syntax
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax
Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别，〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别，〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。
word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词〔N〕： student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕： like red go形容词〔adj〕： tall lovely red副词〔adv〕： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。
Syntax
_________ Functional Approach
declarative sentences
interrogative sentences
imperative sentences
exclamatory sentences
Seven types of sentences
• • • • • • •
SV Someone was laughing. SVO My sister enjoys parties. SVC They became angry. SVA I went to New York. SVOO Mary gave John a book. Most people consider the book expensive. SVOC SVOA You must put the toy downstairs.
• The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themsleves” is a _______ sentence. A. simple B. coordinate C. compound D. complex
• ______ is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. A. Morphology B. Syntax C. Semantics D. Pragmatics
Syntax
学习重点
• • • • Syntax概念解释 Classification of phrases短语分类 Classification of sentence句子类型 Deep structure and surface structure表层 结构和深层结构
4.syntax
The traditional approach (传统学派)
❖ The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of … of words.
exocentric constructions 离心结构 on the shelf
The generative approach (生成学派)
❖ This approach originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen several stages of development.
词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修 饰语).
(主要/次要词汇范畴)
2. What are major/minor lexical categories?
① Major lexical categories are often assumed 3.toWbehtahte ahreeadtsh(e中心cr语it/e中r心ia成t分o )daertoeurnmdinwehiach
branch that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. To put it simple, it is the study of the formation of sentences.
普通语言学 6-Syntax解析
?
Syntax
pedago gy
• Syntax 来自古希腊语：sý ntaxis • 布局、陈列（“arrangement” or “setting out together”）
符号学中的 Syntax
• Morris (1938):符号学（semiotics）的三个分支
1. Syntactics: 符号之间的关系
NP
N’ 是介于名词 N 和名 词短语NP的中间层次
X-语杠
• X-语杠是大于中心语，小于短语（XP）的中间成分。 • X-语杠理论意味着每个短语都有中心语，即每个短语 都是一个向心结构（endocentric structure）。 • 这有别于传统结构语言学区分向心结构和离心结构（ exocentric structure）的做法。
• 句子是理论/抽象单位,由语法界定。 正确/不正确 • 语段是物理单位，属于言语表达或运用的范畴。 合适/不合适
如何解决？？？
• 句子功能的区分：
1. 2. 3. 4. 陈述句（statement） 疑问句（question） 命令句（command） 感叹句（exclamation）
如何解决？？？
???
• 现代句法学的句子定义不再使用“思想” 这一抽象的概念。 • 例如：an apple 表达思想,但不是句子； He came late, because he overslept. 一个句子，两个思想。
Bloomfield
• 现代语言学的句子定义深受美国结构主义语言学影响。 • 语法中最大的语言单位 / 适用于句法规则的最大结构单 位。 • 一个独立的语言形式，不被任何语法结构包含在更大的 语言形式中（Bloomfield, 1933）。 • An independent linguistic form, not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form.
语言学 4 Syntax(课堂PPT)
• naughty
boys and girls
naughty boys and girls
•
boys and girls naughty boys
• Practice: Analyze the sentence “ They are flying planes.”
12
IC Analysis
• Practice: Please analyze the following three sentences by means of IC Analysis:
• The hierarchical structure of sentences can be analyzed by means of IC Analysis.
10
• e.g.
IC Analysis
He is from France
•
He is from France
•
is from France
16
•
very /Adv sweet /Adj
Labeled IC Analysis
•
3. His brother stayed at home /S
•
His brother /NP stayed at home / VP
•
His /Det brother /N stayed / V at home /PP
•
very fast
very sweet
•
3. His brother stayed at home
•
His brother stayed at home
•
His brother stayed at home
第五讲syntax
What are sentences relatedness?
1) Deep structure and surface structure 2) Movement rules 3) Structural ambiguity Two questions will be used:
First, how some superficially distinct sentences are closely related? Second, how some superficially similar sentences are in fact distinct?
Deep
structure: the basic structures of sentences which are specified by the phrases structure rules. Variation on those sentence structures are derived via transformations (movement rules). Deep structure: is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.
Symbols used in syntactic analysis
The list of common symbols and abbreviations: S Adj Pro N PN NP V Adv PP Art Prep VP
Other
symbols: ＊ = ‘ungrammatical sequence’ → = ‘consists of ‘ e.g., NP → Art N ( ) = ‘optional constituent’ --- whatever occurs inside these brackets will be treated as an optional constituent. E.g., NP → Art (Adj) N
7. Syntax
Linguistik Jingping Wang
2
paradigmatische Beziehungen
austauschbar
Der Mann Der Kerl Die Frau geht ü die Straß ber e.
Der
rote grü ne blaue
Mantel
3
Linguistik Jingping Wang
13
Grammatische Kongruenz
Ein alter Mann bringt dem Kind einen Hund.
Zwei Flexionsarten im Syntax
Sing./Pl. Artikel Nomen Genus Kasus Verb Person, Numeri, Tempora, Modi, Genus verbi
Linguistik Jingping Wang
19
Satzklammerkonstruktionen
Hilfsverb + Vollverb – Er wird bald ausreisen./ Er ist gestern ausgereist. – Er kann mir helfen. – Der Mantel wird von ihm gereinigt. Trennbares Verb + Prä fix Er nimmt am Deutschkurs teil.
Im Imperativ und Entscheidungsfrage: Stellung I
Gib mir ein Bier! Hast du morgen frei?
Im Nebensatz: Endstellung
简明语言学教程第4章Syntax解析
degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).
2. What are the criteria to determine a word’s categories? ① meaning; ② inflection; ③distribution. Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution. 3. What are major/minor lexical categories?
3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派). American linguists A. N. Chomsky (1928-)
Category (P42) refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
Syntax
relations of substitution are often called paradigmatic relations. It refers to the relations between words or phrases that can be substituted for each other in the same grammatical position. I( ) Tom the book. passed handed threw gave The ( ) smiles. strong man old professor pretty girl tall boy
• Descriptive usages are generally understood and don't need to be taught, especially to native speakers. Because descriptivists more easily accept change due to syntax modifications and cultural influences, they believe language is learned or understood, rather than taught.
戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第5章课件 _Syntax
4.2 Categories范畴
4.2.1 Word-level categories Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language e.g. a sentence a noun phrase a verb
4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structure短语范畴及结构
Definition: Phrases refer to the syntactic units which are built around a certain word category. 围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, called parts of speech) .
Here, word-level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.
Noam Chomsky [ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski] (1928--)
---- He is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician,political commentator and activist, the most influential linguist of the 20th century,and was voted the "world's top public intellectual"(世界顶级公共知识分子) in a 2005 poll. Chomsky has spent most of his career at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he is currently Professor Emeritus.
4.Syntax
A story about a sentimental girl
4.3 Phrase structure rule
Grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase
A bird in the hand
2) Inflection
Words of different categories take different inflections. e.g. nouns – plural affix –s verbs – past tense affix –ed progressive affix –ing adjectives – -er, -est very helpful but does not always suffice e.g. moisture, fog; take, break; frequent, intelligent, dead;
Table 4-1 P43
Criteria in determining a word’s category
Word categories are not clear-cut e.g. love and push Use returnable plates. Not disposables. Three criteria :
It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straight forward from its meaning.
e.g. dilemma, friendship (concrete entities?); love, hate (also nouns); (be) aware of, know about (similar meaning)
语言学导论-第4章Syntax
Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy 观察充分性 Descriptive adequacy 描述充分性 Explanatory adequacy 解释充分性 The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
A Sentence: The boy kicked the ball. A Noun Phrase: strong man, tallest boy A Verb: kick, run, go
Words: Syntactic categories 句法范畴 can generally substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality.
Determiner (Det) 限定词: the, a, this, those Degree (Deg) 程度词: quite, very, more, so Qualifier (Qual) 修饰词: often, always, seldom, almost Auxiliary (Aux) 助词: must, should, can, might Conjunction (Con): and, but, or
no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
syntax新
From word to text 从语词到篇章 (syntax句法)
• 4.1 syntactic relations 句法关系 • Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: positional relations位置关系, relations of substitutability 替代关系and relations of cooccurrence同现关系. • 4.4.1positional relations位置关系 • Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.位置关系或词序指 一门语言中词语的排列顺序 If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an uttereance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.
From word to text 从语词到篇章 (syntax句法)
• 4.2 Grammatical construction and its co2.1 grammatical construction • Grammatical construction or construct can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.语法结构或建构用来指语言中被赋予一 种或多种功能的任何句法建构,包括在语言学上该 建构所拥有的常规意义和用法.
Syntax
Chapter 4 Syntax 4.1 What is syntax?4.2 Categories4.3 Phrase structure rule 4.4 Phrase elements4.5 Sentences4.6 Transformations4.1 What is syntax?▪Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules1 that govern the formation of sentences.Note: 1. Syntactic rules in a grammaraccount for the grammaticality ofsentences, and the ordering of wordsand morphemes.Syntax involves our knowledge of structural ambiguity,our knowledge that sentences may be paraphrases of each other,and our knowledge of the grammatical function of each part of a sentence,that is,of the grammatical relations.It is also concerned with speakers'ability to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences.The sentence is regarded the highest-ranking unit of grammar,and therefore that the purpose of a grammatical description is to define, making use of whatever descriptive apparatus that may be necessary(rules, categories,etc).4.2 Categories▪4.2.1 Word-level categories▪4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structures4.2.1 Word-level categories▪Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.▪The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)Table 4-1 Examples of some lexical categories Major lexical categories ExamplesNoun (N)book, boy, love, sheepVerb (V)run, read, playAdjective (A)happy, tall, clear Preposition (P)about, over, onMajor lexical categories ExamplesDeterminer (Det)the, a, this, thoseDegree word (Deg)quite, very, more, so Qualifier (Qual)often, always, seldom, almost Auxiliary (Aux)must, should, can, might Conjunction (Con)and, but, orThe criteria on which categories aredetermined▪Word categories are not so clear-cut.▪Three criteria to determine a word’scategory:MeaningInflectionDistributionNote: The most reliable criterion ofdetermining a word’s category is itsdistribution.4.2.2 Phrase categoriesand their structures▪Phrase categories —the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).▪The structure: specifier + head + complement▪Head—the word around which a phrase is formed▪Specifier—the words on the left side of the heads▪Complement—the words on the right side of the heads4.3 Phrase structure rule▪Phrase structure rule▪4.3.1 XP rule▪4.3.2 XˉTheory▪4.3.3 Coordination rulePhrase structure rules▪The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule,such as:▪NP→(Det)+N+(PP)……e.g.those people,the fish on the plate,pretty girls.▪VP→(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.always play games, finish assignments.▪AP→(Deg)+A+(PP)……very handsome,very pessimistic,familiar with,very close to▪PP→(Deg)+P+(NP)……on the shelf,in the boat, quite near the station.4.3.1 XP ruleXPSpecifier X ComplementHeadNote: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P.4.3.2 XˉTheory▪XP →(Specifier)X’▪X’ →X(complement)XP(Phrase level)X’specifierX(head) complement4.3.3 Coordination rule▪Coordination structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc.----Coordination has four important properties:▪no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;▪a category at any level can be coordinated;▪the categories must be of the same type;▪the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.4.4. Phrase elements▪4.4.1 Specifier▪4.4.2 Complements▪4.4.3 Modifiers4.4.1 Specifier----Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qulifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.4.4.2 Complements----Complements themselves can be a phrase, they provide information abut entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head, e.g. a story about a sentimental girl;There can be no complement, one complement, or more than one complement in a phrase, e.g. appear, break, put…;a sentence-like construction may also function as a complement such as in “I believed that she was innocent.I doubt if she will come. They are keen for you to show up.” That/if /for are complementizers, the clauses introduced by complementizers are complement clause.4.4.3 Modifiers----Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of heads.4.5 Sentences (The S rule)▪S →NP VPSNP VPNPDet N V Det NA boy found the evidence●S →NP infl VP●Many linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl ’) as their heads, which indicates the sentence ’s tense and agreement. InflP(=S)NP VP InflSentences (the S rule)Infl realized by a tense labelInflP（=S）NP VPNPDet N Infl V Det NA boy Pst found the evidenceInfl realized by an auxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDet N Infl V Det N A boy will find the evidence4.6 Transformations▪4.6.1 Auxiliary movement▪4.6.2 Do insertion▪4.6.3 Deep structure and surface structure ▪4.6.4 Wh movement▪4.6.5 Move αand constraints on transformations4.6.1 Auxiliary movement▪Inversion→Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.▪Inversion (revised)→Move Infl to C.CCPSDet N Infl V the train will arrive NP4.6.1 Auxiliary movementCPSC NPInfl Det N Infl VWill the train e arrive4.6.2 Do insertionDo insertion----Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.CPCSNP Infl VPBirds flyCP CP C C SSInfl NP Infl VP NP Infl VPBirds do fly Do birds e flyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-34.6.3 Deep structure andsurface structure▪Consider the following pair of sentences: John is easy to please.John is eager to please.▪Structurally similar sentences might be very different in their meanings, for they have quite different deep structures.Deep structure and surfacestructure▪Consider one more sentence:Flying planes can be dangerous.▪It can mean either that if you fly planes you are engaged in a dangerous activity or Planes that are flying are dangerous.Deep structure and surfacestructure▪Deep structure----formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence.▪Surface structure----corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written.The organization of the syntacticcomponentThe XP ruleDeepstructure transformations Surface structure Subcategorization restricts choice of complements4.6.4Wh movement ▪Consider the derivation of the followingsentences:What languages can you speak?What can you talk about?▪These sentences may originate as: You can speak what languages.You can talk about what.▪Wh-movement----Move a wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.▪What language can you speak?▪What can you talk about ?Wh-movement----Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP. (Revised)CPVP V NPwon the gameSNP Infle Pst NP C Who4.6.5 Move αand constraints ontransformations▪Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position.▪No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.。
syntax句法学
nominative (subject form) accusative 直接受格(direct object form)
dative 间接受格(indirect object form)
genetive属格 (possessive form)
pronouns nominative (I, he, she) genitive(my, his, her) accusative (me, him, her) nouns general (John, boys) genitive ( John's, boys')
According
to the relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve certain syntactic function in a clause.
Subject,
verb, object, complement, and
Present: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive Past: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive Future: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive Past Future: simple/future progressive/perfect/perfect progressive
FromGreek: Both
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Syntax as opposed to Morphology.
The traditional apporach.
syntax组句
syntax组句一、“syntax”的中文翻译及英语解释1. 中文翻译- “syntax”的中文是“句法；语法结构；语句结构”。
2. 英语解释- Syntax refers to the rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences in a language. It determines how words are combined to form phrases, clauses, and ultimately complete sentences. For example, in English, the basic word order in a simple declarative sentence is usually subject - verb - object (SVO). So, a correct sentence like “I love apples” follows this syntax, where “I” is the subject, “love” is the verb, and “apples” is the object.二、运用“syntax”组句的情况及10个例子1. 描写客观事实或陈述观点时- Example 1: She reads books every day. (Subject - Verb - Object structure. Here “She” is the subject who performs the action of “reads”, and “books” is the object of the action. This simple sentence structure is used to state a habitual action.)- Example 2: They like music. (Subject - Verb - Object. “They” is the subject, “like” is the verb expressing preference, and “music” is the object of that preference.)2. 描述动作的发生顺序时- Example 3: First, he wakes up, then he brushes his teeth. (Here, we use a sequence of simple sentences following the subject - verb - object syntax. “He” is the subject in both sentences, and “wakes up” and “brushes” are the verbs respectively. This shows the order of actions.) - Example 4: After she finishes her work, she goes home. (The main clauses “she goes home” follows the SVO syntax. The sub - clause “After she finishes her work” also has a proper syntax with “she” as the subject, “finishes” as the verb, and “her work” as the ob ject. This is used to show the time sequence of events.)3. 进行人物或事物的特征描述时- Example 5: The dog is big and friendly. (Subject - Verb - Complement. “The dog” is the subject, “is” is the verb, and “big and friendly” is the complement, which describes the c haracteristics of the dog. This syntax is used to give details about the subject.)- Example 6: My sister is smart. (Subject - Verb - Complement. “My sister” is the subject, “is” is the linking verb, and “smart” is the complement that describes the quality of the sister.)4. 表达存在关系时- Example 7: There are many flowers in the garden. (The “there be” structure is a special syntax in English to express existence. “There” is the dummy subject, “are” is the verb, and “many flowers” is the real subject. “In the garden” is the prepositional phrase indicating the location.)- Example 8: There is a book on the table. (Similar to the above, “There” is the dummy subject, “is” is the verb, “a book” is the real subject, and “on the table” is the prepositional phrase showing the loc ation.)5. 构建复合句时（以状语从句为例）- Example 9: When it rains, the ground gets wet. (The “When it rains” is an adverbial clause of time, following the subject - verb syntax with “it” as the subject and “rains” as the verb. The main clause “the ground gets wet” also fol lows the subject - verb - complement syntax. This is used to show the causal relationship between the two events.)- Example 10: Because he is ill, he doesn't go to school. (The “Because he is ill” is an adverbial clause of reason, with “he” as the subj ect, “is” as the verb, and “ill” as the complement. The main clause “he doesn't go to school” follows the subject - verb - object - adverbial structure. This is used to explain the reason for the action in the main clause.)三、个人观点Syntax is of fundamental importance in language learning and communication. A correct understanding and application of syntax rules allow us to form clear, accurate, and effective sentences. It serves as the backbone of language construction, enabling speakers and writers to convey their intended meanings precisely. Moreover, different languages may have different syntactic structures, and learning the syntax of a foreign language can help us gain deeper insights into the way that languagefunctions and the cultural background it reflects. However, while syntax provides the framework, it should not be overly rigidly adhered to in creative writing or in some forms of informal communication, where a certain degree of flexibility can add expressiveness and uniqueness to the language use.。
简明语言学教程第4章Syntax
specifier + head + complement
标志语 中心语 补足语
4.4.1.
specifiers 4.4.2. complements 4.4.3. modifiers
标志语
1. Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories. (traditionally, parts of speech)
1. How many word classes do you know about? ① traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun…. ② non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词),
XP rule
X head XP → (specifier) X (complement) a. XP (specifier) X b. X X (complement) XP phrase level X X (head)
specifier
X theory
(X标杆理论)
intermediate level
phrase structure rule: the grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.
SYNTAX评分系统说明
【3】病变不良特征评分
病变不良特征
血管狭窄* —完全闭塞 —有意义的病变（50-99%狭窄） 完全闭塞（TO） —＞3个月或闭塞时间不祥 —钝性残端 —桥侧支 —闭塞后第一可见节段 —边支（SB） —边支＜1.5mm**
—二边支，一支＜1.5mm， 一支≥1.5mm
三叉病变
—1个病变节段 —2个病变节段 —3个病变节段 —4个病变节段 双分叉病变
**如果边支直径为1.5mm，病变不加分，因为会作为分叉病变进行加分
【注释】
注 1：多个前后病变 如果多个前后病变的距离小于 3 个参考血管的直径，可以把它们作为一个病变看待来记分。如果每 个病变的闭塞病变 闭塞病变的长度通过闭塞点和侧枝可见的第一个血管节段来计算。
左优势型
0 0 0 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 6 3.5 2.5 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 2.5 1 1
12b Obtuse marginalb 13 Distal circumflex artery 14 Left posterolateral 14a Left posterolaterala 14b Left posterolateralb 15 Posterior descending
定义 1. 冠脉优势型：a）右优势型：后降支由右冠发出（第 4 节段）b）：左优势型：后降支由左冠发
出（第 15 节段）。在 SYNTAX 评分中无均衡型冠脉的选择。 2. 完全闭塞：TIMI 血流 0 级：在闭塞处无顺行血流。 3. 桥侧支：平行血管的连接近远端的小通道 4. 三分叉病变：三根血管交汇一起，一根主支和 2 根边支。只有下述分支才定义为三分叉病变：
举例 1：
举例 2：
注 3：分叉病变分型 边支血管直径至少 1.5mm 以上才构成分叉病变。采用 Duke 分型法（如下图）。
SYNTAX
Relation of co-occurrence
Words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus in English words of the class man, horse, etc. may be followed by words of the class of eat, live, etc. in short sentences, and usually are so followed, though it is a fallacy to say that all proper sentences must be of this type.
(a) The teacher saw the students. (b) The students saw the teacher.
Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and classifications) to classify languages in the world. SVO VSO Six possible types SOV of language OVS OSV VOS
Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.
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American linguists A. N. Chomsky (1928-)
❖ The traditional approach views a sentence as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation thus involves the study of … of words.
The boy kicked the ball. 可用括号分析层级：词—词组—更大词组—句子；
也可以用tree structure分层级。
more expensive clothes
endocentric constructions向心结构 the books on the shelf head/center
The boy kicked the ball. The ball kicked the boy. The boy the必须满足一些句 法和语义条件。
Paradigmatic (纵聚合) relation is a relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place of a structure.
made up of 2 morphemes: {syn} and {tax}. The former means “_t_o_g_e_t_h_e_r_”, and the latter “_t_o__a_rr_a_n_g_e__”.
❖ In linguistics, Syntax (句法学) is a branch
➢ 1. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation
横组合/纵聚合关系
➢ 2. Immediate constituent (直接成分) analysis
➢ 3. Endocentric/exocentric constructions
向心/离心结构
Syntagmatic (横组合) relation is a relation between elements that occur in a sentence.
The boy chased the dog. woman soldier tiger ……
现场成分与不在现场成 分之间的关系；词只受 句法的限制。
Immediate constituent analysis: A sentence is not only linearly arranged, but also hierarchically (层级) structured. Bloomfield proposed it in 1933.
➢ 1. number (数), gender (性), case (格) ➢ 2. tense (时态), aspect (体), voice (语态) ➢ 3. concord (一致性) and government (支配关系)
❖ This approach was started by the Swiss linguist Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, in the beginning of the 20th century. All the linguistic theories after Saussure are structural in that they all regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.
❖ Since Sentence is regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the centre of grammatical study.
❖ Different linguistics theories first differ in their treatment of sentence structure. 1. the traditional approach (传统学派)； 2. the structure approach (结构主义学派)； 3. the generative approach (生成学派)； 4. the functional approach (功能学派).
exocentric constructions 离心结构 on the shelf
❖ This approach originated in the late 1950s with the American linguist Noam Chomsky, who gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) Grammar. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen several stages of development.
Chapter 4 Syntax
4.1 What is syntax? 4.2 Categories 4.3 Phrase structure rule 4.4 Phrase elements 4.5 Sentences (The S rule) 4.6 Transformations
❖ The word Syntax, derived from Greek, is