当代语言学导论复习要点详细!含课后单词
当代语言学导论
当代语言学导论第一章,人类的语言《圣经》里本来有很多关于语言的故事，《旧约〉里有一个巴别塔故事，最为著名。
这个故事说，天下人的语言一开始都是相同的，他们聚在一起，决定建造一座直通天顶的塔，传扬人类的名字，以免人类始终分散在大地上。
耶和华上帝害怕人类要是做成了这件事，以后无论要做什么，就没有什么做不成的了，于是，他变乱了人们的口音，使人们互相之间语言不通，从此分散在各地，放弃了共同建设高塔的事业。
人类有能力改变世界。
人类对自己那种其他生物无法与其媲美的力量和智慧感到无比自豪。
那么，人类拥有什么特性去证明自己有能力改变世界呢,这绝非是他的肌肉，因为有些物种的肌肉比其更加结实;也不可能是他的感觉器官，因为有些物种能感知超声波和红外线，比人更厉害。
考察起来，人类的优势就在于它独特的天资—说话的能力，或者说，通过语言进行交流的能力。
通过语言，人类相互传递思想和感情，并且把他们积累的知识和信念传给他们的孩子。
没有语言，其他的物种根本不能形成并交换有逻辑的思想，更加谈不上解开世界之谜和有意识的改造这个世界。
语言的力量在远古就被人类意识到了，比如，古犹太人就用语言来书写他们的犹太法典:“上帝不费吹灰之力，只用一个词语就创造了世界。
”虽然有些神秘，但是这经文却指出“人们看到了语言是世界的本原因素。
”在几乎所有的古代文学中，我们都能找到关于有关语言作用的神话。
它使得上帝更加方便自如地表达意愿;它满足了人类赞扬上帝的欲望，它给予了凡人力量去挑战上天，事实上，语言是力量的载体，能控制，创造和改变一切。
在剑桥语言大百科全书里，用了以下的说法来描述语言在人类生活中所起的中心作用:当我们观察自己周围的时候，会情不自禁的对那几千种表达不同世界观，文学和生活方式的语言和方言而倍感震撼。
当我们回顾前辈的思想时，我们只能看到自己语言范畴之内的东西，当我们瞻望未来，我们只能够用语言去计划前程;当我们放眼宇宙，通过飞船向太空发出信号，告知可能存在的关心我们的天外居民我们所在位置时，用的都是语言。
(完整word版)语言学概论知识点
导言、第一章、第二章一、名词解释1、历时语言学-—就各种语言的历史事实用比较的方法去研究它的“亲属”关系和历史发展的，叫历时语言学。
2、语言——语言是一种社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。
就语言本身的结构来说,语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统.3、符号——符号是用来代表事物的一种形式，词这样的符号是声音和意义相结合的统一体。
任何符号都是由声音和意义两方面构成的。
4、语言的二层性—-语言是一种分层装置,其底层是一套音位；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列,这一层又分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。
5、社会现象——语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系.所谓“社会"，就是指生活在一个共同的地域中，说同一种语言，有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。
语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的、共同的；另一方面，语言在人们的使用中可以有不同的变异、不同的风格。
二、填空1、结构主义语言学包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学三个学派。
2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
4、一个符号,如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有声音，我们就无法感知,符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。
5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义,完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。
6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。
7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级,第一级是语素,第二级是词，第三级是句子.8、语言系统中的所有符号,既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换,符号之间的这两种关系是组合和聚合。
9、组合是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合是指符号在性质上的归类。
三、判断正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉)1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。
《语言学导论》重点整理
♦Applied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.
5. Some distinctions in linguistics
6. Phonology : the sound patterns of language
Difference Phone, phoneme, allophone
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair
7. Phones, phonemes, and allophones
Narrow transcription窄式标音: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics
4. Classification of English consonants
5. Classification of English vowels
1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language
1. What is Linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.
现代语言学 复习要点
现代语言学复习要点现代语言学是研究语言的本质、结构、演化和使用的学科，涉及到语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个方面。
下面是现代语言学中的重要知识点，帮助您进行复习。
语音学音位与音素音位是语音学中的基本单位，是被感知为一种有区别的声音的语音单位。
音素是语音学中的一个概念，是语音中能够起差别作用的最小单位。
一种语音中可能存在多个音位，但其对应的音素数量通常比较少。
### 调值语音学中通常使用调值来表示声音的高低的。
不同的语言中可能有不同数量的调，比如汉语中有四个音调，英语中没有固定的调值。
### 音系音系是指一种语言中所有音位（包括所有音素）的总体，包括其音位的数量、种类和分布等方面。
语法学句子成分句子成分是指构成句子的基本单词、短语或从句。
一般来说，句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。
### 句子结构句子结构是指句子内不同成分的组成方式。
对于不同语言，其句子结构可能存在明显差异，如英语中主语一般出现在谓语前，而在汉语中通常是在谓语后。
### 语法关系语法关系是指句子中不同成分之间的关系，如主语与谓语之间的关系、宾语与谓语之间的关系等。
语义学词义词义是单词所表达的概念或意义。
不同的单词可能存在相同或相似的词义，因此在语义学中通常需要进行词义分类和比较。
### 语义关系语义关系是指单词、短语、句子等之间的意义相互联系。
常见的语义关系包括同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。
### 语篇意义语篇意义是指句子及其上下文所构成的整体意义。
在语篇分析中，不仅要关注句子内部的语义关系，还需考虑句子与上下文之间的语义关系。
语用学言语行为言语行为是指言语交流过程中所体现的具体行为，如陈述、命令、请求、批评等。
不同类型的言语行为具有不同的功能和表达方式。
### 语用礼貌语用礼貌是指在言语交际过程中对他人尊重、友好的表达方式。
常见的语用礼貌策略包括委婉语、礼貌用语、双重否定等。
### 上下文依存言语交际过程中，具体表达的含义通常需要依赖于上下文信息。
现代语言学复习要点
Chapter1Introduction绪论1什么是语言学what is linguistics?1.1定义definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2语言学的研究范畴the scope of linguisticsa.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of lingu istics called phonetics.语音学phoneticsHow speech sounds are produced and classified.c.how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning.phonology音位学/音系学phonology交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d.The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the bran ch of study calledmorphology.形态学morphologyhow morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
语言学导论复习纲要
区分辅音：发音部位、阻碍方法、声带状况 和气流节制。 掌握英汉中元辅音的特征： 元音差别： • 除了央元音/ə/之外几乎没有一 个处在相同部位的。 英语中的元 音都是舌面音， 没有舌尖元音和 卷舌元音。 • • 英语元音分布比较均匀， 而汉语 元音分布不够均匀， 高元音居多。 英语中的元音有长短的差别 （如 beat 和 bit，fool 和 full） ，而汉 语没有。 • • 英语前元音没有圆唇音， 而后元 音多为圆唇音。 汉语中的元音元音基本上在极 限位置上， 而英语中的语音并非 如此。 • 辅音差别： • 英汉辅音在发音部分方面虽然 有诸多相似之处， 但它们的发音 方法和发音机制有着细微的差 别。 • 英语辅音有清浊之分， 而汉语辅 音的区别并不全在清浊， 除了几 个个别的浊音，如鼻音、边音， 其余的擦音、 塞音和塞擦音的区 别在于送气与否。 • 此外， 英语辅音时长较短， 单念 时不允许延长； 汉语辅音无论是 清是浊， 无论送气不送气， 单念 时听起来较长， 似乎后面跟了一 个短暂的/ə/音。 音位和音位变体： • • 音位： 某种语言或方言中具有区 别意义功能的最小语音单位。 音位变体： 属于同一个音位的各 个音素叫音位变体。 音位变体就 是音位在语音环境中的实际发 音。 音系规则的描述方法：斜线表示变化产生的 环境，横线（称为焦点线）表示目标音段的 位置。例子如图： 汉语还有鼻化元音。
原则与参数理论 XP 规则是一个普遍规则， 语言之间的差别在 于参数不同。 The fact that Japanese and English differs due to the parameter of variation among languages, or parameter, for short.
移位与疑问句 移位的起因通常为话题化，就是根据不同的 话题而将句子成分改变位置，通常是提前。 比如一般疑问句中， 会出现 I-to-C movement， （屈折语转为补足语；一个假设：A null C triggers the movement in English questions. ） ；而特殊疑问句中会出现 Wh-movement（基于 I-to-C movement 的移 位，形成补足语短语的标志） Principle C C-command: A node alpha c- commands a node beta iff: the mother of alpha dominates beta, and alpha does not dominate beta. Principle C: If a pronoun NP x c-commands a full NP y, x and y may not be coreferent. What do we get: Although syntactic structure is independent of meaning in many ways, they do interact in many ways.
现代语言学笔记
A Detailed Note for Modern LinguisticsChapter 1: Introduction1. Define the following terms:1).Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2).General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguisticprinciples and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features ofthe English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic s tudy.5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.6).Language competence: The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Atransformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7).Language performance: performance is the actual re alization of the ideal language user’sknowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.8).Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow;Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of theconventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from perso n to person, and from situation to situation.10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness: （任意性）It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is nological connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity: (多产性)Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one ofsounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).Displacement:language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real orimagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details ofany language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.16).Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it fromany animal system of communication2. Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，真实的) language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, （臆测）and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.3. What are the branches of linguistics?What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。
《语言学导论》复习提纲
《语言学导论》复习提纲《语言学导论》复习提纲1、Termsrecursiveness ：It mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within （i.e.，be dominated by ）another constituent having the same category ，but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness ，recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example ，“I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new ”.duality ：the structural organization of language into two abstract levels ：meaningful units （e.g. words ）and meaningless segments （e.g. sounds ，letters ）. compositionality ：Compositionality refers to the principle that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. Take ，for example ，the sentence “Socrates was a man ”. Once the meaningful lexical items are taken away －“Socrates ”and “man ”－what is left is the pseudo-sentence ，“S was a M ”.ontological metaphors ：Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events ，activities ，emotions ，ideas ，etc.，as entities and substances. Take the experience of rising prices as an example ，which can be metaphorically viewed as an entity via the noun inflation . This gives us a way to refer to experiences ：INFLA TION IS AN ENTITYmorpheme ：Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning ，a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning ，such as boy and –s in boys ，check and –ing in checking ，dis-，appoint ，and –ment in disappointment . Morphemes cannot be further analyzed. For instance ，chair cannot be analyzed into ch and air because there is no relationship between the parts ch ，air ，and the whole chair .displacement ：the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker ’s immediate situation. When a man ，for example ，is crying to a woman ，about something ，it might be something that had occurred ，or something that is occurring ，or something that is to occur.2、Short questionsChapter 16、Does the traffic light system have duality ？Can you explain by drawing a simple graph ？ Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously ，it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals secondary level like animals’’ calls.Red → stop Green →go Yellow →get ready to go or stop 8、Communication can take many forms ，such as sign ，speech ，body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language ？On a whole ，body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality ，displacement ，creativity and so on. Body language exhibitsarbitrariness a little bit. For instance，nod means“OK/YES”for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying“NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.15、Why is the distinction between competence and performance important in linguistics？Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them？How do you like the concept communicative competence？This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair－competence and performance.Chapter 33、MORPHEME is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one？What is its relation to phoneme？Can a morpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole？As a matter of fact，morpheme is both a grammatical concept and a semantic one. For instance，we can recognize that English word-forms such as talks，talker，talked and talking must consist of one element talk，and a number of other elements such as -s，-er，-ed，-ing. All these elements are described as morphemes. The definition of morpheme is“the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content”. We would say that the word reopened in the sentence The police reopened the investigation consists of three morphemes. One minimal unit of meaning is open，another minimal unit of meaning is re-（meaning again），and a minimal unit of grammatical function is -ed（indicating past tense）. Therefore，we are in a position to conclude that those which can stand by themselves as single words，e.g. open，are semantic concepts，and those which cannot normally stand alone，but which are typically attached to another form，e.g. re-，-ist，-ed，-s，are grammatical concepts.As we know，each one of the meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning，then the two sounds represent different phonemes.The relation between morpheme and phoneme is also of twofold feature，viz. one-to-one，one-to-more. As with the former type，one-to-one，re- is the kind of morpheme that always consists of two phonemes /ri:/；as for the latter type，one-to-more relation，a typical example would be the plural morpheme that follows a noun or a verb. {s} after a noun can be pronounced in three ways，viz. /s/，/z/，and /iz/，as in locks，bags，and watches；{z} after a verb can also be pronounced in three ways，viz. /s/，/z/，and /iz/，as in stops，drags，and catches.Seem from an integrative perspective，a morpheme and a phoneme，indeed，can form an organic whole，as the number of the sound of each morpheme cannot be unlimited.Chapter 47、Use examples to illustrate different ways to extend syntactic constituents.In this chapter，several ways to extend syntactic constituents are brought under the category of recursiveness，including coordination and subordination，conjoining and embedding，hypotactic and paratactic and so on. Coordination and conjoining are the different names for the same linguistic phenomenon，that is，to use and，but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance，the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentencelike this“[NP A man，a woman，a boy，a car and a dog] got into the car”. While subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions，into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element（here a relative clause）.However，hypotaxis and parataxis are the two traditional terms for the description of syntactic relations between sentences. In the examples below，the former is hypotactic，while the latter is paratactic：We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.He dictated the letter. She wrote it.Chapter 57、The British linguist F. R. Palmer argues in his Semantics（p. 97）that“there is no absolute distinction between [gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms]. We can treat male/female，married/single，alive/dead as gradable antonyms on occasions. Someone can be very male or more married and certainly more dead than alive.”Comment on it.It is not advisable to tell beginners of linguistics that the distinction between gradable antonyms and complementary antonyms is relative. The expression“more dead than alive”is not a true comparative.8、姜望琪（1991：79）claims that“To some extent，we can say that any two words of the same part of speech may become antonyms，as long as the meaning difference between them is what needs to be emphasized in the particular context.”He uses the two sentences below as examples. What do you think of the claim？You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one.He’s no statesman，but a mere politician.This is a reasonable claim. As the author said in the paper，“man”can be the antonym of “woman”，but it can also be the antonym of“boy”in a situation when the age difference is important. When the difference between a man and an animal is important，“man”can also be the antonym of“dog”. And when the difference between something animate and something inanimate is important，then“man”can even be the antonym of“stone”. In the extreme cases，so-called synonyms may also become antonyms，for example，“You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one”，“He’s no statesman，but a mere politician”.Supplement：Give your comment on the distinction between word group and phrase.A“phrase”is a single element of structure containing more than one word，and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of“clauses”. Traditionally，it is seen as part of a structural hierarchy，falling between a clause and word，e.g. “the three tallest girls”（nominal phrase）. There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A“word group”is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged，e.g. right behind，all along. Thus we have nominal group，verbal group，adverbial group，conjunction group and preposition group.In general，word group can be a phrase，but phrase not always a word group.。
当代语言学导论课后练习第一题答案
当代语言学导论课后练习第一题答案黎神华桂林电子科技大学Language touches every part of our lives; it gives words to用言语表达our thoughts, voice to our ideas, and expression to our feelings. It is a rich and varied human ability—one that we can use without even a thought, that children seem to acquire automatically, and that linguists have found to be complex yet describable.语言贯穿于我们生活的全部，予我们的思维以言辞，予我们的理念以话语，予我们的情感以表述。
它是一种人类所拥有的丰富而多样的能力—想用就用，无须思索；天下儿童，自能习得；语言学家知其固然复杂，却可描述。
Linguistics is the study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.语言学是研究语言的本质、结构和变化的科学，包括有语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学。
Linguistic knowledge as represented in the speaker’s mind is called a grammar. Linguistic theory is concerned with涉及revealing揭示the nature of the mental grammar心理语法which represents speakers’ knowledge of their language.语言学知识作为说话者大脑里的表述被称为语法。
语言学复习提纲
英语语言学导论复习提纲IV. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration.1.affix p372.affricate3.applied linguistics4.articulatory phonetics5.aspiration6.back-formation7.blending8.bound morpheme9.broad transcriptionplementary distributionponential analysis12.context13.Conversational implicature14.deep structure15.duality16.free morpheme17.homonymy18.idiolect19.illocutionary act20.indirect speech act21.inflection22.linguistic sexism23.morpheme24.Move α25.narrow transcription26.perlocutionary act27.phatic communion28.phoneme29.phonology30.pidgin31.predication32.presupposition33.register34.relational opposites35.speech community36.supresegmental features37.tone38.trace39.utterance40.voicelessVI. Answer the following questions.1.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making anutterancement with at least three examples on the following statement:”There is undoubtedly nosingle cause of language change.”3.Do you think that the pictographic characters in Chinese such as 人、日、火contradict withone of the design features of language —— arbitrariness? Why or why not?4.Explain what is sense and what is reference with examples5.Explain with examples the three notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, and also how theyare related6.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?8.How is language related to society?9.How is Saussure`s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky`s distinctionbetween competence and performance?10.How is utterance meaning different from sentence meaning?11.What are derivational affixes and inflectional affixes? Give examples to show their differentfunctions.12.What are the four major views concerning the study of meaning?13.What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your examples to show how flouting thesemaxims gives rise to particularized conversational implicatue.14.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?15.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speechsounds?16.What contribution did Saussure make to modern linguistics?17.What is blending, abbreviation and back formation?18.What is entailment and what is presupposition? Give examples to illustrate19.What is the difference between competence and performance, according to Noam Chomsky?20.What is the difference between Sense and Reference in semantic study? Explain withexamples21.What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning？22.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?23.Why is language defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication?24.Why is syntax regarded as a system of rules?25.Why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?。
英语语言学导论笔记
一、语言学总论1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimer2）Duality（二层性）:定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3）Creativity/Productivity（创造性）:定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性、移位性）:定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5）Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）:定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例：印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive （描述性）vs. Prescriptive （规定性）Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic（共时性）vs. Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例：研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue（语言）& parole （言语）Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力）and performance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例：[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例：tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马，mà骂比较：英语单词，如meintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=derivational affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级：-er, -est如何区分派生词（derivational word）和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。
《语言学导论》重点整理
phone: the smallest perceptible discretesegment of sound in a stream of speech
i) phonetic unitii) not distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or producediv) marked with [ ]
♦Semantics: the study of meaning.
♦Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context
♦Sociolinguistics: the study of social aspects oflanguage and its relation with society.
♦(Discreteness:the sounds used in language aremeaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)
9.Assignments
♦Comment on the definition of language.
♦Summarize the design features oflanguage.
Narrow transcription窄式标音:transcription with letter-symbols and thediacritics
4.Classification of Englishconsonants
5.Classification of English vowels
6.Phonology : the sound patterns oflanguage
♦What is your understanding ofsynchronic study of language
现代语言学概论详细笔记
现代语言学概论详细笔记Chapter one linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics:the scientific study of language(lingui-:language; -ics:science)1.2. History of linguisticsbefore the mid of 19th century: philology(语文学)from the mid of 19th century: linguistics(语言学)1.2.1 Ferdinand de Saussure (索绪尔）–1857-1913–Swiss linguist–Famous for his book Course in General Linguistics–Published in 1916, after his death–Based on lecture notes taken by students–Father of modern linguistics–Drew several very important distinctions in the study of language (see blow) ?Distinguish between synchronic and diachronic studies of language–language can be studied synchronically–does not need to consider historyDistinguish between langue and parole–treat language as a system–define the units of language–study the relations among units and the rules of combination ??Synchronic study–study the language system at a given period–treat the system as being static–concentrate on one language and on the speaker’s knowledge of the language ??Diachronic study–study the language systems in different periods–concentrate on how languages change–often needs to study several different languagesLangue vs. parole(language vs. speech)the system of languagea set of social conventionsexists in the mind of each speakerlearned by each speakerall speakers have the same systemmore or less fixeda speaker is powerless to create it or modify itactual speechan individual act of the will and the intelligencea speaker has freedom in uttering sentences, is free to choose what to say ?ancillary/accidentalThe speeches of two speakers may be rather different ??Competenc e:-the ideal knowledge of the speaker-a property of the mind of each speakercompetence = knowledge of grammarPerformance-actual realization of this knowledge in utterance-influenced by psychological & social factorsTheoretical lin guistics (理论语言学)–Phonetics–Phonology–Morphology–Syntax–Semantics–*Pragmatics–*Discourse Analysis (会话分析)–*Text analysis (语篇学)Chapter 2 Language2.1. Definition of language:language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication ?2.2. Design features of language:(1) duality （双重性）:language is composed of 2 systems.system of sounds: meaningless, limited numbersystem of meanings:meaningful, relatively unlimited(2). Arbitrariness（任意性）-The combination of the sound and meaning of linguistic symbols is a social convention.-there is no necessary or intrinsic connection between the symbols,and the meaning of the symbols(3). Productivity （生成性）-Productivity refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences including novel sentences.-No one will have difficulty in understanding the sentence: “the terrorists will bo mb the railway of Tokoy tomorrow.”-But the communication systems of other animals are not productive.(4). Displacement（移位性）-Displacement is the property of language that enableslanguage users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place.people can talk about things present,absent,in the past, in the future.(Queen Elizabeth Ⅰ)(5).cultural transmission(文化传递性)-Language and culture are closely related to each other.-Language is passed on from generation to generation by learning rather by instinct.-Language is culturally transmitted.2.3. Functions of language(what language is used for)(1).phatic:-Phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.-Greeting,farewells, and comments on the weather server the function. Such as, “How are you?”, “A nice day, isn?t it?”(2). Directive-When language is used to get the hearer do something,it serves a directive function.-Most imperative sentences are associated with this function. Such as in “come in, please.”, “Drop in any time you like.”(3). Informative- Language serves an informative function when it is used to to give information about facts, tell what the speaker believes.- Most declarative sentences, as well as rhetorical questions are used to serve this function.(4). Interrogative-When language is used to get information from others, it serves an interrogative function.-All the questions that expe ct answers serve this function. Such as , “what is your name?” or “Are you able to speak Japanese?”(5). Expressive-Expressive function is the use of language to reveal something abut the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.-In expressive funct ion, language is used to evaluate and assert the speaker’s attitudes.-Some ejaculations are the examples ,such as, “oh, my God!” or “The man is leaving ,I wish to God he would go!”(6). Evocative-Evocative function is the use of language to create certain feeling in the hearer.-Evocative function aims to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry, or please the hearer.-Jokes, advertising, propaganda are used to serve the evocative function of language. Such as,Coke refreshes you like no other can.If it is got to be clean, it?s got to be tide.(7). Performative-When language is used to “do things”, , to perform actions, it serves the performative function.-With the sentences being uttered, the act can be performed, such as, “I declare the exam is cancelled.” or… I declare the class is over.”Chapter 3 Phonetics (语音学)3.1. Definition of Phonetics (语音学):Phonetics is the scientific study of speech soundsDeals with speech soundsConcerns all possible sounds humans can make3.2. The three main branches of Phonetics:Articulatory (发音) Phonetics:the study of the production of speech sound.Acoustic (声学) Phonetics:the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. ?Auditory (听觉) Phonetics:the perception of speech sounds.Chapter 3 Phonetics (语音学)3.1. Definition of Phonetics (语音学):Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds ?Deals with speech soundsConcerns all possible sounds humans can make3.2. The three main branches of Phonetics:Articulatory (发音) Phonetics:the study of the production of speech sound.Acoustic (声学) Phonetics:the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. ?Auditory (听觉) Phonetics:the perception of speech sounds3.3 Speech OrgansLips (labia唇)Teeth (dentes齿)Tooth-ridge (alveoli齿龈)Hard palate ( 硬腭)Soft palate (velum软腭)Uvula （小舌)Tip of tongue （舌尖）Blade of tongue (舌面)Front of tongue (舌前部)Back of tongue (舌后部)Tongue root (舌根)Pharynx (声门)V ocal cords （声带)Nasal cavity （鼻腔）Oral cavity （口腔）Epiglottis (会厌)Tongue (lingua) (舌)3.4. Phonetic transcription (注音)A sound may have many variationsExample 1:[p] in peak is aspirated ? [ph][p] in speak is unaspirated ? [p=] or simply [p] Example 2:[l] in lead is clear? [l][l] in deal is dark ?[?]Symbols for such more specific sounds are called diacritics (变音符) ?See胡壮麟, 语言学教程, p. 38Narrow transcription& Broad transcriptionNarrow transcription:use more, specific symbols,i.e. diacraticsBroad transcription:Use ordinary symbolsExample: helpBroad transcription: [help]Narrow transcription: [he?ph]Commonly used diacratics: 。
当代语言学导论
当代语言学导论当代语言学是一门广泛而深奥的学科，它包含着许多不同的领域，涉及到的学科也十分广泛，研究的范围也很广。
当代语言学跨越了传统认知学，文化学，社会学，心理学，经济学等多个学科，涵盖了许多不同语言的研究，探究了人类如何说话、如何表达意思以及人们如何使用语言来认知世界等问题。
因此，当代语言学的研究内容异常的广泛，它也是一门贴近社会的学科，它不仅涉及了语言的结构和运用，而且还探讨了语言的功能和社会的作用。
当代语言学的发展自上世纪60年代以来，在过去的几十年里，它逐步成为一门独立的学科。
其中有几个主要的研究派别，包括英语句法，语言分析，语用学，结构主义语言学，普遍语言学，社会语言学等，从不同的角度研究了语言的结构，发展，使用情况以及与社会关系的变化。
当代语言学研究的重点是语言与社会关系的关系，它让人们对语言本身的结构与功能有了更深入的了解。
当代语言学的研究的结果也是有趣的，它发现当代语言系统的变化是由于语言与小范围的社会关系的变化而发生的，这表明只有深入地研究语言的时代背景和文化背景，才能真正理解它的本质变化。
在当代语言学的研究中，研究者采用了不同的方法来检测当代语言的变化，如多媒体研究方法，主题分析方法，句法分析方法，话语分析方法，语义分析方法，以及认知语言学等，另外，当代语言学还探究了语言的历史变迁，以及语言的变化如何影响社会的发展，以及语言的变化和社会环境的关系。
总之，当代语言学是一门多面向的学科，它涉及到多个学科，研究内容也很广泛，它最核心的研究内容是语言与社会的关系，它也试图研究语言的变化是由什么因素造成的，以及如何影响社会的发展等问题。
当代语言学不仅为人们更好地理解语言本身提供了很多有价值的信息，而且也让人们更加深入地了解社会现象，从而更好地建立和维护良好的社会关系。
当代语言学导论8
8.1.4 Definition of Pragmatics
• Pragmatics may be defined as: • The study of language in use. • The study of language production & language comprehension. • The study of meaning in context. • The study of language in relation to its users. • The study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning & contextual meaning.
Knowledge about the situation
• Knowledge about the situation is usually referred to as situational knowledge or situational context, including time, place, topic formality and relation between the speaker and hearer.
•
• • • • • • •
Performatives do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The utterance of these sentences, instead, is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. I bequeath my watch to my brother. I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow. I promise to finish it in time. I apologize. I declare the meeting open. I warn you that the bull will charge.
《语言学导论》词汇
• 中缀（infix）: attach inside the base, according to a rule that refers to the base’s sound structure.
词类的划分
• 词类：在传统语法中称“Part of Speech”，即通过分析词在语言 中的不同的语法特征、语义特征和音系特征，或者根据词在形式上 的相似性，如屈折变化和分布，来对词进行分组分类。
词的基本成分——语素
• 语素（Morpheme）是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步划分为更小 的单位而不破坏或彻底改变其词汇或语法意义。
• 形态学是对语素进行系统研究的语言学分支。它研究词的内部结构 和构造规则。
注意：汉语的语素差不多就是一个音节和一个汉字，但并不 绝对：
• 没有意义的汉字不是语素，如葡、萄、咖、啡
• 复杂词（Complex words）可以再分为词根（root）和词缀（affix）。 词根是构成词的基础成分，不能再作进一步分析而不破坏其意义，
既可以是自由语素，也可以是黏着语素（如receive，perceive和 conceive中的-ceive）。 词缀本质上是黏着的。根据它与词根和词干的相对位置，分为前缀、 后缀和中缀。 词干（stem）是指能够附加上屈折词缀的语素或语素组合。如 friends和friendships中的friend和friendship。
• 比如，英语中的名词有单复数； 动词有过去式，完成式；
形容词有比较级； 副词跟形容词类似，且通常以-ly为后缀。
世界语言中的主要语法范畴
与名词有关的语法范畴 • 性- gender / grammatical gender • 数- number • 格- case • 有定与无定- definite or indefinite 与动词有关的语法范畴 • 体-aspect • 时-tense • 人称-person • 态-voice •式 与形容词和副词有关的语法范畴 •级
现代语言学知识点
现代语言学知识点第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communicationPhonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, andcomputational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。
语言学导论复习资料
语言学导论复习资料一：名词解释(4个）ngue & Parole（语言与言语）Langue is the linguistic competence of the speaker,which is relatively stable and systematic and also the rule that the speaker should follow.Parole is the actual phenomena or data of linguistics, which is subject to personal and situational constraints and always a naturally occurring event.2.Phonetics & Phonology （语音学与音位学）Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including three main areas: articulatory phonetics (发音语音学), acoustic phonetics(声学语音学), auditory Phonetics(听觉语音学).Phonology is the study of sound systems—the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns.3.Open-class word & Closed-class word（开放类词与封闭类词）Open-class words: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.e.g. n. v. adj. adv.E.g. regarding / with regard to ; throughout, in spite ofClosed words : their membership is fixed or limited.E.g. pro. prep. conj. art. etc.4. Immediate Constituent Analysis（直接成分分析法）The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结构体）and its Constituents（成分）. To analyze their relations is IC.5. Sense & Reference（意义与所指）Sense: The literal meaning of a word or an expression, independence of situational context. Reference: The relation between words and the things, actions, events and qualities they stand for.6. Metaphor & Metonymy （隐喻与转喻）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other.E.g. All the world is a stage.Metonymy : in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.E.g. the crown can stand for a king, and the White House for the American government.7. Performatives & Constatives（施为句与表述句）Performatives: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out. Constatives: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or false. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.二：问答题（3个）1.What are the designed features of Language？“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication, including:1. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.2. duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures.3. creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(递归性）4. displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.5. Cultural Transmission means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned by each speaker.2.What is Iconicity（句法像似性）？How to analyze some language phenomena with Iconicity?In functional-cognitive linguistics, as well as in semiotics, iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy between the form of a sign and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness.We can analyze some language phenomena with the Iconic principles.①Proximity principle: conceptual distance tends to match with linguistic distance, e.g. “give sb sth” and “give sth to sb”②Quantity principle: conceptual complexity corresponds to formal complexity, e.g. “apple, tree”, “apple tree” and “apple trees”.③Sequential order principle: the sequential order of events described is mirrored in the speech chain, e.g. “I came, I saw, I conquered”.3.What is prototype theory（原形范畴）? How to analyze some language phenomena with prototype theory?Prototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool.We can analyze some language phenomena with its three levels in categories.①basic level: This is the level where we perceive the most differences between “objects” in the word. E.g, all categories of dogs are different, but they still share enough to be distinguished from cats, birds, snakes,etc.②superordinate level: Superordinate categories are the most general ones. E.g, if someone asks you to think of a plant, you might think of a tree or a flower.③subordinate level: They have clearly identifiable gestalts(完形）and lots of individual specific features. At this level we perceive the differences between members od the basic level categories, like rain coat,apple juice and wheel chair.4.What is figure and ground theory? How to analyze some language phenomena with figure and ground theory?The figure within a scene is a substructure perceived as "standing out" from the remainder(the ground) and accorded special prominence as the pivotal(关键的）entity around which the scene is organized and for which it provides a setting. For example, you see words on a printed paper as the "figure" and the white sheet as the "background".It is believed that the selection and arrangement of the information in syntactic structure are decided by the degrees of salience of it. For example, “The car crashed into the tree” and “The tree was hit by the car”, in these two sentences, the meanings are the same, but by arranging the positions of the subject and object differently, the focus and prominence are different.5.How to analyze some language phenomena with Metaphor and Metonymy? We can analyze some language phenomena with metaphor through its three categories.1.Ontological metaphor: e.g inflation is backing us to conner.In this sentence, regarding inflation as an entity allows human beings to refer to it, identify it, treat it as a case.2.Structural metaphor imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. For example, “Argument is war”leads to an English expression like “Your claims are indefensible”.3.Orientional metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation.For example, “I’m feeling up” shows erect posture is related with a positive state, and vise versa.6. What is Speech Act theory? What is Illocutionary Act? What is Cooperative Principle?The speech act theory was originated with John Austin. A speech act is an utterance that has performative function in language and communication. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, etc.Illocutionary act means when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces.Cooperative Principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the maxim of manner.三．语言学家及其理论、作品配对1.Saussure: Course in General Linguistics 结构主义历时研究diachronic study2.Boas: discovered the framework of descriptive linguistics Handbook of American Indian languages3.Sapir: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language4.Bloomfield: stimulus-response theory Language(1993)5.Malinowski: context of situationCoral Gardens and Their Magic6.Trubetzkoy: Principles of Phonlogy7.Austin: speech act theory How to do things with words8.Grice: the cooperative principle Logic and conversation9.Halliday: systemic-functional grammarthe theory of metafunctions of language(元语言功能理论）10.Chomsky: language acquisition device(LAD) generative grammar Syntactic Structureskoff: cognitive linguistics Metaphors We Lived By12.Leech: 7 types of meaning in his Semantics13.Ogden & Richards: Semantic Triangle四．选择题，判断题重点1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. 语言的起源：the bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory, the yo-he-yo theory.3. 语言的功能:interpersonal function(人际功能），performative function(行事），emotive，expressive，phatic communication(寒暄），recreational，metalingual.4. 语言学的主要分支：phonetics[articulatory, acoustic(physical properties), auditory], phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics.5. 语音属于言语，音位属于语言,音位（phoneme)是最小的语音单位，语素（morpheme)是语法意义中最小的语言单位，单词（word）是语言最小的自由单位。
当代语言学导论复习要点(详细!含课后单词)
Introduction to Contemporary LinguisticsChapter1Human superiority lies in his unique endowment-----the ability to talk, or rather, to communicate by means of language.Talmud: god created the world by a word, instantaneously, without toil or pains.Widdowson: the primacy of language in the way human beings conceive of the world.Language is a vehicle of power, for control, for creation, and for change.The study of human language is called linguistics.Linguistics deals with human language as a whole or as particular languages.1.As a whole: the system of human communication which consists of the structuredarrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into larger units,e.g.morphemes, words, sentences, utterances.2.As particular language: like French language, they are particular systems ofhuman communication used by people living in different parts of the world.There is a continuum from one language to another.Varieties of language: Any particular language is in essence a set of varieties.1.local varieties区域变体–dialects and accents(the former differ from each otherin pronunciation, vocabulary, and even grammar; the latter only in pronunciation ) 2.social varieties—sociolects社会方言(=social dialects , used by people of differentclasses, ages, or sexes ),3.historical varieties—temporal variety.(e.g. the 17th century English)4.stylistic or occupational varieties---registers语域(e.g. formal English, scientificEnglish)5.individual varieties—idiolects个人语言.ually a language has an officially declared or generally considered standarddialect(e.g. Putonghua in China, General American in the US)From Prescriptivism to DescriptivismPrescriptivism is the view that one variety of language has an inherently higher value than others.(try to impose rules from some high prestige language to some lower prestige language, like Latin and English)Descriptivism is the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist.Usages of different varieties should be observed and recorded instead of being judged with some imposed norms.Endowed or conventional?Plato’s problem: How can every human being develop a rich system of linguistic knowledge on the basis of limited and fragmentary empirical evidence?Side of endowment: nativists(天生论) or mentalists（心智说）Plato:1.Man’s knowledge came from universal truths.2.There was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man tofollow in expressing his ideas.3.Knowledge of language was not learned but recalled.Chomsky:There is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides what we speak.Chomsky has given a name to this entity----UG, or universal grammar. His epistemology of the knowledge of language foes as follows:1.Every human being has the language competence能力, because he has the inbornUG which other species lack.2.UG is the initial state of the human language faculty语言器官/机制which alonecannot enable a human baby to speak. A baby needs to be exposed to the linguistic environment of a certain language and accumulate experience.3.Due to the effect of later experience, the baby’s mind develops from the initialstate into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a specific human language.Side of convention: behaviorist or empiricistsAristotle: knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.Xun zi: a name was accepted through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention.The power of language exists in its countless varieties, not relying on any universal standard.ConnectionismDiachronic(历经时间的): focus on the comparison between languages and the exploration of the historical change and variation of some ancient languages./ of, relating to, or dealing with phenomena (as of language or culture) as they occur or change over a period of timeSynchronic（共时的）: research of the facts of language agreed upon or shared by his members of language community at a given point in time./ concerned with events existing in a limited time period and ignoring historical antecedents GlossaryEndowments: (天赋) the natural quality that a person is made rich of from the birth.Register: (语域) the words, style, and grammar used by speakers and writers in particular conditions, namely a socially defined variety of language.Idiolect: (个人语言) the linguistic system of an individual speaker.Sociolect: (社会方言) also social dialect. Variety of a language defined by social factors such as age, religion, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Sociolects maybe classed as high or low (in status).Prescriptivism :(规定主义) the imposition of arbitrary norms upon a language, often in defiance of normal usage.Descriptivism ：（描写主义）the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist.Nativism: (天生论) philosophical and psychological position which holds that cognitive development of humans arises from “innate ideas”. The nativist position has been used to explain how children are able to learn language and contrasts with the belief that all human knowledge comes from experience (empiricism).Mentalism: （心智说）psychological and philosophical concept picked up and developed by Chomsky(1965), which attempts to describe the internal (innate) language mechanism that provides the basis for the creative aspect of language development and use.Dualism: （二元论）a philosophical system that recognizes two ultimate and independent principles in the scheme of things, such as mind and matter.Monism: (一元论) a general name for those philosophical theories which deny the duality of matter and mind.Universal Grammar (UG): （普通语法）the genetically endowed information consisting of principles and parameters that enable the child to deduce a grammar from the primary linguistic data.Language competence: (语言能力) knowledge of language; the linguistic capacity of a fluent speaker of a language.Parameter: (参数) a dimension of grammatical variation between different languages or different varieties of the same language.Empiricism: (经验论) philosophical and psychological position which holds that the psychological development of humans arise primarily from experience and learning.Connectionism: (连通主义) a theory of cognition which draws inspiration from the way the billions of neurons in the brain are interconnected in complex ways to produce a network of associations. It holds that the complexity of language emerges from associative learning processes being exposed to a massive and complex environment.Chapter2Speculations: origin of languagePlato----legislatorHerder----godUniversal harmony is embraced as the foundation of modern linguistics as a science. Galilean thesis----nature is perfectObservationResearchEvery person’s lexical knowledge of his first language is tacit and natural, with a tendency to influence, often unknowingly, his second language learning. Thisinfluence is called transfer.Three adequacies:1.Observational adequacy2.Descriptive adequacy3.Explanatory adequacy (providing a descriptively adequate grammar for everynatural language, and does so in terms of maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.)TestingA theory in science must not be pure speculation but testable at observational, descriptive, and explanatory levels.Science tells us that nature is a physical continuum连续体, which does not break itself into physics, chemistry, psychology, linguistics…; these disciplines学科are not facts but our decisions.GlossaryL1: (第一语言) a person’s first languageL2: (第二语言) a person’s second language. To be more specific, one could refer to a person’s L3, L4, and so on. However, the general term L2 is frequently used to refer to any language learning or used after the first language has been learned.Fossilization: (僵化) incomplete L2 acquisition featured by the fact that progress in a certain aspect of the target language stops and the learner’s language becomes fixed at an intermediate state. It can take a number of forms, such as fossilized accent or syntax. Fossilization can be a permanent feature of the learner’s language.Chapter3 phoneticsPhonetics: the science of speech sounds. It aims to provide the set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human language.In accordance with the three phases just mentioned, phonetics is divided into three sub-fields.1.Articulatory phonetics发音语音学studies speech production by the speechorgans;2.Acoustic phonetics声学语音学studies physical properties of speech sounds, theway sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer;3.Auditory phonetics听觉语音学studies the perception of speech sounds in thehuman auditory and cognitive system.IPA: International Phonetic AlphabetThe design principles of IPA were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.A “sound” people say they produce is actually a combination of sounds called asyllable, which is often related to a chest pulse.(syllable>=sound)The properties of these separate sounds, or segments in phonetician’s jargon, can be described in several dimensions, the place of articulation and the manner of articulation.1.The place of articulation refers to the point in the vocal tract at which the mainclosure or narrowing is made so as to modify the flow of air from the chest to the mouth in producing a sound.2.The manner of articulation refers to the type of constriction收缩or movementthat occurs at any place of articulation.ArticulationThe production of different speech sounds through the use of these organs is known as articulation.Speech organs:the vocal cords(声带)the lungsthe windpipe(trachea)the pharynx(咽)the nosethe mouthA main source of vibration is provided by the vocal cords. The vibration of the vocal cords also gives us pitch.ConsonantsConsonants are sounds made by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing from which air cannot escape without producing audible friction.摩擦Two reference points are involved in defining consonantal places of articulation. One is the active articulator which moves; the other is the passive articulator with which the active one makes contact.Classified according to the places of articulation:eleven possible places of articulation for consonants1.Bilabial双唇音, formed by bringing the lips together , e. g. [ p ] , [ m] . Here thefunction of lips is somewhat complicated: they both can be regarded as the active and passive articulators simultaneously.bio-dental唇齿音, formed by the lower lip against the upper teeth, e . g. [ f] .3.Dental齿音, formed by placing the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth, e . g.[ð].4.Alveolar齿龈音, formed by placing the tip or blade of the tongue against thealveolar ridge, e. g. [ t ] .5.Palatal腭音, formed by the front of the tongue against the hard palate, namely,the roof of the mouth, e . g. [ j] .6.Palato- alveolar腭龈音, formed midway between the places of articulation forpalatals and alveolars: the blade ( and sometimes the tip) of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge, with a simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate , e. g. [ʃ] .7.Velar软腭音, formed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate, e. g. [ k] .8.Glottal声门音, formed by the vocal cords coming together to cause a closure orfriction, e .g. [ h] .9.Retrofle卷舌音, formed when the apex of the tongue is curled back in thedirection of the hard palate, as heard in many Indian English accents.10.Uvular小舌音, formed by the back of the tongue against the uvula, as heard insome accents of French.11.Pharyngeal咽音, formed in the pharynx, the part of the throat above the larynx.Specifically, the front wall of t he pharynx articulates with the back wall, as heard in Arabic .Classified according to the manner of articulation1.The first factor is the degree of the constriction of airflow（气流的阻塞）. At leastsix main classes can be distinguished in English.1)Plosive爆破音, formed by completely closing the air passage and suddenlyremoving the obstacle , so that the air escapes making an explosive sound, e. g.[ p] ,[ d] . It belongs to a broader category called“stop”which includes closures produced by air streams not from the lungs, as encountered in some southern African languages.2)Nasal鼻音, formed with the soft palate lowered, thus allowing air to resonate inthe nose, e . g. [ m] .3)Affricate塞擦音, a consonant which starts as a plosive, but instead of endingwith plosion, ends with a fricative made in the same place, e. g. [tʃ] .4)Liquid流音, formed by some obstruction of the air stream in the mouth, whichseems not enough to cause any real constrict ion or friction, e. g. [ l] , [ r ]. [ l] is called a lateral liquid, because in making it, an obstacle is placed in the middle of the mouth, leaving the air free to escape at one or both sides.5)Fricative擦音, formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point so thatthe air in escaping makes audible frication. e. g. [ f] , [ z] . Some fricatives are also called sibilants齿擦音, which are made with a groove- like structure in the front part of the tongue, producing a kind of hissing sound, e. g. [ s] , [ʃ] .6)Glide滑音, sometimes called semi -vowel because it is typically produced withthe tongue moving, or“gliding, to or from the position of a nearby vowel, e.g.[ h] , [ w] .2.The second factor is voicing（浊音）. V oice is caused by the vibration of the vocalcords.3.The third factor is aspiration(送气音). This is the sound of air rushing through thevocal tract, usually found after the release of plosive consonants in some situation.V owelsV owels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips.Different vowels result from changing the shape of the mouth; all of them are voiced continuous sounds.The qualities of vowels depend upon the positions of the tongue and lips.[i:] close vowels , [a:] open vowels, [e] semi-closed vowels, [ɔ:] semi-open vowelsV owel quality is also largely dependent on the shape of the lips.Four rounded vowels: [u:] [u][ɔ:][ɔ], they are all back vowels.[a:]is the only English back vowel that occurs without lip rounding.There is another interesting rule: all the long vowels( e.g. [i:] [u:])are tense vowels紧元音, and all the short vowels ([i] [u]) are lax vowels松元音.Every vowel constitutes a single syllable. The vowel can be a monophthong, a diphthong, or even a triphthong that contains three distinctive qualities, e.g.[ai ə]. However, not every syllable contains a vowel. The second syllable of the word little[litl] has no vowel after the plosive [t] but a liquid [l].PhonemesPhonemes have no meaning of themselves, but they are the smallest linguistic unit, whose change will lead to the change of meaning. A phoneme is defined as the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. (//) AllophoneAllophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted of another without bring about a change of meaning. ([])Complementary distribution and free variationA phonetic property特性，特质that distinguishes phonemes from one another is called a distinctive feature.Phonology and phoneticsPhonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and how they are interpreted. (how)Phonology is a description of the sounds of a particular language and the rules governing the distribution of those sounds. Furthermore, phonology is also concerned with the universal properties of natural language sound systems and aims at revealing the general principles of the sound patterns of all languages. (what)Stress and pitchPitch is the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.There are two ways in which languages make use of pitch variations in speech.1.In languages such as English, French, and German, regular sequences of differentpitches characterize stretches of speech between pauses and are known collectively as intonation. The differences of intonation may correlate with different types of utterances.2.In languages such as Chinese , Vietnamese, Thai, and Zulu, pitch differences helpto distinguish one word from another and may be the only differentiating feature between two or more words whose composition is the same in terms of consonants and vowels. Pitch differences used in these ways are called tones and these languages are called tone languages.Stress, pitch, tone and intonation are also called suprasegmentals超切分音位because they relate to aspects of pronunciation that go beyond the production of individual segments.GlossaryPhonetics: (语音学) the study of speech sounds; how they are produced in the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics发音语音学)，their physical properties (acoustic phonetics声学语音学)，and how they are perceived (auditory phonetics 听觉语音学).Phonology: (音系学) the study of the sound system of a language; how the particular sounds contrast in each language to form an integrated system for encoding information and how such systems differ from one language to another.V ocal folds: (声带) also vocal cords/lips/bands. Two muscular folds in the larynx(喉) that vibrate as a source of sounds.V ocal tract: (声道) the connected passages inside the head which form the system used to produce speech. It starts at the larynx and includes the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavity.Glottis: (声门) the aperture between the vocal folds.Larynx: (喉头) the part of the trachea containing the vocal folds.Palate: (硬腭) also known as the “hard palate”or the “roof of the mouth”; the upper surface of the mouth where there is bone beneath the skin.Soft palate: (软腭) also velum. The flap of soft tissue which forms the continuation of the palate at the back of the mouth, and may be lowered to permit nasalization.Trachea: (气管) the “windpipe”passes up from the lungs to the vocal tract beginning with the larynx.Uvula: (小舌) the small lobe hanging from the bottom of the soft palate.Aspiration: (送气音) a puff of air that follows the release of a consonant when there is a delay in the onset of voicing. It is symbolized by a superscript h (e.g. , [p h])Phoneme: (音素，音位) the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.Minimal pair: (最小语对) two words in a language that differ only by a single distinctive sound (one phoneme) in the same position and have different meanings, e.g., pin and bin.Allophone: (音位变体) one of a set of nondistinctive realizations of the same phoneme. ([])Complementary distribution: (互补分布) the occurrence of sounds in language such that they are never found in the same phonetic environment. Sounds that are in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme.Free variation: (自由变异) term used to refer to two sounds that occur in overlapping environments but cause no distinction in the meaning of their respective words.Distinctive feature: (区别性特征) a particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group. For example, in the English sound system, one distinctive feature which distinguishes the /p/ in pin from the /b/ in bin is VOICE.Stress: (重音) the increased duration and loudness of a syllable compared to othersyllables in the same word.Pitch: (音高) the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.Tone: (声调) the distinctive pitch level of a syllable.Suprasegmental: (超切分音位) a vocal effect extending over more than one segment, e.g. , tone, length, and stress.International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA): (国际音标) a system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the international phonetic association.Chapter4 morphologyWords are not the smallest unit of meaning. They are composed of smaller units of meaning, called morphemes. Morphemes are the minimal language units.Morphology deals with word structure.1.Free morphemes—morphemes that can stand alone as a word.1)Many words are themselves morphemes, such as big and book. They cannot bebroken into smaller units that in themselves carry meaning.2)Many other words are created by joining together two morphemes, e.g.blackboard,in which the two morphemes black and board can be recognized as meaningful words by themselves.2.Bound morpheme, which occurs only when attached to another morpheme, suchas -ly in happily and un-in unhappy.Such bound morphemes are called affixes, including the prefixes and the suffixes. The function of an affix can be derivational派生的，衍生的or inflectional屈折的.1) A derivational morpheme is one that is added to a root to form a new word thatdiffers, usually, in its part-of-speech词性classification. For example, when the suffix-ness is added to the adjective happy, the noun happiness is formed.Prefixes as derivational morphemes usually change the basic meaning of a word but do not change its part- of-speech classification .（即系本来系动词就系动词）2)Infix3)An inflectional morpheme indicates certain grammatical properties associatedwith nouns and verbs, such as gender, number, case, and tense. Unlike highly inflected languages such as Latin, English has very few inflectional morphemes.In English, the inflectional morphemes are all suffixes. The suffix -s, which indicates plurality in nouns as well as the third-person singular in verbs, is an inflectional morpheme; the past tense suffix-ed, which is added to verbs, is another.According to Wilhelm von Humboldt, languages of the world can be classified morphologically into three types: isolating, inflecting, and agglutinating.1.An isolating language is also called an analytic language or root language, inwhich all the words are invariable. Chinese, Vietnamese and Samoan are typical cases.2.An inflecting language is also called a synthetic language or fusional language, inwhich grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words—typically by the use of inflectional endings which express severalgrammatical meanings at once. Latin, Greek, and Arabic are clear cases.3.An agglutinating language is also called agglutinative language, in which a wordtypically consists of a neat linear sequence of morphemes, all clearlyrecognizable. Turkish, Finnish, Japanese, and Swahiliare usual cases.Morphemes in ChineseChinese is regarded as a typical analytical language and also has some inflectional and agglutinating structures.Most of Chinese free morphemes are monosyllabic because Chinese is a tone language.CompoundCompounding is a process that forms new words not by means of affixes but from two or more independent words. Compounds are different from phrases in that they symbolize an integrated整体的concept.There are different semantic relationships within the morphemes comprising a compound.Idiomatic powerIdiomatic 惯用的，成语的expressions: metaphoric(e.g. I'm really tied up无法分身.)，allusive(e.g. the ruling party met its Waterloo 毁灭性的打击in the new election.), a majority are institutionalized.GlossaryMorpheme: (词素) smallest linguistic unit that can have a meaning or grammatical function.Morphology: (形态学) the study of word-making and word-marking. On the one hand, morphology examines meaning relationships between words and the ways in which these connections are indicated. On the other, morphology looks at how grammatical relationships between words are marked. (G. Tserdanelis& W. Wong: Language files)Also the study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed, is called morphology. (V. Fromkin&R. Roman: An Introduction to Language)Free morphemes: (自由词素) morphemes that can stand alone as a word.Bound morphemes: (粘着词素) morpheme that always attaches to other morphemes, never existing as a word itself.Affix: (词缀) a bound morpheme that changes the meaning or syntactic function of the words to which it attaches. Prefixes, infixes and suffixes are the three types of affixes.Prefix: (前缀) an affix that attaches to the beginning of a stem.Suffix: (后缀) an affix that attaches to the end of a stemInfix: (中缀) a type of bound morpheme that is inserted in to the root.Derivational morpheme: (派生词素) morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach.Inflectional morphemes: (屈折词素) morphemes that serve a purely grammatical function, never creating a new word but only a different form of same word.Isolating language: (孤立语) also analytic language. A type of language in which words consist mainly of one morpheme and sentences are composed of sequences of these free morphemes. Grammatical relationships are often indicated by word order. Examples are Chinese and Vietnamese.Inflecting language: (屈折语) also fusional language. A language in which the form of a word changes to show a change in meaning or grammatical function.Agglutinating language: (粘着语) a language in which various affixes may be added to the stem of a word to add to its meaning or to show its grammatical function.Compound: (复合词) a word that is formed by combining two or more words.Idioms: (习语) an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts.Collocation: (搭配) the way in which words are used together regularly.Stem: (词干) the part of a word that serves as a base for forming new words by the addition of affixes. For example, work is the stem of worker; worker is the stem of workers.Tone language: (声调语言) a language in which word meanings or grammatical contrasts are conveyed by variations in tone.Synthetic languages: (综合语) language in which affixes are attached to other morphemes, so that a word may be made up of several meaningful elements including inflecting languages and agglutinating languages.Chapter5 syntaxSyntactic tree of a sentence reveals that the relationship between the phrases of a sentence is not linear but hierarchical.Family tree sequence次序is top-down; syntactic tree sequence is bottom-up. The bottom-up process in sentence production is called merging合并.S=NP+VP(V+NP)The two words of the VP play different roles----head and complement. A head of a phrase is the key word which determines the properties of the phrase.The I (inflectional morpheme) plays an essential role in merging an NP and a VP into a sentence.S→IP=NP+VP(V+NP)Two groups of syntactical categories:lexical categories and functional categories.1.Lexical categories: all the content words, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives, andadverbs2.Functional category: any word or morpheme which has no descriptive contentand which serves an essentially grammatical function belongs to a. A functional category plays a role like glue in combining content words into phrases and phrases into a sentence.XP can be defined as the maximal projection headed by X, and X itself, i. e. the head, as the minimal projection.I is a functional category devised by Chomsky whose members include not onlyinflectional morphemes but also finite auxiliaries限定助动词(which are inflected for tense/agreement ) , and the infinitival particle to.CP refers to complementizer phrase and can be found in analysis of complex sentence as well as wh-questions and topicalization.When a constituent is made the topic of a sentence, it may be moved into a more prominent position at the front of the sentence. This process is called topicalization.话题化Topicalization does not involve a dummy movement, unless the topicalized constituent is negative.GlossarySyntax: (句法学) syntax is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the relationship among their component parts.Content word: (实词) words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and which have meaning when the words are used alone. Content words are mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Sentence: (句子) the largest linguistic unit which is held together by rigid grammatical rules.Specifier: (指示语) the grammatical function fulfilled by certain types of constituent which (in English ) precede the head of their containing phrase.Complement: (补语) in X-bar theory, a syntactic unit that is defined as the sister to the head of a phrase.X-bar theory: (X-阶标理论) an approach to syntax which attempts to show the general principles of language rather than deal with the structures of one particular language. “X” is a variable denoting any word category concerned.Projection: (投射) a constituent which is an expansion of a head word. For example, a noun phrase such as students of linguistics is a projection of its head noun students.Topicalization: (话题化) A device which marks sth as a topic by simply moving the topic to the front of the sentence, as in This book I can’t recommend. Chapter6 semanticsPropositionAn information receiver usually focuses his attention on the meaning of a sentence rather than the form.When we put a sentence in our mind by reading or listening, our mind will immediately treat it as a set of meaning units, called propositions.The core of a proposition is a verb.1.An intransitive verb----1 NP-the subject(external argument);2.An simple transitive verb----2 NPs-subject(external argument) and object(internalargument);3.An ditransitive verb 双宾语动词----3 NPs-subject(external argument), directobject and indirect object(internal argument);4.An unusual verb in English, rain, requires no NPs.。
语言学概论课后题复习资料
语言学概论课后题复习资料语言学概论一、名词解释：1、历史比较语言学：19世纪初，历史比较语言学的先驱威廉琼斯等人的研究使语言学摆脱了附庸地位，标志着语言学已成为一门真正独立的学科，为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
2、结构主义语言学：19世纪末20世纪初，“现代语言学之父”索绪尔是结构主义的鼻祖。
结构主义语言学派分为布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国学派。
结构主义语言学对中国的语言研究产生过巨大影响。
3、音素：人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。
4、音位：具体语言或方言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。
5、义素：义素是对义项进行分析所得到的最小的语义特征。
6、语境：语境是语言环境的简称，指的是人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境，语境有狭义的和广义的两种，也叫小语境和大语境。
7、语素：语言中最小的音义结合单位。
它不能独立运用。
8、基本词汇：语言中词汇的核心部分，它和语言中的语法一起构成语言的基础。
基本词汇是由基本词构成的。
9、语法：语法是组词造句规则的综合，它是语言的一个层面，独立于音系学和语义学之外。
它包括词法和句法两大部分。
10、实词：实词在有形态的语言里往往有词形变化，实词都有明晰的词汇意义，实词主要充当一般性的句法成分（如主语、谓语、宾语、定语等），实词往往是开放性的即能产性很强。
二、填空题：1、人类对语言的研究大体上可分成语言学阶段、历史比较语言学阶段、结构主义语言学阶段、形式语言学阶段、交叉语言学阶段。
2、语文学的三个源头在古中国、古希腊与罗马、古印度。
中国语文学的特点是围绕字的音形义。
3、历史比较语言学的先驱是威廉琼斯，草创者是施列格尔，奠基人物是丹麦的拉斯克、德国格里木和葆朴。
4、历史比较语言学不但宣告语言学真正独立，而且为普通语言学的研究奠定了基础。
5、普通语言学的奠基人物是洪堡特和索绪尔。
《普通语言学教程》在语言学发展史上起到了划时代的作用。
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Introduction to Contemporary LinguisticsChapter1Human superiority lies in his unique endowment-----the ability to talk, or rather, to communicate by means of language.Talmud: god created the world by a word, instantaneously, without toil or pains.Widdowson: the primacy of language in the way human beings conceive of the world.Language is a vehicle of power, for control, for creation, and for change.The study of human language is called linguistics.Linguistics deals with human language as a whole or as particular languages.1.As a whole: the system of human communication which consists of thestructured arrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences, utterances.2.As particular language: like French language, they are particular systems ofhuman communication used by people living in different parts of the world.There is a continuum from one language to another.Varieties of language: Any particular language is in essence a set of varieties.1.local varieties区域变体–dialects and accents(the former differ from eachother in pronunciation, vocabulary, and even grammar; the latter only in pronunciation )2.social varieties—sociolects社会方言(=social dialects , used by people ofdifferent classes, ages, or sexes ),3.historical varieties—temporal variety.(e.g. the 17th century English)4.stylistic or occupational varieties---registers语域(e.g. formal English, scientificEnglish)5.individual varieties—idiolects个人语言.ually a language has an officially declared or generally consideredstandard dialect(e.g. Putonghua in China, General American in the US)From Prescriptivism to DescriptivismPrescriptivism is the view that one variety of language has an inherently higher value than others.(try to impose rules from some high prestige language to some lower prestige language, like Latin and English)Descriptivism is the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist.Usages of different varieties should be observed and recorded instead of being judged with some imposed norms.Endowed or conventional?Plato’s problem: How can every human being develop a rich system of linguistic knowledge on the basis of limited and fragmentary empiricalevidence?Side of endowment: nativists(天生论) or mentalists（心智说）Plato:1.Man’s knowledge came from universal truths.2.There was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man tofollow in expressing his ideas.3.Knowledge of language was not learned but recalled.Chomsky:There is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides what we speak.Chomsky has given a name to this entity----UG, or universal grammar. His epistemology of the knowledge of language foes as follows:1.Every human being has the language competence能力, because he has theinborn UG which other species lack.2.UG is the initial state of the human language faculty语言器官/机制whichalone cannot enable a human baby to speak. A baby needs to be exposed to the linguistic environment of a certain language and accumulate experience.3.Due to the effect of later experience, the baby’s mind develops from theinitial state into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a specific human language.Side of convention: behaviorist or empiricistsAristotle: knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreementof the speakers of a given language.Xun zi: a name was accepted through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing lay in convention.The power of language exists in its countless varieties, not relying on any universal standard.ConnectionismDiachronic(历经时间的): focus on the comparison between languages and the exploration of the historical change and variation of some ancient languages./ of, relating to, or dealing with phenomena (as of language or culture) as they occur or change over a period of timeSynchronic（共时的）: research of the facts of language agreed upon or shared by his members of language community at a given point in time./ concerned with events existing in a limited time period and ignoring historical antecedentsGlossaryEndowments: (天赋) the natural quality that a person is made rich of from the birth.Register: (语域) the words, style, and grammar used by speakers and writers in particular conditions, namely a socially defined variety of language.Idiolect: (个人语言) the linguistic system of an individual speaker. Sociolect: (社会方言) also social dialect. Variety of a language defined by social factors such as age, religion, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Sociolects may be classed as high or low (in status).Prescriptivism :(规定主义) the imposition of arbitrary norms upon a language, often in defiance of normal usage.Descriptivism ：（描写主义）the policy of describing languages as they are bound to exist.Nativism: (天生论) philosophical and psychological position which holds that cognitive development of humans arises from “innate ideas”. The nativist position has been used to explain how children are able to learn language and contrasts with the belief that all human knowledge comes from experience (empiricism).Mentalism: （心智说）psychological and philosophical concept picked up and developed by Chomsky(1965), which attempts to describe the internal (innate) language mechanism that provides the basis for the creative aspect of language development and use.Dualism: （二元论）a philosophical system that recognizes two ultimate and independent principles in the scheme of things, such as mind and matter. Monism: (一元论) a general name for those philosophical theories which deny the duality of matter and mind.Universal Grammar (UG): （普通语法）the genetically endowed informationconsisting of principles and parameters that enable the child to deduce a grammar from the primary linguistic data.Language competence: (语言能力) knowledge of language; the linguistic capacity of a fluent speaker of a language.Parameter: (参数) a dimension of grammatical variation between different languages or different varieties of the same language.Empiricism: (经验论) philosophical and psychological position which holds that the psychological development of humans arise primarily from experience and learning.Connectionism: (连通主义) a theory of cognition which draws inspiration from the way the billions of neurons in the brain are interconnected in complex ways to produce a network of associations. It holds that the complexity of language emerges from associative learning processes being exposed to a massive and complex environment.Chapter2Speculations: origin of languagePlato----legislatorHerder----godUniversal harmony is embraced as the foundation of modern linguistics as a science.Galilean thesis----nature is perfectObservationResearchEvery person’s lexical knowledge of his first language is tacit and natural, with a tendency to influence, often unknowingly, his second language learning. This influence is called transfer.Three adequacies:1.Observational adequacy2.Descriptive adequacy3.Explanatory adequacy (providing a descriptively adequate grammar forevery natural language, and does so in terms of maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.)TestingA theory in science must not be pure speculation but testable at observational, descriptive, and explanatory levels.Science tells us that nature is a physical continuum连续体, which does not break itself into physics, chemistry, psychology, linguistics…; these disciplines学科are not facts but our decisions.GlossaryL1: (第一语言) a person’s first languageL2: (第二语言) a person’s second language. To be more specific, one couldrefer to a person’s L3, L4, and so on. However, the general term L2 is frequently used to refer to any language learning or used after the first language has been learned.Fossilization: (僵化) incomplete L2 acquisition featured by the fact that progress in a certain aspect of the target language stops and the learner’s language becomes fixed at an intermediate state. It can take a number of forms, such as fossilized accent or syntax. Fossilization can be a permanent feature of the learner’s language.Chapter3 phoneticsPhonetics: the science of speech sounds. It aims to provide the set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human language.In accordance with the three phases just mentioned, phonetics is divided into three sub-fields.1.Articulatory phonetics发音语音学studies speech production by the speechorgans;2.Acoustic phonetics声学语音学studies physical properties of speech sounds,the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer;3.Auditory phonetics听觉语音学studies the perception of speech sounds inthe human auditory and cognitive system.IPA: International Phonetic AlphabetThe design principles of IPA were that there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.A “sound”people say they produce is actually a combination of soundscalled a syllable, which is often related to a chest pulse.(syllable>=sound) The properties of these separate sounds, or segments in phonetician’s jargon, can be described in several dimensions, the place of articulation and the manner of articulation.1.The place of articulation refers to the point in the vocal tract at which themain closure or narrowing is made so as to modify the flow of air from the chest to the mouth in producing a sound.2.The manner of articulation refers to the type of constriction收缩ormovement that occurs at any place of articulation.ArticulationThe production of different speech sounds through the use of these organs is known as articulation.Speech organs:the vocal cords(声带)the lungsthe windpipe(trachea)the pharynx(咽)the nosethe mouthA main source of vibration is provided by the vocal cords. The vibration of the vocal cords also gives us pitch.ConsonantsConsonants are sounds made by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing from which air cannot escape without producing audible friction.摩擦Two reference points are involved in defining consonantal places of articulation. One is the active articulator which moves; the other is the passive articulator with which the active one makes contact.Classified according to the places of articulation:eleven possible places of articulation for consonants1.Bilabial双唇音, formed by bringing the lips together , e. g. [ p ] , [ m] . Herethe function of lips is somewhat complicated: they both can be regarded as the active and passive articulators simultaneously.bio-dental唇齿音, formed by the lower lip against the upper teeth, e . g.[ f] .3.Dental齿音, formed by placing the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth,e . g. [ð].4.Alveolar齿龈音, formed by placing the tip or blade of the tongue againstthe alveolar ridge, e. g. [ t ] .5.Palatal腭音, formed by the front of the tongue against the hard palate,namely, the roof of the mouth, e . g. [ j] .6.Palato- alveolar腭龈音, formed midway between the places of articulationfor palatals and alveolars: the blade ( and sometimes the tip) of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge, with a simultaneous raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate , e. g. [ʃ] .7.Velar软腭音, formed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate, e. g.[ k] .8.Glottal声门音, formed by the vocal cords coming together to cause aclosure or friction, e .g. [ h] .9.Retrofle卷舌音, formed when the apex of the tongue is curled back in thedirection of the hard palate, as heard in many Indian English accents.10.Uvular小舌音, formed by the back of the tongue against the uvula, as heardin some accents of French.11.Pharyngeal咽音, formed in the pharynx, the part of the throat above thelarynx. Specifically, the front wall of t he pharynx articulates with the back wall, as heard in Arabic .Classified according to the manner of articulation1.The first factor is the degree of the constriction of airflow（气流的阻塞）. Atleast six main classes can be distinguished in English.1)Plosive爆破音, formed by completely closing the air passage and suddenlyremoving the obstacle , so that the air escapes making an explosive sound, e.g. [ p] ,[ d] . It belongs to a broader category called“stop”which includesclosures produced by air streams not from the lungs, as encountered in somesouthern African languages.2)Nasal鼻音, formed with the soft palate lowered, thus allowing air toresonate in the nose, e . g. [ m] .3)Affricate塞擦音, a consonant which starts as a plosive, but instead of endingwith plosion, ends with a fricative made in the same place, e. g. [tʃ] .4)Liquid流音, formed by some obstruction of the air stream in the mouth,which seems not enough to cause any real constrict ion or friction, e. g. [ l] , [ r ]. [ l] is called a lateral liquid, because in making it, an obstacle is placed in the middle of the mouth, leaving the air free to escape at one or both sides.5)Fricative擦音, formed by a narrowing of the air passage at some point sothat the air in escaping makes audible frication. e. g. [ f] , [ z] . Some fricatives are also called sibilants齿擦音, which are made with a groove- like structure in the front part of the tongue, producing a kind of hissing sound, e.g. [ s] , [ʃ] .6)Glide滑音, sometimes called semi -vowel because it is typically producedwith the tongue moving, or“gliding, to or from the position of a nearby vowel, e.g. [ h] , [ w] .2.The second factor is voicing（浊音）. Voice is caused by the vibration of thevocal cords.3.The third factor is aspiration(送气音). This is the sound of air rushing throughthe vocal tract, usually found after the release of plosive consonants in some situation.VowelsVowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passesfrom the larynx to the lips.Different vowels result from changing the shape of the mouth; all of them are voiced continuous sounds.The qualities of vowels depend upon the positions of the tongue and lips. [i:] close vowels , [a:] open vowels, [e] semi-closed vowels, [ɔ:] semi-open vowelsVowel quality is also largely dependent on the shape of the lips.Four rounded vowels: [u:] [u][ɔ:][ɔ], they are all back vowels.[a:]is the only English back vowel that occurs without lip rounding.There is another interesting rule: all the long vowels( e.g. [i:] [u:])are tense vowels紧元音, and all the short vowels ([i] [u]) are lax vowels松元音.Every vowel constitutes a single syllable. The vowel can be a monophthong, a diphthong, or even a triphthong that contains three distinctive qualities, e.g.[ai ə]. However, not every syllable contains a vowel. The second syllable of the word little[litl] has no vowel after the plosive [t] but a liquid [l].PhonemesPhonemes have no meaning of themselves, but they are the smallest linguistic unit, whose change will lead to the change of meaning. A phoneme is defined asthe smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. (//) AllophoneAllophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted of another without bring about a change of meaning. ([])Complementary distribution and free variationA phonetic property特性，特质that distinguishes phonemes from one another is called a distinctive feature.Phonology and phoneticsPhonetics is more specifically the study of how speech sounds are produced, what their physical properties are, and how they are interpreted. (how) Phonology is a description of the sounds of a particular language and the rules governing the distribution of those sounds. Furthermore, phonology is also concerned with the universal properties of natural language sound systems and aims at revealing the general principles of the sound patterns of all languages. (what)Stress and pitchPitch is the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.There are two ways in which languages make use of pitch variations in speech. 1.In languages such as English, French, and German, regular sequences ofdifferent pitches characterize stretches of speech between pauses and are known collectively as intonation. The differences of intonation may correlate with different types of utterances.2.In languages such as Chinese , Vietnamese, Thai, and Zulu, pitch differenceshelp to distinguish one word from another and may be the only differentiating feature between two or more words whose composition is the same in terms of consonants and vowels. Pitch differences used in these ways are called tones and these languages are called tone languages. Stress, pitch, tone and intonation are also called suprasegmentals超切分音位because they relate to aspects of pronunciation that go beyond the production of individual segments.GlossaryPhonetics: (语音学) the study of speech sounds; how they are produced in the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics发音语音学)，their physical properties (acoustic phonetics声学语音学)，and how they are perceived (auditory phonetics听觉语音学).Phonology: (音系学) the study of the sound system of a language; how the particular sounds contrast in each language to form an integrated system for encoding information and how such systems differ from one language to another.Vocal folds: (声带) also vocal cords/lips/bands. Two muscular folds in the larynx(喉) that vibrate as a source of sounds.Vocal tract: (声道) the connected passages inside the head which form the system used to produce speech. It starts at the larynx and includes the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavity.Glottis: (声门) the aperture between the vocal folds.Larynx: (喉头) the part of the trachea containing the vocal folds.Palate: (硬腭) also known as the “hard palate” or the “roof of the mouth”; the upper surface of the mouth where there is bone beneath the skin.Soft palate: (软腭) also velum. The flap of soft tissue which forms the continuation of the palate at the back of the mouth, and may be lowered to permit nasalization.Trachea: (气管) the “windpipe” passes up from the lungs to the vocal tract beginning with the larynx.Uvula: (小舌) the small lobe hanging from the bottom of the soft palate. Aspiration: (送气音) a puff of air that follows the release of a consonant when there is a delay in the onset of voicing. It is symbolized by a superscript h (e.g. , [p h])Phoneme: (音素，音位) the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.Minimal pair: (最小语对) two words in a language that differ only by a single distinctive sound (one phoneme) in the same position and have different meanings, e.g., pin and bin.Allophone: (音位变体) one of a set of nondistinctive realizations of the same phoneme. ([])Complementary distribution: (互补分布) the occurrence of sounds in language such that they are never found in the same phonetic environment.Sounds that are in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme.Free variation: (自由变异) term used to refer to two sounds that occur in overlapping environments but cause no distinction in the meaning of their respective words.Distinctive feature: (区别性特征) a particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group. For example, in the English sound system, one distinctive feature which distinguishes the /p/ in pin from the /b/ in bin is VOICE.Stress: (重音) the increased duration and loudness of a syllable compared to other syllables in the same word.Pitch: (音高) the auditory sensation of the height of a sound.Tone: (声调) the distinctive pitch level of a syllable.Suprasegmental: (超切分音位) a vocal effect extending over more than one segment, e.g. , tone, length, and stress.International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA): (国际音标) a system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the international phonetic association.Chapter4 morphologyWords are not the smallest unit of meaning. They are composed of smallerunits of meaning, called morphemes. Morphemes are the minimal language units.Morphology deals with word structure.1.Free morphemes—morphemes that can stand alone as a word.1)Many words are themselves morphemes, such as big and book. They cannotbe broken into smaller units that in themselves carry meaning.2)Many other words are created by joining together two morphemes,e.g.blackboard, in which the two morphemes black and board can berecognized as meaningful words by themselves.2.Bound morpheme, which occurs only when attached to another morpheme,such as -ly in happily and un-in unhappy.Such bound morphemes are called affixes, including the prefixes and the suffixes. The function of an affix can be derivational派生的，衍生的or inflectional屈折的.1) A derivational morpheme is one that is added to a root to form a new wordthat differs, usually, in its part-of-speech词性classification. For example, when the suffix-ness is added to the adjective happy, the noun happiness is formed. Prefixes as derivational morphemes usually change the basic meaning of a word but do not change its part- of-speech classification .（即系本来系动词就系动词）2)Infix3)An inflectional morpheme indicates certain grammatical propertiesassociated with nouns and verbs, such as gender, number, case, and tense.Unlike highly inflected languages such as Latin, English has very few inflectional morphemes. In English, the inflectional morphemes are all suffixes. The suffix -s, which indicates plurality in nouns as well as the third-person singular in verbs, is an inflectional morpheme; the past tense suffix-ed, which is added to verbs, is another.According to Wilhelm von Humboldt, languages of the world can be classified morphologically into three types:isolating, inflecting, and agglutinating.1.An isolating language is also called an analytic language or root language, inwhich all the words are invariable. Chinese, Vietnamese and Samoan are typical cases.2.An inflecting language is also called a synthetic language or fusionallanguage, in which grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words—typically by the use of inflectional endings which express several grammatical meanings at once. Latin, Greek, and Arabic are clear cases.3.An agglutinating language is also called agglutinative language, in which aword typically consists of a neat linear sequence of morphemes, all clearly recognizable. Turkish, Finnish, Japanese, and Swahiliare usual cases.Morphemes in ChineseChinese is regarded as a typical analytical language and also has someinflectional and agglutinating structures.Most of Chinese free morphemes are monosyllabic because Chinese is a tone language.CompoundCompounding is a process that forms new words not by means of affixes but from two or more independent words. Compounds are different from phrases in that they symbolize an integrated整体的concept.There are different semantic relationships within the morphemes comprising a compound.Idiomatic powerIdiomatic 惯用的，成语的expressions: metaphoric(e.g. I'm really tied up无法分身.)，allusive(e.g. the ruling party met its Waterloo 毁灭性的打击in the new election.), a majority are institutionalized.GlossaryMorpheme: (词素) smallest linguistic unit that can have a meaning or grammatical function.Morphology: (形态学) the study of word-making and word-marking. On the one hand, morphology examines meaning relationships between words and the ways in which these connections are indicated. On the other, morphology looks at how grammatical relationships between words are marked. (G. Tserdanelis& W. Wong: Language files)Also the study of the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed, is called morphology. (V. Fromkin&R. Roman: An Introduction to Language)Free morphemes: (自由词素) morphemes that can stand alone as a word. Bound morphemes: (粘着词素) morpheme that always attaches to other morphemes, never existing as a word itself.Affix: (词缀) a bound morpheme that changes the meaning or syntactic function of the words to which it attaches. Prefixes, infixes and suffixes are the three types of affixes.Prefix: (前缀) an affix that attaches to the beginning of a stem.Suffix: (后缀) an affix that attaches to the end of a stemInfix: (中缀) a type of bound morpheme that is inserted in to the root. Derivational morpheme: (派生词素) morphemes that change the meaning or lexical category of the words to which they attach.Inflectional morphemes: (屈折词素) morphemes that serve a purely grammatical function, never creating a new word but only a different form of same word.Isolating language: (孤立语) also analytic language. A type of language in which words consist mainly of one morpheme and sentences are composed of sequences of these free morphemes. Grammatical relationships are often indicated by word order. Examples are Chinese and Vietnamese.Inflecting language: (屈折语) also fusional language. A language in which theform of a word changes to show a change in meaning or grammatical function.Agglutinating language: (粘着语) a language in which various affixes may be added to the stem of a word to add to its meaning or to show its grammatical function.Compound: (复合词) a word that is formed by combining two or more words.Idioms: (习语) an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts.Collocation: (搭配) the way in which words are used together regularly.Stem: (词干) the part of a word that serves as a base for forming new words by the addition of affixes. For example, work is the stem of worker; worker is the stem of workers.Tone language: (声调语言) a language in which word meanings or grammatical contrasts are conveyed by variations in tone.Synthetic languages: (综合语) language in which affixes are attached to other morphemes, so that a word may be made up of several meaningful elements including inflecting languages and agglutinating languages.Chapter5 syntaxSyntactic tree of a sentence reveals that the relationship between the phrasesof a sentence is not linear but hierarchical.Family tree sequence次序is top-down; syntactic tree sequence is bottom-up. The bottom-up process in sentence production is called merging合并.S=NP+VP(V+NP)The two words of the VP play different roles----head and complement. A head of a phrase is the key word which determines the properties of the phrase.The I (inflectional morpheme) plays an essential role in merging an NP and a VP into a sentence.S→IP=NP+VP(V+NP)Two groups of syntactical categories:lexical categories and functional categories.1.Lexical categories: all the content words, namely nouns, verbs, adjectives,and adverbs2.Functional category: any word or morpheme which has no descriptivecontent and which serves an essentially grammatical function belongs to a. A functional category plays a role like glue in combining content words into phrases and phrases into a sentence.XP can be defined as the maximal projection headed by X, and X itself, i. e.the head, as the minimal projection.I is a functional category devised by Chomsky whose members include not only inflectional morphemes but also finite auxiliaries限定助动词(which are inflected for tense/agreement ) , and the infinitival particle to.。