referential theory 指称论
英语语言学下复习资料
一、填空Chapter 51. One difficulty in the study of Meaning is that the word “meaning” itself has different meanings. In their book The Meaning of Meaning written in 1923, C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards presented a “representative list of the main definitions which reputable students of meaning have favoured”.2. G.Leechin a more moderate tone recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics, first published in 1974.3. There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation.Chomsky’ of Syntactic Structure(1957) helped to ignite the cognitive revolution.5. The exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach and the conceptural approach.6. The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.7.From a psychological point of view, we store a great deal of information about the properties of words in our mental lexicon心理词库, and retrieve this information when we understand language.8.Similarity and frequency both play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones.9.According to cohort model集群理论proposed by Marslen- wilson and Welsh in 1990.Chapter 7*四个代表人物10.Malinowski马林洛夫斯基claimed that” In its primitive uses, language functions as a link in concerted human activity…”11.Firth福斯,a leading figure in a linguistic tradition later known as the London School, tried to...In the end, he developed his own theory of Context of Situation. 12.M.A.K. Halliday韩礼德，whose contributions to sociolinguistics could be …. , and his linguistic model in the study of literature.13. Eugene Nida尤金奈达, a well-known linguist and traditional theorist, concerning the relationship between language and culture.14.Hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity.15. Cross-cultural communication跨文化交际中，there are five types of sub-culture 五种次文化形态we should be fully aware of: (1)ecological culture (2)linguistic culture (3)religious culture (4)material culture (5)social culture.[Nida,1964]16.During the whole 20th century, a great deal of efforts has been taken to treat the inquiry of linguistics as a monistic一元观or autonomous pursuit自治性of an independent science.Chapter 817. This kind of meaning is sometimes referred to as speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning, or contextual meaning.18.Semantic VS Pragmatics, the difference iscontext.二、名词解释Chapter 51.Semantics语义学is the stutyof the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular.2.The referential theory指称论: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential theory.3.Concept概念：There is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material word and can be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.4.The semantic triangle语义三角：The relation between a word and a thing it refers to is no direct. It is mediated by concept.5.Sense涵义:In contrast to reference, sense may be defined as t:he semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.6.Reference指称: Reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.7.Synonymy同义关系:Synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.8.gradable antonymy等级反义关系：Gradable antonymy is the sense relation between two antonymyswhich differ in terms of degree. There is an intermediate ground between the two. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. Something which is not “good” is not necessarily “bad”. If may Simply be “so-so” or “average”.positionality组合原则: Compositionality refers to the principles that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.10.Sentence meaning句子意义: This ia an area where word meaning and sentence structure come together.Chapter 611.Cognition认知：In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a view that the mind has internal mental states such as beliefs, desires and intentions. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.12.Cognitive linguistics认知语言学: is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.13.Psychological心理语言学：is the study of psychological aspects of language, it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.nguage acquisition语言习得：is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics.How does a child acquire the language skills (first language) and how are they extended to other languages (second/foreign language acquisition)?15.Connectionism in psychological连通主义: claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love.16.Construal识解: is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc.17.Categorization范畴化: is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.18. Metaphor隐喻：involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we used in order to describe the experience.Chapter 719.Anthropological orientation人类学转向: in the study of language was developed both in England and in North America. What characterized this new tradition was its study of language in a sociocultural context.20.Anthropological study of Linguistics人类语言学:aims to look at the relationships between language and culture in a speech community. For this reason, it can alternatively be called anthropological linguistics. More specifically, practitioners of the field want to know more about a given community by examining the correlation between the tradition of the community, beliefs, and social behavior of community members and their language used in different contextsof communication.21.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔—沃尔夫假说: is a theoretic assumption which suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the word. In a loose sense, this termcan be interchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.22.Linguistic determinism语言决定论：is a theory which believes that our language will influence or decide our way of looking at the world. In a loose sense, linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity, and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be regarded as synonyms.23.The strong version强势说of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.24.The weak version弱势说of this hypothesis, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language,culture,and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.25.Socilinguistics社会语言学: as an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationships between language and social. It examines issuesrelated to the subject from a more linguistic perspective and hence, is complementary with the Sociolinguistics of Society in terms of its coverage and concerns. Also it is a study of sociolinguistic issues at a macro level of discussion. Chapter 826.Pragmatics语用学: is the study of language in use or context.(对语境中语言运用的研究)27.conversational implicature会话含义：This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or言外之意in Chinese.28.Performatives施为句: is a sentence like ” I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth”, which does not describe thing and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. So they are called performatives. And verbs like name are called performative verbs.29.Constative s表述句：In contrast to performative, sentences like “I pour some liquid into the tube”is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentence of this type are known as constatives.30.Relevance theory关联理论：the theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as:Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.31.locutionary act 发话行为: is the ordinary act we perform when we speak, i.e. we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. For example, when somebody says “morning!”, we could say he produced a sound, word, or sentence—“morning!”32.Perlocutionary act取效行为,言后行为: it concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the header on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.三、问答题Chapter 51.G.Leech- 7 types of meaning:①Conceptual meaning概念意义: Logical, cognitive or denotative content.②Connotative meaning内涵意义: what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.③Social meaning社会意义: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.④Affective meaning感情意义: what is communicated of the feelings andattitudes of the speaker/writer.⑤Reflective meaning反映意义: what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义: what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of other word.⑦Thematic meaning主题意义: what is communicated bu the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.2. Sense和Reference的区别：①The distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties.②To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.3.Gradable antonymy等级反义关系:(1).First, as the name suggests, they are Gradable.(2)Second,antonymy of this kind are graded against different norms. There is no absolute criterion by which we may say something is good or bad, long or short, big or small. The criterion varies with the object described.(3)Third, one number of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.Chapter 64.Psychological in vestigates the six following subjects心理语言学被分为六个方向：(1)language acquisition(2)language comprehension(3)language production (4)language disorders(5)language and thought(6)and cognitive architecture of language.The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.Chapter 85.utterance 和sentence的区别：(1).utterance meaning: it is context-dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.(2)sentence meaning: it is the abstract context-dependent entity called semantic proposition.6.Characteristics of Implicature会话含义的特征：(1)calculability (2)cancelability(3)non-detachability (4)non-conventionality6.The cooperative principle合作原则的四准则:(1)quantity:A. make your contribution as informative as is requiredB.do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2)quality: try to make your contribution one that is true.A. do not say what you believe to be false.B.do not day that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3)relation: be relevant(4)manner: be perspicuousA. avoid obscurity of expressionB. avoid ambiguityC. be brief( avoid prolixity)D. be orderly。
分析哲学、语言哲学、指号学术语(9)
普通语义学：(英general semantics)普通语义学派的哲学主张。
由柯日布斯基于20世纪30年代在美国创立，后切斯等人加以解释、传播和发挥。
柯日布斯基从语义分析表明，因事物中不存在相同个体，个体又在不断变化，固定语言和客观世界之间只存在“结构上的联系”,语词不可能以其意义完全揭示所指称的事物的属性。
语言的这种功能上的缺陷，起因于语词的抽象性，以及遵循古希腊亚里士多德的三条逻辑规律尤其是同一律。
柯日布斯基提出“外延法”的语言分析方法作为其学说的基本原理，以此揭露形式逻辑用其三条规律所设置的“陷阱”,提供补救语言因抽象而产生的弊病的手段。
柯日布斯基认为，“亚里士多德语言体系”是导致一切社会弊病的根源，要建立“非亚里士多德语言”。
普通语义学研究人如何使用语词及语词如何影响人，认为任何语词都有内涵，即使虚假概念也不例外，但虚假概念并无外延，即无相应的外界对象，因为外界并无此种实物。
无外延的虚假语词正是人类纷争的根源，通过“外延法”教育可加以清除。
认为普通语义学可帮助个人评价他的世界，增进人与人之间、各集团内部和集团之间的交往，帮助排除精神上的疾病，进而医治一切社会弊端。
该学说夸大语言抽象的局限性，曲解形式逻辑规律，同分析哲学的其他学派和学说没有直接关系和联系，作为哲学学说并无大的影响。
意义的指称论：(英referential theory of mean-ing)西方哲学史上一种影响较大的意义理论。
其基本思想是：名称是通过指示或指称外部世界中的事物或事实而具有意义，一个名称的意义就是它所指示或指称的对象。
名称和对象之间存在着对应的关系，一个名称代表或指示它的对象。
对象既包括个别的人或物(专名指称的对象),也包括某一类事物(通名指称的对象),还包括状态、性质、关系等等。
也有人认为，一个表达式的意义不在于表达式所指称的对象，而在于表达式与它所指称的对象之间的关系，这种关系构成表达式的意义。
这种理论溯源于古希腊，亚里士多德认为词代表词所指的事物的本质属性，一个事物的本质属性规定了关于这个事物的概念的内涵；当本质属性由所属的事物分离出来而与有关语词相结合时，它就变成语词的意义。
从弗雷格、罗素到斯特劳森——指称论的发展的开题报告
从弗雷格、罗素到斯特劳森——指称论的发展的开题报告指称论是哲学中的一个重要问题，涉及到语言和真理的本质，被认为是语言哲学甚至是现代哲学的核心问题之一。
该问题最早由弗雷格和罗素提出，并在20世纪得到进一步探讨和发展，斯特劳森等哲学家也做出了重要贡献。
弗雷格和罗素是20世纪初期对指称论做出最早贡献的哲学家。
他们认为，一个陈述的真伪取决于它所涉及的对象是否存在，而这种对象的存在与否可以通过指称的方式来确定。
弗雷格提出了“指称”（reference）和“指称物”（referent）的概念，认为一个陈述只有当它指称一个存在的对象时才能是真的。
罗素则发展出了“自我矛盾原理”的概念，认为一个陈述如果指称不存在的对象，则必然是假的。
他还提出了“范域论”的观点，认为指称同时涉及两个范畴——积极（存在）和消极（不存在）。
随着20世纪的发展，指称论得到了进一步发展。
斯特劳森是其中的一位重要的哲学家。
他认为，指称涉及到语言的语法和语义两个方面，语法是指称的依据，语义是指称的结果。
他还提出了“语言实在论”的观点，认为语言是真实存在的外部客观世界的反映。
除了斯特劳森之外，还有许多其他哲学家对指称论做出了贡献。
其中，霍尔德（David K. Lewis）提出了“可能性世界”的概念，认为一个陈述的真假可能随着不同可能性世界的存在而变化。
奥斯汀（John L. Austin）则提出了“言辞行为论”的观点，认为语言不仅仅是指称，还包括表达、承诺等不同言辞行为。
总体来说，指称论是语言哲学中的一个核心问题，涉及到语言和真理的本质。
它的发展史可以追溯到弗雷格和罗素，随着20世纪的发展，不断得到丰富和深化，斯特劳森等哲学家也做出了重要的贡献。
语言学总复习
Origin of language
Divine- origin theory 神授说 Bow-wow theory 汪汪理论 摹声说 Pooh-pooh theory 噗噗理论 感叹说 Yo-he-ho theory 呦嘿吼理论 劳动叫喊说
Functions of language
The nose: the nasal cavity(鼻腔)
Table
2.1 A chart of English consonants
English vowels(RP)
Four basic requirements for the description of vowels 1) the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) 2) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) 3) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) 4) lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)
The classification of word 词的分类
1 variable and invariable words可变词与不 变词 2 grammatical (functional) and lexical (content) words词汇词和语法词 3 closed-class and open-class words 封闭 类词和开放类词 4 word class词类
Important distinctions in linguistics
语言学考试要点
CHAPUTER11 Definition of language<1>human speech; the ability to communicate by this means; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for expression of such a system<2>any means of expressing or communicating, as gestures, signs, or animal sounds; a special set of symbols, letters, numerals, rules, etc. used for the transmission of information, as ina computer; …2 Design feature of languageArbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacementArbitrariness: arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, arbitrariness at syntactic level, arbitrariness and conventionDuality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, event and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.3 Functions of languageInformative, interpersonal function, performative, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual function.4 Definition of linguisticsLinguistic is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language ,linguistic is a rich and exciting field.5 Main branches of linguisticsPhonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics,(填空了解大意即可)6 Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances in language acquisition for example.7 Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.8 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveThe first is a prescriptive a command, while the second is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.9 synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Saussure’s diachronic linguistics is the study of language th rough the course of its history.10 Competence and performanceA language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter21 The difference between phonetics语音学and phonology音系学The former studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. The latter is the study of the sound patterns an sound system of languages. It aim to “discover the principle that govern the way sounds are org that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, andexplain the variations that occur.”2 What is consonant辅音?Consonants are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible frict ion.”3 what is coarticulation协同发音?When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, this process is called coarticulation.4 what is phoneme音位?Phoneme refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast” the existence of a minimal pair automatically grant phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.5 what are minimal pairsMinimal pairs are pairs of words that except for one phenomic difference sound alike. The one phenome difference can make a significant difference in meaning between two words.6 what is allphone音位变体?To bring out the “phonetic” difference, an aspirated sound is transcribed with a rise after the sound, such variants of a phoneme are called allphone.7 what is assimilation同化现象?A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.8 what is suprasegmentals超音段特征?Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are syllable, stress tone, and intonation.Chapter31 Definition of morpheme语素?Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.2 free morpheme: those that may occur alone , that is, those that may make up words by themselves, are free morpheme.Bound morpheme: those that cannot occur alone and must appear at least with another morpheme are called bound morpheme.Chapter41 The three branches of syntactic句法?Positional relations; relations of substitutability; relations of co-occurrence.2 what is IC analysis?To dismantle a grammatical construction in the three nodes of tree is called immediate constituent analysis.3 category范畴: The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, and we are talking about the grammatical categories in the second sense. Agreement一致关系: May be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another, shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category.Conjoining连接: Refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another Embedding嵌入: Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.Chapter51 what is the referential theory指称论?The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.2 hyponymy上下义关系：Relationship of inclusion is relationship between the specific and the general meanings of the words. The former included the latter, e. g.” sheep” is included in “animal” the former is subordinate, the latter is superordinate.3 what is componential analysis成分分析法?The conceptual meaning can be broken down into its minimal distinctive components which are known as semantic features. Such analysis is called componential analysis.Chapter61 what is cognition认知?The process involved in knowing, or the act of knowing, which in its completeness includes perception and judgment. Cognition includes all processes of consciousness by which knowledge is accumulated, such as perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning. Put differently, cognition is an experience of knowing that can be distinguished from an experience of feeling or willing. It is one of the only words that refers to the brain as well as to the mind.2 what is psycholinguistics and its six subject of research?Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; t usually studies he psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.The six subject：acquisition习得; comprehension理解; production产生; disorders障碍; language and thought语言和思维; neurocognition神经认知3 what is cognitive linguistics认知语言学?Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language, which is based on human experiences of the word and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world.4 what is construal识解?Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways trough specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc 5 categorization范畴化and its three levels?Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.Three level: basic level基本层次范畴; superordinate level 上位范畴and subordinate level下属层次范畴Basic level: the categories at basic level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best.Superordinate level: superordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.Subordinate level: they have clearly identifiable gestalts and lots of individual specific features. At this level we perceive the difference between the members of the basic level categories.6 what is image schema意象图式?Mark Johnson proposes image schemas. He defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interaction and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. For example, a center-periphery schema-a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core: the structure of apple, an individual’s perceptual sphere…7 what is metaphor隐喻and its three categories.Metaphor involves comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. Three categories: ontological metaphor实体隐喻; structural metaphor结构隐喻and orientional metaphor 方位隐喻7 what is metonymy转喻?Metonymy, in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target with in the same domain.Chapter71 speech community语境: It is a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language.2 what is sapir-whorf hypothesis萨皮尔-沃尔夫假设?In linguistics, the sapir-whorf hypothesis postulates a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speak and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it, which is known as SWH.3 why do we need to teach culture in our own language classroom.A to get student familiar with cultural differences;B to help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the member of the target culture will;C to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.4 what is woman register女子英语文体?WR in language takes on the following features:A woman use more “fancy” color terms such as “mauve” and “beige”.B woman use less powerful curse words.C woman use more intensifiers such as “terrible” and“awful”.D woman use more tag questions.F woman use more statement questions like ”dinner will be ready at seven o’clock” with a rising intonation at the end.G woman’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men’s.5 what is sociolinguistic?Sociolinguistics, as a interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. In this discipline we have two important thing to think about: structural things and their use in sociocultural context.Chapter81 what is the speech act theory言语行为理论?This is the first major theory in the study of language in use, which organized with the oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin.2 what is performantives施为句?Some sentences cannot be said to be true or false, the uttering of these sentences is , or is a part of , the doing of man action . so they are called performatives.3 what is the theory of the locutionary act行事行为理论?Locutionary act发话行为: it is the basic linguistic action of voicing, a meaningful sequence of words. It is by means of locutionary acts that one succeeds in expressing information or doing other things with words.Illocutionary act 行事行为:可译为言外之意，无具体含义，需举例。
5 theories concerning the study of semantics 语义学的5个理论
Representative
路德维希·维特根斯坦（Ludwig Wittgenstein,1889—1951）认为，仅仅从词本身不 能了解词的意义，只有在使用中，在词的语境当中， 才能了解词的意义，即“意义即用法”。他在《哲 学研究》中多次提到：
the meaning of a word is its use in the language.
Representative
伯特兰· 罗素（Bertrand Russell，1872—1970）是指 称论的集大成者，明确坚持词 义的指称论观点。他认为，词 通过指称外界事物而具有意义， 词的意义就是它指称对象。
The limitation
只是孤立地、静止地分析词义，没有考察词语和对象之间的诸多 中间环节，具有明显的缺陷： 1）指称论不能全面解释一切词语的意义。并非所有词语都有指称 对象，连接词“并且”“然后”“如果”，语气词“哎呀”“哦” 等等，都无指称对象。另外，有些词在现实世界里无指称对象， 但却并不是没有意义，如“麒麟”“龙”等等。 2）不同的词语可以指称同一对象，但意义不同，如“美国总统” 和“布什”。因而，指称论会造成意义混乱。
1. The referential theory
It was first proposed by Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.
21
Limitation
语义三角理论的缺陷在于过分强调社 会语用因素而忽略了语言的个体发生。 人们并不清楚符号与概念或事物之间 到底有什么精确的联系。
语言学概论名词解释
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Language is a means of verbal communication.)Arbitrariness 任意性There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.( refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.) Duality 二层性is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity (productivity) 创造性Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.)Displacement 移位性Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.( means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.)Linguistics 语言学is the scientific study of language.Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole. Competence 语言能力the ideal user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language.Performance 语言运用the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.Chapter 2Phonetics 语音学(the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Phonology 音系学is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Coarticulation 协同发音When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called coarticulation.(When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call this process coarticulation.) Broad Transcription 宽式音标the transcription with letter-symbols only.Narrow transcription 窄式音标the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 读音符号.Phone 音素A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme 音位A phoneme is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in language which can distinguish two words.Allophone 音位变体the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Assimilation 同化is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Syllable 音节A syllable is composed of a compulsory nucleus(peak), a non-compulsory onset and a non-compulsory coda.Stress 重音refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Intonation 语调involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varyingChapter 3Morpheme 词素is the smallest meaning minimal meaningful units in a language. (Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.)Morphology 形态学studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Free morphemes 自由音素those that may occur alone, that is those which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes 黏着音素those must appear with at least another morpheme, that is, they cannot stand alone.Root 词根is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.Affixes 词缀forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. (is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.Stem 词干is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case. It will not change the grammatical class of the stem to which it is attached.Word formation refers to the process of how words are formed.Compounding 复合法the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.(The term compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.)Derivation (affixation) 派生法the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems. ConversionChapter 4Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Syntax is the study of the formation of sentences.Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrence 同现关系.Positional relation (word order) 位置关系refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. The sequential arrangement of words can either be well-formed or ill-formed (ungrammatical or nonsensical).Relations of substitutability 可替换关系Firstly, it refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly, it refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.Grammatical construction/construct 语法结构can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. - Constituents are the components within one sentence (a term used for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger unit).Immediate constituents 直接成分are constituents immediately, or directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence, a word group or even a word (which can be further analyzed into morphemes).Endocentric construction 向心结构is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head.Exocentric construction 离心结构refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head.- Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.- Object Traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of an action (the agent), then object m ay refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of the action (the patient), and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.PS rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.Chapter 5Semantics is the study of meaning, or more specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Referential theory 指称论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for, is known as the referential theory.- Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.Chapter 8Pragmatics 语用学Speaker’s meaning (utterance or contextual meaning) –the interpretation of a sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. In a word, it depends on the context. The discipline which concentrates on this kind of meaning is called pragmatics.Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事）When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act.Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事）When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something, and the act performed is known as an illocutionary act.Perlocutionary act 取效行为（以言成事）- It refers to the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something,or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce his to do something, etc.- Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.。
语言学meaning
6. Sense Relations
Synonymy
Gradable
Antonymy Hyponymy
Complementary
Converse
10
6.1Synonymy 同义关系
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词 义相近的词叫同义词。 P97
The “Meaning” theories： 1，The naming theory 命名论 2，The conceptualist theory 概念论 3 , Contextualism 语境论 4 , Behaviourism 行为主义论
G.Leech’s 7 types of meaning
Problem with this theory: the meaning of desk:P95 There is something behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes. And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept(概念）.
4. The semantic triangle 语义三角
Words→Concepts→Things: Ogden & Richards
意义的定义
“意义”定义之我见什么是“意义”？“意义”的定义是什么？纵观历史上关于“意义”研究，其定义众说纷纭。
不同的定义尤其可取之处，但也有其缺陷。
总之，意义的研究一直在发展和进行中。
1、指称论（Reference Theory,Referential Theory）观点，认为名称指称对象，句子指称情景和事件，语符意义就是词语与其所指称对象及其间的关系。
说“某物”就意味着某物的存在。
但是，指称论只是孤立地、静止地、机械地分析词语的意义，而没有注意到参考人们在语言实践活动中所产生的意义具有多样性、变异性和动态性，更没有考虑到人的主观能动性，因而是片面的。
2、观念论（the Ideational Theory, Conceptual Theory）主张将意义视为心智的产品。
弗雷格和奥格登以及理查兹均提出了观念论（又叫语义三角），认为“语符(Symbol)”不是直接指向“指称或指称物”（Referent)的，而是通过其间的“涵义（Sense）”指向它的。
但是究竟何为“观念”？以哪个观念为准？观念的镜像性使其陷入了客观主义泥潭。
到现在为止，还没有人给“水”、“电”等提供一个令大家都能满意的精确定义，更不用说“时间”、“意义”等名词了。
观念论也遭到很多哲学家的批判。
3、实证主义（Positivism）观点只承认“实证的事实”，认为只有被时间证实了的事件才可成为科学定律，才具有“价值”的事实，主张把流行于自然科学界的实证方法引入到哲学研究中。
但其缺陷也为人诟病，主要体现在：（1）过分依赖外部世界（2）无法解释隐喻性表达、信念句。
（3）证实原则不能证实含全称量词的命题。
4、真值论（True Value），塔尔斯基认为“涵义”指语句表达的涵义，所指指外部世界中的真假情况。
但是，语言研究中必须考虑人的因素，因为Sense和Referent无法一一对应。
（1）人们可用不同词汇谈论同一对象，如可称自己的母亲Mum或Mother,它们的真值相同，但是词义却有较大差异。
维特根斯坦“意义即使用”中的意义观探究
DOI: 10.14092/11-3956/c.2020.01.014维特根斯坦“意义即使用”中的意义观探究王亚南（华北电力大学（保定）外国语学院，河北 保定 071003）摘 要：通过驳斥“意义指称论”，维特根斯坦提出了“意义即使用”的哲学观。
不过，该观点并没有从正面解释“意义是什么”，而是把问题的焦点引向语境，即强调词的意义要放在每一个具体的语境中去理解。
维氏在文中提到了“苹果”、“红”和“五”这三个词的区别，但关于这些词的意义，他并没有深入探讨。
在研读《哲学研究》文本段落的基础上，本文尝试进一步探讨实体名词、抽象词、颜色词和数词的意义，并提出词的意义不是该词与外界事物的对应关系，而是形成于人脑中的抽象概念。
关键词：意义即使用；指物识字；颜色词；数词；概念中图分类号：H059.4文献标识码：A 文章编号：1008-2603(2020)01-0111-07“意义指称论”（referential theory of meaning ）长期以来一直为人诟病。
为了更正或驳斥它，罗素（Russell 1905）提出了“摹状词理论”（也称“描述语理论”，Theory of Descriptions ），认知语义学提出了“意义表征论”（representational theory of meaning ），克里普克提出了“历史—因果指称论”（Causal-Historical Theory of Reference ），而维特根斯坦则提出了“意义即使用”的意义观，即一个词的意义不是“它所代表的事物”，而是它在句中如何“使用”的。
这一重要观点不仅可以视为语用学的哲学渊源，同时也为弗斯的“语境意义论”和辛格莱基于语料库的“意义单位”探究提供了哲学层面上的支撑。
很多学者将该哲学观点应用于其他相关领域的研究：一些学者如曹颖、盖晓兰等以维特根斯坦的语言哲学观为理论基础，进一步研究语境对教学的指导作用等；一些学者如陈辰、王智颖等致力于探究该理论对翻译学的启示；还有研究者如麦金、陈嘉映、涂纪亮等在探究该理论本身的基础上，阐发自己的独到见解以帮助人们更深入理解维氏原著。
the referential theory语言学
the referential theory语言学
the referential theory是一种语言学理论，它主张语言是一种表达与外部现实世界相关的符号系统，这些符号指称外部对象或概念，而语言的含义是基于它所指称的实体。
这一理论是一种唯实论观点，认为存在独立于语言的客观世界，而语言是人类为了表达对这个客观世界的认识而发明的。
在这一理论中，重点在于强调语言与外部世界的关系。
语言不是一个离开现实世界而存在的抽象概念，而是一种具体的实践活动，它通过符号、声音或其他形式来表达与现实世界相关的事物。
因此，语言是必须参照外部世界才能运作的。
在the referential theory中，人们使用语言来说明客观真实世界，而不是纯粹为了符号自身而使用语言。
这种理论的一个重要后果是，它把语言的目标和功能紧密结合起来。
语言的目的不仅仅是简单地传达信息或表达思想，而是要在外部现实世界中传达。
因此，语言的有效性与有效性紧密相连，其实际意义取决于符号所指称的意义和实体。
由于这种理论是采用唯实主义观点的，它接受了客观世界的独立存在，并认为语言是人类为了表达对这个客观世界的认识而发明的工具。
但同时，也有一些限制和缺点。
例如，它可能无法解释语言符号之间的联系，也无法解释语言符号的含义会随着时间和文化而变化的现象等。
尽管存在这些局限性，the referential theory依然是现代语言学中不可或缺的
一个理论。
它提出了语言与现实世界之间紧密联系的观点，揭示了语言的目的和功能，对于我们理解和使用语言具有重要的启示意义。
4英语词汇学第四章_词的理据
semantic triangle 语义三角
proposed by Ogden / Richards
The meaning of meaning 1923
(The relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by concept.)
concept (thought /sense) meaning
mental image/reference
cat
word ------------------ thing
(name/symbol/form signifier) (referent/object/ signified） (when/spirit/as??) mental image?
R: actual response / hearer’s response
S
r ………s
R
(S)
Jack and Jill are walking on a trail.
Jill is hungry and sees apples on a tree.
She says to Jack, “I like to eat an apple.” (r)
b. metonymy( 借代，换称）
*
Name sth. by one of its attributes The pen is mightier than the sword. (工具代动作） He has the best stable in the town. (容器代内容） I am not going to let my heart rule my head.(身体 器官代功能） I hate that brass button.(事物特征代事物本身） Hollywood
英语语言学复习资料
语言学Linguistic各章重点,学习资料整理1.1What is language？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2Design features of language①Arbitrariness任意性：The property of language by which there is in general no natural (i。
e。
logical）relation between the form of a single lexical unit and its meaning。
②Duality二重性Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary）level is a definite set of meaningless sounds, which combine to form meaningful units which constitute a higher (primary) level。
③Creativity创造性Language is creative in the sense that its users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before。
④Displacement移位性By displacement is meant that language can be used to refer to things that are not present (in time and space）at the moment of communication。
1.3Functions of language①Informative信息功能Language serves an informative function when it is used to express the speaker’s opinion, to state a fact，or to reason things out。
英语语言学期末考试重点
第一章1.What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. sounds and meanings②Duality二层性:The property of having two levels of structures; such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity/creativity创造性:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement移位性:Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects; events and concepts which are not present in time and space at moment of communication. p73.Functions of language①Informative信息功能: to give information about facts. ideational②Interpersonal人际功能: to establish and maintain social status in a society.age; sex; language; background; accent; status③Performative施为功能 : language is used to do things; to performcertain actions. name; promise; apologize; sorry; declare④. Emotive/Expressive 情感功能: to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion寒暄交流: to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. health; weather⑥ Recreational function娱乐: the use of language for sheer joy. lyrics; poetry⑦Metalingual function元语言功能: to talk about language itself.4. What is linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive描写/述性—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use modern linguisticPrescriptive规定性—lay down rules for “correct and standard”linguistic behavior in using language traditional grammar: “neveruse a double negative”7.Synchronic study 共时—description of a language at some point of time modern linguisticsDiachronic study 历时— description of a language as it changes through time historical development of language over a period of time第四章1．What is Syntax 句法Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2．Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观 Parts of speech、Syntactic Function不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系、The structural approach结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3．The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words ; so it pays great attention to the study of words ; such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech ; the identification of function of words in terms of subject; predicate ; etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns; verbs;pronouns; adjectives; adverbs; prepositions; conjunctions and interjections.5．The term Category范畴 in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense;范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun; Verb; Subject; Predicate. More specifically; it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴; include number; gender; case and countabilitycase;the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense; aspect; voice; etc. 6．Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs 7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English; the gender distinctions are on the whole natural; determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中;格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English; pronouns have three cases of nominative主格; accusative 受格; and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive 所有格In English; the case of noun is realized in three channels:a inflectionb following a prepositionc word order9. Tense时态:the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result; there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb; we do not refer to a “future tense”; even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time; and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed.Perfective完成体 and Imperfective进行体Perfective and Progressive in English11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subject Passive被动语态 and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord 一致关系 refers to agreement between words; especially between a verb and the subject of a sentence.②Government 支配关系is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence.In traditional grammar; the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ;由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence同现关系15.Immediate constituent 直接成分 is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction向心结构is a construction that contains:1 a head; which is the single obligatory element in the construction;2 one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.17.them e主位 refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listenerRheme述位refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listener The linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side. subject; predicate grammatical sidetheme; rheme functional side第五章1. What is SemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of words; phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科② The Semantic Triangle③ Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation betweena word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系;它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense涵义 is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference指称 is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses; while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense; but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy同义关系②Antonymy反义关系 Gradable、Complementary、Converse③Hyponymy上下义关系13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style; connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系、Complementary antonymy 互补反义关系、Converse antonymy 反向反义关系15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences① Synonymity 同义a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency矛盾a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment 蕴涵a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y; the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition前提预设It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of themessage already knows.⑤Contradiction矛盾⑥Semantic anomaly语义反常18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality组合性原则：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics ﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics逻辑语义学﹡A proposition命题 is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context/ use/ communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of meaningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant; inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate; the more closely related to context ；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech Act Theory言语行为理论：①Performatives and Constatives② A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is called a performative行事话语..6.A constative 述事话语 is an utterance which asserts something that is either true or false.7Characteristics of Implicature：Calculability、Cancellability、Non-detachability、Non-conventionality8.Calculability可推导性: means that implicature of an utterance can be calculated based on literal meaning; CP and its maxims; context; etc.9.Cancellability/Defeasibility可取消性/可废除原则 If the factors that conversational implicature relied on change; the implicature will also change.10.Relevance Theory关联理论Communicative Principle of Relevance：Every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its own optimal relevance.Cognitive Principle of Relevance：Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.。
语义模糊性1
Wittgenstein认为，每个词都有用法，而词的用法是由规则规定的，词本身并没有什么意义。为此，他提出了“语言游戏”（language game）的概念。语言游戏表明语言并不仅是说话的工具，要使用语言就好比玩一次“游戏”（如打牌、下棋等），大家都要按事先约好的规则办事。但是，什么叫用法？什么是关系到语义的用法？ Wittgenstein并没有作出回答。
又如，William Shakespeare 与 Swan of Avon 指的都是同一对象，但是它们的意义却不一样，正因为如此，我们才会说“Swan of Avon was Shakespeare”。弗雷格指出，所谓相同不是指事物与事物之间的关系，而是指事物的名称与名称之间的关系，或者说符号与符号之间的关系。A—A 与 A—B的认识价值不同。A—A 是先验真理，而 A一B包含经验知识，它告诉人们：被称为A的事物与被称为B的事物是同一事物。
首先从事言语行为研究的是牛津大学的奥斯汀（J．Austin），他在 How to Do Things With Words 中提出了三个概念：（1）言内行为（locutionary act），（2）言外行为（illocutionary act），（3）言后行为（perlocutionary act）。言内行为指的是“说话”这一行为本身，它大体与传统意义上的“意指”相同，即指发出语音、音节、说出单词、词组和句子等。这一行为本身并不能构成言语交际，但在实施这个行为之中，我们通常实施了一个言外行为，有时还同时实施了一个言后行为。
英语语言学重点名词解释汇总
Semantics is the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential Theory.The naming theory命名说According to it, the linguistic forms or symbols or words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stands for. So words are just names or labels for things.It is also called the referential theory （指称论）.Theory of the context of situation [ J. R. Firth (1890-1960) ]情景语境①The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.②The relevant objects.③The effects of the verbal action.The conceptualist view概念理论This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.It is also called ideational theory（观念论）Contextualism语境J. R. Firth 费斯The linguists hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. This view of meaning proposed by Bloomfield is illustrated by his story about Jack and Jill.According to Bloomfield, the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as “the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls forthin the hearer.”The Definition of senseSense refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.The definition of referenceReference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.What is culture?Broadly speaking, it means the total way of life of people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language.In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.Anthropological study of linguistics: study of language in a sociocultural context.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis概念Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.Sociolinguistics The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.Variationist perspective: 变异视角Variety 的概念People who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner.Dialect概念Varieties (变体)related to the user are normally known as dialects Register概念In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.1. Regional dialects are linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions.2. Social-class dialect, or sociolect 社会方言, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.个人方言A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.4. Ethnic dialect种族方言A variety of language that is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation5. Standard dialect:Diglossia: Two distinct varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functionsMonolingual: Speakers of a single language control different varieties of that language.Bilingual: People develop some ability in a second language.High Context Culture:-Cultures that rely heavily on non-verbal and subtle situational cues in communication.Low Context Culture:- Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.Definition of PragmaticsThe study of language in use. The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe orreport anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is.Conversational Implicature A type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims【Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988)】The Cooperative Principle (CP)Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems In linguistics, the theory of universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess, without having to learn them.Krashen’s Input HypothesisLearners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.“i+1” principle The language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence so that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress.The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.Communicative competence{Dell Hymes}What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations foreffective and appropriate communicationTypes of syllabus The structural syllabus，The situational syllabus，The communicative syllabus，The task-based syllabusContrastive Analysis A way of comparing the first language and the second language to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. (Gass and Selinker, 2021:72)Error Analysis Many errors made by the second language learners were caused by factors other than the first language interference.Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ competenceMistake: learner’s failure to perform their competence填空This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and RichardsThere are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation (相似关系), oppositeness relation (对立关系)inclusiveness relation (内含)Characteristics of implicature1) Calculability 可推导性2) Cancellability可取消性（依赖语境）3) Non-detachability不可分离性（依赖语义）4) Non-conventionality 非规约性【Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures.】Leech七分法 1. 概念意义（conceptual）2. 内涵意义（connotative）3. 社会意义（social）4. 情感意义（affective）5. 反射意义（reflective）6. 搭配意义（collocative）7. 主题意义（thematic）。
philosophyoflanguage语言哲学简介
Four puzzles by Russell:
(1) The problem of apparent reference to nonexistent 对非存在物的明显指称难题
e.g.: <1>James Moriarty is bald.
J1 <1> 是有意义的。 J2 <1> 是主谓句。 J3 一个有意义的主谓句仅当它能够识别出某一个别事物并把某一属性归于这一事物才是有意义的。 J4 <1> 的主项不能识别或指示任何存在的事物。 J5 如果仅当能够识别出某一个别事物并把某一属性归于这一事物 <1> 才有意义，且如果 <1> 的主项不 能识别或指示任何存在的事物，那么要么 <1> 没意义，要么 <1> 识别出某个不存在的事物。 J6 不存在“不存在的事物” 这样的事物。
e.g.: <3> Mark Twain is Samule Langhorne Clemens.
(4) The problem of substitutivity 替换难题 e.g.: Albert believes that Samuel Langhorne Clemens was
less than 5 feet tall.
Frege’s Puzzle: e.g.: The present Queen of England is Elizabeth Windsor.
At least one person is presently Queen of England. At most one person is presently Queen of England. Whoever is presently Queen of England is Elizabeth Windsor. (∃x) (Qx & ((y) (Qy → y = x) & x = e)).
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The Referential TheoryI． IntroductionHow can people use language to describe the world，or how can people convey information to a listener about what is going on in the real world? Questions like these have long been studied by many linguists or semanticists． Thus many semantic theories about these problems have been put forward．Among these current semantic theories，two of which are of great importance: 1)referential theory，and2) representational theory． These two kinds of different semantic theories have contributed greatly to the development of semantics. The former is mainly stuidied herer.Ⅱ． An Overview of Referential Theory of Meaning2．1．The referential theory of meaningAccording to Saeed，“theories of meaning can be called referential when their basic premise is that we can give the meaning of words and sentences by showing how they relate to situations”. For example nounsare meaningful because they denote entities in the world and sentences because they denote situations and events．Semanticists who support the referential theory hold the idea that there is a direct relationship between language and the real world，and that when people use language，they usually use words to refer or denote entities in the real world．Why words，sentences have meaning? It is because there exists a referring relationship between them and the entities in the world．“In referential theories，meaning derives from language being attachedto，or grounded in，reality．2． 2 Two basic distinctions about referenceThere are different types of reference． One of the basic distinctions in reference is the distinction between referring expressions and non －referring expressions．The former refers to the kind of linguistic expressions ( such as: so，very，maybe，not，etc． ) which can never be used to refer．However, it is not meaning tha these words have no meaning at all． Words like these do contribute meaning to the sentences they occur in and help sentences denote，but they do not themselves identify entities in the world． Such words can be called non － referring expressions． On the contrary，when someone says the noun flower in the sentence like The flower is very beautiful，the noun flower is a referring expression because it is being used to identify an entity in the world．Another basic distinction about reference is that between constant reference and variable reference． Some expressions will have the same referent in different contexts，such as the Eiffel Tower or thePacific Ocean．We may say expressions like these have constant reference．By contrary，other expressions have their reference totally dependent on context，such as you，she，he，etc．In order to identify who is being referred to，people need to know a lot about the context in which these words are uttered．2． 3 Development of referential theory of meaningGenerally speaking，referential theory of meaning can be divided into three types at different stages ，which of them has its own representatives．The first type is called traditional referential theory，the representatives of which are J． S． Mill，G． Frege，B． Russell，L．Wittgenstein，etc． Acco rding to Mill，referent is meaning．Later，Frege pointed out that referent is different from meaning．According to Frege，a language expression may have its referent and meaning as well．The same referent may have different names or meanings．However, some language expressions have meaning only，but no referent，such as the morning star and the evening star may refer to the same star，but they have different names and different meanings． More lately，B． Russell and L Wittgenstein made further development of referential theory from their own points of view．B．Russell put forward the description theory．In this theory understanding a name and identifying the referent are both dependent on associating the name with the right description．Because of many shortcomings of the traditional referential theory， historical cause － effect referential theory ( or causal theory) was put forward based on the idea of S．A．Kripke and H． Putnam． This theory is based on the idea that names are socially inherited，or borrowed．The great advantage of this causal theory is that it recognizes that speakers may use names with very little knowledge of the referent．“So where the causal theory stresses the role of social knowledge in the use of names，the description theory emphasizes the role of identifying knowledge．After 1980s，Searle et al．，by generalizing the idea of description and causal theories，put forward his new theory about reference from the viewpoint of intention，that is: the intentional referential theory，which explore the view that sense place a new level between words and the world: a level of mental representation．2． 4 Problems of referential theory of meaningAfter introducing the definition, two baisc distinction and its history, the problems of referential theory will be elaborated in the following part. Firstly, It seems to predict that many words have no meaning．It is very difficult to find a real world referent for words like so，not，very，of．) Secondly,many nominal expressions used byspeakers do not have a referent that exists or has ever existed in the real world，such as World War Three，unicorn，etc．) Thirdly, there is not always a one to one correspondence between a linguistic expression and the item they want to identify． That is to say，people can refer to the same individual in different ways． Expressions like Susan，my next door neighbor，Jack’s wife，would share the same referent but have different meaning．So，we can draw a conclusion: there is more to meaning than reference．Ⅲ．． ConclusionThe referential theory has contributed greatly to the study of meaning．。