conspicuous consumption, and unfettered capitalism. But it is more useful to think of this as modern America’s formative period, when an agrarian society of small producers was transformed into an urban society dominated byindustrial corporations.Regionalism(地区主义)：In literature, regionalism or local color fiction refers to fiction or poetry that focuses on specific features –including characters, dialects, customs, history, and topography –of a particular region. Since the region may be a recreation or reflection of the author's own, there is often nostalgia and sentimentality in the writing.Although the terms regionalism and local color are sometimes used interchangeably, regionalism generally has broader connotations. Whereas local color is often applied to a specific literary mode that flourished in the late 19th century, regionalism implies a recognition from the colonial period to the present of differences among specific areas of the country. Additionally, regionalism refers to an intellectual movement encompassing regional consciousness beginning in the 1930s. Even though there is evidence of regional awareness in early southern writing—William Byrd's History of the Dividing Line, for example, points out southern characteristics—not until well into the 19th century did regional considerations begin to overshadow national ones. In the South the regional concern became more and more evident in essays and fiction exploring and often defending the southern way of life. John Pendleton Kennedy's fictional sketches in Swallow Barn, for example, examined southern plantation life at length.multiple points of view（多视角）：Multiple Point of View: It is one of the literary techniques William Faulkner used, which shows within the same story how the characters reacted differently to the same person or the same situation. The use of this technique gave the story a circular form wherein one event was the center, with various points of view radiating from it. The multiple points of view technique makes the reader recognize the difficulty of arriving at a true judgment.Confessional poetry ：Confessional poetry emphasizes the intimate, and sometimes unflattering, information about details of the poet's personal life, such as in poems about illness, sexuality, and despondence. The confessionalist label was applied to a number of poets of the 1950s and 1960s. John Berryman, Allen Ginsberg, Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, Theodore Roethke, Anne Sexton, and William De Witt Snodgrass have all been called 'Confessional Poets'. As fresh and different as the work of these poets appeared at the time, it is also true that several poets prominent in the canon of Western literature, perhaps most notably Sextus Propertius and Petrarch, could easily share the label of "confessional" with the confessional poets of the fifties and sixties.Ecocriticism：Ecocriticism is the study of literature and environment from an interdisciplinary point of view where all sciences come together to analyze the environment and brainstorm possible solutions for the correction of the contemporary environmental situation. Ecocriticism was officially heralded by the publication of two seminal works, both published in the mid-1990s: The Ecocriticism Reader, edited by Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm, and The Environmental Imagination, by Lawrence Buell.In the United States, Ecocriticism is often associated with the Association for the Study of Literature and Environment (ASLE), which hosts biennial meetings for scholars who deal with environmental matters in literature. ASLE has an official journal—Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment (ISLE)—in which much of the most current American scholarship in the rapidly evolving field of ecocriticism can be found.Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach that is known by a number of other designations, including "green (cultural) studies", "ecopoetics", and "environmental literary criticism".Dramatic Conflict：At least not the special kind of conflict that drives plays, the gas that fuels the dramatic engine. Arguments in real life are usually circular -- nobody gets anywhere, except a little steam's been blown off. And they're boring for everyone except the folks doing the yelling.Dramatic Conflict draws from a much deeper vein, rooted in the Subtext of your central characters. It's driven by fundamentally opposing desires.Conflict is a necessary element of fictional literature. It is defined as the problem in any piece of literature and is often classified according to the nature of the protagonist or antagonist。
世界摄影艺术简史
世界摄影艺术简史有了科学、机械和人类的创造性，许多想象都可以变为现实。
摄影就是这样产生的。
摄影艺术是造型艺术的一个分支，是一种以照相机和感光材料为工具，经过暗房工艺制作，塑造真实、生动、具体可感艺术形象的艺术样式。
摄影是科学技术发展的产物，摄影科学技术的发展，也必然要影响到摄影艺术的美学效果。
摄影艺术的主要创作手段是现场选择，即在客观事物运动发展过程中迅速选择典型事物的最佳瞬间和拍摄角度进行拍摄。
摄影家只有熟练掌握摄影技术和摄影艺术造型技巧，并具备高度的思想修养、艺术修养和浑厚的生活经验，才能抓住感人的瞬间，创造具有审美价值的艺术形象。
摄影由诞生到19世纪下半叶，发展极为迅速，并开始形成和产生摄影艺术流派。
摄影艺术流派的产生一般需要三个条件，即社会思潮和艺术思潮的出现，摄影艺术语言的不断丰富和造型手段的多样，以及摄影艺术家自身的修养和成熟。
摄影艺术经历了早期各种流派的发展，已经形成了自己的独特语言和美学特征。
不受国界，不受民族和语言的限制，是一种大众化的艺术形式。
一、绘画主义摄影1、英国绘画主义摄影运动的先驱雷兰德和鲁滨逊绘画主义摄影在创作上追求绘画效果和画意的境界。
该派摄影家把影像形成的气氛看得比题更为重要。
严格控制、精心制作、造型优雅是绘画主义作品的突出特征。
《生活的两个方面》引起一场对雷兰德的技术和他对裸体照片运用的大争论。
雷兰德:生活的两个方面1857年摄1869年，鲁滨逊发表了《摄影的画意效果》一书，这本书为绘画主义摄影流派奠定了理论基础。
该书论证说，摄影的美学标准和绘画是一样的，无论从直接阐述和言外之意都可看出，艺术摄影越是忠实地模仿绘画就越接近真正的摄影家一定要有丰富的情感和深入的艺术认识，方艺术。
他在书中明确指出:"足以成为优秀的摄影家。
无疑的，摄影术的继续改良并非就等于艺术的进步，因为摄影本身无论如何精巧完备，还只是一种带引到更高的目标而已"。
2、法国绘画主义摄影运动最杰出的代表是德马奇?罗贝尔。
印象派简介
印象派简介印象派绘画（Impressionism)也叫印象主义，是西方绘画史上划时代的艺术流派，19世纪60—90年代在法国兴起的画派，当时因克劳德·莫奈的油画《日出·印象》受到一位记者嘲讽而得名。
这幅画面描绘的是塞纳河的清晨，太阳刚刚升起的时候。
由于画家要在很短的瞬间，将早晨的美景在光线还没有变化前，就要完成作品，因此画面不可能描绘的很仔细。
当学院派的画家们看到这幅作品时，认为很粗糙，过于随便，就用讥讽的语言嘲笑“巴比松”的画家，意思是说：那是一群根本就不懂绘画的画家，《日出印象》完全就是凭印象胡乱画出来的，其他人也附和着说，这些画家统统都是“印象主义”，没想到，这些挖苦的话，反而成全了这批画家，“印象派”随之诞生，“巴比松”派反而慢慢被人淡忘。
1874年有一群年轻的画家在巴黎卡皮西纳大道的一所公寓里举办了第一届印象派画展，有31位印象派画家参展。
来向官方的沙龙挑战。
包括莫奈、雷诺阿、毕沙罗、西斯莱、德加、塞尚和莫里索等在内的画家们不仅有各异的性格和天赋，而且在某种程度上他们还具有不同的观念和倾向，但是，他们诞生在同样的时代，有着同样的经历，并且向同一的反对派斗争过。
他们欣然接受一些杂志的讽刺文章作家封给他们带着嘲笑味道的称号——“印象派”。
19世纪的时候，法国巴黎是欧洲油画的中心。
这个时候的风格是以学院派的新古典主义为主导的，他们每年都要举办官方的展览，叫做“沙龙”，多数人都出自于皇家美术学院，他们有着深厚的素描基础，并且精通人体解剖，画风严谨、细腻。
而在这个时候，还有着另外一大批充满着理想的年轻画家，他们来自于各个阶层，大多数都是自由人，很多人对学院派的教学方式及绘画风格有着不同的看法，认为古典主义千篇一律，缺乏个人风格，他们更崇尚现实主义，并提倡户外写生。
由于大家有着共同的理想和观点，他们逐渐地聚集到巴黎郊外的一个名叫巴比松的小村庄，来描绘那里迷人的风光，他们被称为“巴比松”画派。
论《媚丑之欲》的印象主义
论《媚丑之欲》的印象主义摘要《媚丑之欲》是美国作家门肯创作的著名文章之一。
本文通过对其印象主义描写手法的讨论，分析了门肯如何运用颜色、意象、修辞等手段来表现自己的主观情绪，突出“丑陋”这一主导性印象。
关键词：亨利·门肯印象主义丑陋中图分类号：i106.4 文献标识码：a一印象主义印象主义一词产生于19世纪下半叶的法国，最早出现在绘画中。
印象主义画家主张以自然中的光和色作为对象，通过直接对景写生来传达客观事物的光色变化，进而捕捉到个人瞬间的视觉感受。
印象派画家们除了使用极大丰富的色彩表现力的同时，他们更注重画面中线条、笔触等表现因素的作用，用夸张的手法，生动、真实地来表达自身的所感所悟。
作品散发着极大的表现力和感染力。
19世纪70年代以后印象主义开始慢慢进入到文学领域，很多文学家尝试采用类似于印象派绘画的创作方式，通过形象的语言来刻画和呈现外部的实际情况，极力渲染某一景物的环境气氛，倾向于对作者的自我感觉的描述，这种感觉模糊不清，转瞬即逝，并以此来刺激读者的感官，突出某一主导性的印象。
然而印象主义并不是一个真正的文学流派，它只是作为一种描述技巧运用在文章中来诠释印象和情感。
作者的目的并不于描写客体和事件本身，而在于通过对它们的描写所能显现给读者想象中的样态，强调的是主观的感受和理解，主要目的是使读者读完文章之后也能同样获得某种单一的、居支配地位的印象。
二作品简介《媚丑之欲》的作者亨利·门肯（henry mencken）是美国著名作家和编辑，是20世纪上半叶最有影响的美国作家和散文家之一，被称为“巴尔的摩的智者”。
门肯以其夸大其词、讽刺刻薄的写作风格而著称，有着十分广泛的读者群。
他的作品广受美国人阅读并非因为他的抨击责难，而是他的著作富有活力及艺术风格。
他的文风愉快喧闹，且由于他的语言基础稳固，以至于他的挖苦嘲讽都令人感到愉快。
门肯直言不讳且一针见血，但他所说的每句话都充满智慧。
用形式主义批评方法分析印象派风格作品
用形式主义批评方法分析印象派风格作品印象主义批评，从广义上讲，在西方也有久远的历史，但作为一种有意识的、自觉的批评类型，则出现于18世纪末19世纪初的英国。
英国批评家威廉·赫兹里特(1778一1830)在谈到自己的批评时说道：“我说的是我所想的：我想的是我所感受到的。
我不由自主地从事物中得出某些印象；我有充分的勇气照实说出(不无轻率之处)。
”“赫兹里特的前导”查尔斯·兰姆(1775一1834)的批评也常常“是完全脱离文本说话的印象主义批评”。
美国学者韦勒克指出，他们“两人的共同之处是运用了当时看似新颖的三种批评方法：唤起作品印象、运用比喻手法、论及作者身世”，这些方法奠定了赫兹里特和兰姆在英国文学批评史上的地位，“在18世纪英国批评界尚无近似于他们两人的批评实践的先例”。
19世纪末至20世纪前30年，印象批评兴盛于欧美诸国，并形成了一整套印象主义的批评理论。
印象主义以法国的法朗士为代表。
印象主义其实是唯美主义的余波。
唯美主义强调艺术的独立，提出“为艺术而艺术”，否认艺术摹仿人生，而主张人生摹仿艺术，这些观念与后来印象主义所提出的一些主张是一脉相承的。
解读“印象派”
解读“印象派”2006年5月26日，中华世纪坛世界艺术馆推出建馆以来的第二个展览――《从莫奈到毕加索--美国克里夫兰艺术博物馆精品展》。
从作品质量和数量来看，这是一次颇为重要的展览。
展览名称的拟订者一定非常了解中国人对西方美术史的熟悉程度。
2005年中国美术馆举办“法国印象派绘画珍品展”，已使北京观众熟悉了“印象派”，莫奈正是“印象派”的代表画家。
在中国，毕加索也是家喻户晓的人物，他非同寻常的经历连同他的天价绘画作品，许多美术爱好者几乎耳熟能详。
以这两位画家的名字作为展览的正标题，显然有吸引观众注意力的意思。
的确，中国观众也需要这样的导引，尽管“德加”和“莫奈”同属于“印象派”大师，“布拉克”和“毕加索”也同为“立体主义”的开山鼻祖，如果我们把展览标题改成“从德加到布拉克--美国克里夫兰艺术博物馆精品展”，展览的吸引力会陡然降低。
但是，以两个著名艺术家“从莫奈到毕加索”来命名，无论从时间跨度上考虑，还是从作品种类上考虑，都难以概括这次展览的作品容量，而“参展的六十件闻名遐迩的艺术作品分别代表着四十三位艺术大师，他们推动和改变、影响并主宰了近现代西方美术发展的进程。
参展作品的时间跨度近一百年，丰富地展现了19世纪下半叶至20世纪上半叶西方艺术潮流异彩纷呈的盛况”的描述才基本上反映了这次展览的规模。
43位艺术家归属于多种流派，展览主办方把60件作品分为五大类――“印象派”、“后印象派”、“罗丹作品”、“立体主义、野兽派”、“现代主义”。
需要指出的是，明知“雷内?马格利特”、“马克思?恩斯特”是超现实主义画家，为什么又把他们归在“立体主义和野兽派”的类别之中？另外，把德国画家“洛维斯?科林特”和比利时雕塑家“康斯坦丁?麦尼埃”、“乔治?迈因”归在“现代主义”部分也需要更充分的理由。
展览方或许是出于归类的方便才不做严谨的“计较”，但是这也反映了一个问题，就是本次展览的作品归属决不是简单的“五类”划分就能够说明白的，一个画家可能就代表了一个流派，比如“皮特?蒙德里安”就是荷兰“风格派”的代表画家，其影响绝不亚于被单独归类的“罗丹”。
Imagism美国文学史意象主义
Expressionist paintings and a building:
3. Dadaism: an infantile term chosen first by some painters meaning “ meaningless”. It adopts an extreme negative attitude towards cultural tradition and reality, towards artistic principles and towards any significance of language and literary representation. They like to use dream words, confused language, strange and ridiculous images. After 1924, it gradually turned into surrealism in France.
从印象主义看客观与主观主义
绪论从客观主义到主观主义伴随在西方现代艺术史中，并在19世纪后的印象主义及后印象主义中表现出来。
以莫奈为首的印象主义注重表现自然中真实的光与色，他们强调客观现实。
而以塞尚为首的后印象派主张用单純化的形与色來表現出对象的純粹性。
关键词：印象主义后印象主义莫奈塞尚1.概念解析客观主义是俄裔美国哲学家和作家艾茵•兰德提出的哲学系统。
客观主义哲学相信有独立于精神的现实存在，他们利用理性或“非矛盾识别”处理所感觉的资讯。
主观主义是唯心主义哲学的基本形式之一。
主观唯心主义把个人的某种主观精神看作是世界上一切事物产生和存在的根源与基础。
2具体介绍2.1印象派产生的背景1789年的法国反应多变的政局，法国艺术思潮也发生的变动。
当时法国画家力图创新，反對当時已經陈腐的古典學院派，也反对當時已經落入俗套、矯揉造作的浪漫主义。
它在柯洛的巴比松学派以及庫尔貝的作风的影响和推动下，在十九世紀光学理论和攝影实践的启发下，注重在绘画中對外光的研究和表現。
2.2印象派2.2.1概念印象派(Impressionism)特指那些領导这個革新运动的初始画家. 他們特別注意阳光的变化, 所以喜歡到戶外写生, 又称为“外光派”2.2.2风格主张到室外，在阳光下，根据眼睛的观察和直接感受作画，表現物体在光的照耀下色彩的微妙变化。
2.2.3印象派代表人物：莫奈2.2.3.1作画风格长期探索光色与空气的表現效果，从自然的光色变幻中抒发瞬間的感受。
很重視笔触，他运用不同的笔触充分表現色彩以符合自然的本來面貌。
2.2.3.2作品《日出．印象》这幅画，是1873年莫奈坐在哈佛港边房間的窗戶旁，观察港口霧中日出的景色时，有感而发的將自己所看到的晨雾和反映在窗戶上光线的变化与移动，画在画布上。
2.4后印象派2.4.1风格特点反对印象派单以表現客观自然的印象和感觉为滿足，反对新印象派太注重色光的变化，而忽略了主題本身的形与色。
主张用单純化的「形」与「色」表現出对象的純粹性。
论_了不起的盖茨比_的印象主义写作手法
《了不起的盖茨比》是美国著名小说家菲兹杰拉德的代表作。
小说描述了出身贫寒的盖茨比历尽艰辛不择手段地攫取财富，最终从一个穷光蛋变成人们心中的＂了不起＂的豪富，却又苦苦追求初恋时由于贫穷而失去的情人的故事，再现了美国２０世纪“爵士乐时代”的社会，揭示了“美国梦”的诱惑和破灭。
在这部作品中，菲兹杰拉德凭借其对印象主义画派的独到理解，并巧妙地借鉴该画派的艺术技巧来表述自己的观点。
本文主要从两个方面就菲兹杰拉德在这部作品中如何运用印象主义技巧揭示主题进行分析。
运用与印象派画家相似的手法，菲兹杰拉德在作品中巧妙将多种色彩融入读者的感官世界—————玫瑰色的大厅、金黄的乳猪和火鸡、碧绿的草地、酒红色的地毯、淡粉色的灯光、淡紫色的阳台、蔚蓝的大海、粉红色和金色的云霞；盖茨比乘坐的奶黄汽车，穿着粉红色的衬衫；摆满色彩缤纷鲜花的卧室……构成了一幅印象主义画作，营造了诗一般的梦幻意境。
在这绚丽的色彩构图中，用来装扮戴茜的白色和银色最为夺目。
与盖茨比第一次见面时，她穿着白色衣服，开辆白色小跑车，在盖茨比心目中留下了纯洁、美丽、温柔的深刻形象。
尼克第一次看到黛西时，她“穿着白色长裙”，“胸口涂了一层白粉”。
第六章，尼克和盖茨比应邀去黛西家吃饭，发现“黛西和乔丹躺在一张巨大的长沙发上，好像两座银像压住自己的白色衣裙”。
盖茨比被害的那天下午，他同尼克谈论往事时，还将黛西比喻成“皎皎发光”的白银。
她的豪宅仿佛洁白高贵的宫殿，窗帘也是白色的。
然而白有颜色、没有内容，也象征空虚与无助，这正是黛西的写照：外貌娇美俊俏，实则空虚、无智、冷酷，她没有理想，没有情操，百无聊赖，整天“不知道做什么才好”。
白色象征纯洁，身着白色衣裙的黛西宛若纯洁可爱的天使，但其实她的灵魂污点斑斑。
她虽然爱盖茨比，但更爱汤姆的地位和百万家产。
盖茨比为她而死，她竟一走了事，盖茨比重温旧梦的幻想一去不复返了。
银色则暗示了她的富足与世故。
除了白色和银色，作者还运用其他颜色意象的叠加手段以加强人物的艺术个性，深化主题。
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➢ Richard Aldington: The exact word must bring the effect of the object before the reader as it had presented itself to the poet’s mind at the time of writing.
Mixed Imagery
• All the images formed into a meaningful whole in a literary piece is often called imagery.
• In the case of mixed imagery where two or more senses cross, a strong impression is made.
• The representation of sense experience through languages.
• A concrete representation, as in art, literature, or music, that is expressive or evocative of something else.
➢ 1. Direct treatment of the “thing”, whether subjective or objective;
➢ 2. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation;
➢ 3. As regarding rhythm, to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, nቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱt in the sequence of a metronome.
Types of Image
• An image is something which evokes a sense experience. A writer’s imagery can be visual (pertaining to sight), olfactory (pertaining to smell), tactile (touch), auditory (hearing), gustatory (taste), or a bodily sensation such as pain or the perception of something cold..
Imagism
• Imagism was a poetic vogue that flourished in England and even more vigorously in America, between the years 1912 and 1917.
• The imagist proposals were for a poetry which, abandoning conventional poetic materials and versification, is free to choose any subject and to create its own rhythms, uses common speech, and presents an image or vivid sensory description that is hard, clear, and concentrated.
Imagism
(1900-1910)
Imagism: its definition
➢ T. E. Hulme: The image must enable one “to dwell and linger upon a point of excitement, to achieve the impossible and convert a point into a line”.
• Often the impression is rendered by means of metaphor, or by juxtaposing the description of one object with that of a second and diverse object.
Imagism: principles
The Coming of Image
1. Imagism as a term [p.158-159] 2. T.E. Hulme’s definition
momentary impression one dominant image personal word for expression
Image
Characteristics of Imagist Poetry
• Typically written in free verse and undertakes to render as precisely and tersely as possible the writer’s impression of a visual object or scene.
Kinesthetic Image
• Besides, words can convey a kinesthetic sense when there is a vivid description of motions indicating body language through the use of active verbs and their various forms
Imagism: its representatives