会计专业外文文献翻译--中小企业环境成本会计的实施
环境成本【外文翻译】
外文文献翻译译文原文：Environmental CostsToday, the importance of the environment is widely recognized by companies. With an increase in environmental legislation, corporations realize that they have to factor the environment into their everyday management decisions. However, because some corporations are too focused on earnings and financial costs, the impact of their operations on the environment can only be taken into account if it is quantified in dollar terms —this is significant since environmental costs are often grossly underestimated. According to a 2006 Statistic Canada study, Canadian firms are estimated to have spent a total of $8.6 billion on environmental protection, including 44per cent for capital expenditures and 56 per cent for operating expenditures. This underestimation is due to widespread “hidden” costs. In a study published in 2001, U.S. researcher revealed that for every dollar of environmental costs identified as such by companies, there were hidden environmental costs of $10. Companies can’t manage what they can’t measure; therefore, they need to measure their environmental costs in order to manage and reduce them; or perhaps, turn environmental management into a strategic advantage.What to include in environmental costsThe first challenge is how to define environmental costs. One solution is to use a classification developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1995. This classification makes a distinction between internal costs (borne by a company) and external costs (assumed by society as a whole, but generated by the company’s operations). Internal costs include conventional costs (e.g., direct and indirect materials, energy, etc.), potentially hidden costs (e.g., site investigation and preparation, audit, disclosure of information, follow-up of data, etc.), potential costs (e.g., penalties, fines, legal fees, etc.) and costs related to corporate image and relationships (e.g., reputation, campaign to influence perceptions, etc.). Moreover, external costs refer to environ mental degradation and to adverse impacts forhumanbeings, their property and their welfare. There is a debate about whether or not external costs should be part of corpora cost management. However, more stringent regulations in terms of environmental liability are increasingly internalizing costs that have heretofore been considered external. This distinction between internal and external costs is crucial to measuring environmental costs.Life-cycle costing, environmental balance, full-cost accounting, total-cost accounting and activity-based costing are costing methods used by companies. These methods are not mutually exclusive and a number of parameters are common to several methods.Life-cycle costingLife-cycle costing is based on a more global approach of life-cycle analysis. There are two major methods based on a product’s life cycle, e.g. from research and development to disposal (the “cradle to grave” approach) or its reuse/ recycling by the producer (the “cradle to cradle” or C2C approach), tak ing into account factors such as transportation. Life-cycle analysis, a method recognized by ISO 14000 standards, consists in analyzing each and every flow of input and output materials for each product. More specifically, in environmental terms, this approach analyzes the actual and potential impacts of these flows on the environment. As such, it includes three stages: (i) an inventory of all flows related to energy, water, raw materials, air and emissions; (ii) a follow-up of the qualitative or quantitative measure of the induced environmental impact; and (iii) an interpretation of the results and an assessment of opportunities for reducing environmental impacts. This approach only makes it possible to include environmental impacts, and not environmental costs.Life-cycle costing recognizes the environmental costs generated by a company throughout a product’s life cycle, using two types of analysis jointly (on a weighted or unweighted basis) or individually: (i) the financial life-cycle cost that discounts monetary impacts from the environment to the firm, and (ii) the environmental life-cycle cost that monetizes all environmental impacts that were identified during the life-cycle analysis, e.g., impaired resources. Life-cycle costing demonstrates that costs can be several times higher than investments over a product’s life cycle. Thismakes life-cycle costing especially relevant for products with a long lifespan or with relatively high operating costs, such as real estate and highways. In addition, the discounting of costs, e.g. the recognition of time, makes it possible to compare the costs of two products. However, this advantage may also be the main drawback of this method, as it raises the problem of correctly planning for future costs and selecting an appropriate discount rate. In fact, discounting specific environmental costs is controversial, since environmental impacts increase over time. It is therefore not unusual for costs to be nil today, but exceedingly high a few years from now, which is contrary to the very principle of discounting. Accordingly, discounting environmental costs could lead to minimizing financial interest for projects that reduce future environmental costs.Moreover, these two methods raise the same problem of uncertainty as to future repercussions. It may be a good idea to use sensitivity analyses, scenarios, and ranges to allow for the probability that certain contingencies will occur. A more meaningful restriction relates to the fact that these methods exclude consideration of all types of costs. Intangible costs, including those driven by relations with stakeholders, are not considered, nor are contingent costs, since it is not easy to relate such costs to a specific phase in the life-cycle of a product, making it highly improbable that they will be included in life cycle methods.Environmental balanceThe environmental balance method consists in identifying, and then measuring, the flows of inputs and outputs of a firm, a service, a process or a product in terms of energy, water, materials, waste or emissions. It can therefore be used at the inventory stage of the life-cycle analysis or as an initial step of many other methods. The underlying assumption of this method is based on the law of conservation of thermodynamic masses—total inputs are by definition equal to total outputs plus the net accumulation of materials in the system. All inputs become outputs, hence the term “balance.” The part of a flow that actually goes into the production of goods can be used to indicate the percentage loss of materials and, accordingly, the opportunities to improve the production process. Similarly, a large number ofenvironmental performance indicators can be determined from the data produced by an environmental balance. Traditionally, an environmental balance is performed in physical, non-monetary terms (kilograms, kilowatts, etc.). Moreover, a sub-category of environmental balance, called material flow analysis (MFA), allows a company to include an allocation stage of flows to each of its various products.Two major criticisms have been levelled at the environmental balance method. First, its input/output analyses fail to measure environmental impacts, as they relate strictly to a company’s use of natural resources without regard to their valu e for the environment. The second major criticism is that this method fails to provide monetary information. However, the value of flows could be estimated in monetary terms if required. In addition, the environmental balance is generally used only as a prerequisite to the use of other methods.Full-cost accountingThe full cost represents an allocation of all costs to a product (materials, labour, overhead, etc.) including potential and actual environmental costs. With this approach, it is possible to obtain enhanced operational knowledge and to select products with a lower cost (whether it be environmental or not). However, in environmental terms, full cost often refers to a consideration of the monetary value of external costs. This raises the problem of how complex it is to monetize the cost of externalities.Total-cost assessmentThe total-cost assessment method, developed by the Tellus Institute, is similar to full-cost accounting. Whereas the latter approach is generally used to measure the cost of products, total-cost assessment is often carried out to measure the cost of capital investments. Additionally, the classification of costs used for a total-cost assessment requires the identification of costs that are specifically related to the environment. The full-cost accounting method deals with all of the costs related to a product, and does not require that environmental costs be identified.The major advantage of total-cost assessment is that it includes more of the costs relating to a capital investment or a product than life-cycle costing, e.g. intangible and contingent costs, while still taking the entire life cycle into account. Thus, it measuresdirect and indirect costs, contingent and intangible costs with due consideration for risks and, accordingly, the related probabilities that they will occur. In addition, external costs can be included in a total-cost assessment, and this method can be applied simply by using software containing a database to assess external costs related to pollutants and compute them according to the probability that they will occur. Activity-based costingOne of the primary problems with measuring and managing environmental costs is related to the allocation of such costs to the activities or products that generated them. In fact, many companies treat environmental costs as overhead and don’t identify them as related to the environment, which contributes heavily to the underestimation of environmental costs. Activity-based costing can therefore enable a firm to allocate environmental costs to activities, and then to products, overcoming any inaccuracies related to their inclusion in overhead. It should be noted, though, that using this approach requires the prior identification of environmental costs. Activity-based costing can be used the traditional way or by inserting an “environmental” driver to allocate environmental costs either to activities first and products second, or from an “environmental” activity to the products that generate the costs.How to measure external environmental costsAlthough there are several methods to measure external costs, the three major methods are: 1) control costs, 2) restoration costs and 3) damage costs.1) Control costsThe underlying assumption for this method is that the cost of environmental impacts (including pollution) for a company would be equal to the cost of installing, operating and maintaining technologies that might have enabled the company to avoid such damage to the environment. The logic is based on marginal cost, e.g. the cost of an additional unit of damage is estimated by the cost that the company would have been required to spend to avoid such damage. This is the most simple method of measuring external costs, and the easiest to justify, as it generates the cost that a company would actually have incurred to avoid the production of externalities or thatit will incur in future should regulations require it to reduce the damage that it causes. One way to obtain these costs is to refer to the costs incurred by businesses in countries where regulations are more stringent or to engineering or environmental consultant studies. However, this method does not really estimate the cost of environmental damages, but rather a theoretical value for the company.2) Restoration costsIt is also possible to estimate externalities based on the cost of restoration or treatment of the damage that has been caused. For instance, when the Exxon Valdez struck a reef in 1989, the 11 million gallons of oil that were spilled generated over $1.25 billion in restoration costs. Still, the applicability of this method is restricted by the lack of data on costs incurred by the company and other firms in the industry.3) Damage costsThis methodology is used to estimate the cost of the damage per se. It includes a number of methods designed to estimate, scientifically or economically, the cost of damages to the environment. The methods include, notably a) the market price method and b) the conditional assessment method.a) Market price method: The cost is equal to the value of similar goods on the market. One example would be the difference in price between two perfectly identical homes, on perfectly identical lots, one of which is polluted. The difference in the selling price of the two homes (and of all other homes in the vicinity) would constitute, under this method, an estimate of the cost of the pollution-related damage. However, the absence of a market for most environmental assets makes this method hard to apply.b) Conditional assessment method: This method implies that an affected population is asked directly how much it would be willing to pay (willingness to pay) or to accept (willingness to avoid) for an improvement or a deterioration in the quality of its environment. The sum of the amounts provided is deemed to represent the cost of the externalities. This method is therefore based on a survey and remains highly subjective.Selecting methods of measurementThere are a large number of differences between these various methods. Indeed, not all of them make it possible to monetize environmental costs or to consider all types of costs. Similarly, some methods only allow for the identification and/or allocation of environmental costs.Environmental costs represent an increasingly large portion of the costs incurred by companies (internal costs) and society as a whole (external costs). Several methods exist to measure the costs incurred by companies, including those based on a product’s life cycle, environmental balance, full-cost accounting, total-cost accounting and activity-based costing. Moreover, the environmental costs borne by society, but related to a company’s operations, can also be taken into consideration using a method such as cost of control, of restoration or of the damage itself. The selection of these methods should be combined with the company’s existing methods to avoid excessive costs that relate to a change in method. A cost-benefit analysis on whether to change or modify a cost-management method should be performed. However, it is important to realize that the measurement and management of environmental costs allow companies to allocate such costs to activities and to the products that generated them and, accordingly, to avoid making non-optimal decisions about selling prices, product mix and capital investment. Similarly, they also enable the company to increase stakeholders’ awareness of the costs incurred by the company and to encourage management and employees alike to reduce environmental costs.Source:Rannou.clemenceHenri,Henri.Jean-Francois. Environmental Costs[J].CMA Management,2010,(84):28-32.译文：环境成本现今，公司环境的重要性被广泛的认可。
成本会计 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 中小企业环境成本会计的实施
成本会计外文翻译外文文献英文文献中小企业环境成本会计的实施IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL COSTACCOUNTING IN SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZEDCOMPANIES1(ENVIRONMENTAL COST ACCOUNTING IN SMESSince its inception some 30 years ago, Environmental Cost Accounting (ECA) has reached a stage of development where individual ECA systemsare separated from the core accounting system based an assessment of environmental costs with (see Fichter et al., 1997, Letmathe and Wagner , 2002).As environmental costs are commonly assessed as overhead costs, neither the older concepts of full costs accounting nor the relatively recent one of direct costing appear to represent an appropriate basisfor the implementation of ECA. Similar to developments in conventional accounting, the theoretical and conceptual sphere of ECA has focused on process-based accounting since the 1990s (see Hallay and Pfriem, 1992, Fischer and Blasius, 1995, BMU/UBA, 1996, Heller et al., 1995, Letmathe, 1998, Spengler and H.hre, 1998).Taking available concepts of ECA into consideration, process-based concepts seem the best option regarding the establishment of ECA (see Heupel and Wendisch , 2002). These concepts, however, have to becontinuously revised to ensure that they work well when applied in small and medium-sized companies.Based on the framework for Environmental Management Accounting presented in Burritt et al. (2002), our concept of ECA focuses on two main groups of environmentally related impacts. These areenvironmentally induced financial effects and company-related effects on environmental systems (see Burritt and Schaltegger, 2000, p.58). Each of these impacts relate to specific categories of financial and environmental information. The environmentally induced financial effects are represented by monetary environmental information and the effects on environmental systems are represented by physical environmental information. Conventional accounting deals with both – monetary as well as physical units – but does notfocus on environmental impact as such. To arrive at a practical solution to the implementation of ECA in a company’s existingaccounting system, and to comply with the problem ofdistinguishing between monetary and physical aspects, an integrated concept is required. As physical information is often the basis for the monetary information (e.g. kilograms of a raw material are the basis for the monetary valuation of raw material consumption), the integration1of this information into the accounting system database is essential. From there, the generation of physical environmental and monetary (environmental) information would in many cases be feasible. For manycompanies, the priority would be monetary (environmental) informationfor use in for instance decisions regarding resource consumptions and investments. The use of ECA in small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) is still relatively rare, so practical examples available in the literature are few and far between. One problem is that the definitions of SMEs vary between countries (see Kosmider, 1993 and Reinemann, 1999). In our work the criteria shown in Table 1 are used to describe small and medium-sized enterprises.Table 1. Criteria of small and medium-sized enterprisesNumber of employees TurnoverUp to 500 employees Turnover up to EUR 50mManagement Organization- Owner-cum-entrepreneur -Divisional organization is rare- Varies from a patriarchal management -Short flow of information stylein traditional companies and teamwork -Strong personal commitment in start-up companies -Instruction and controlling with- Top-down planning in old companies direct personal contact- Delegation is rare- Low level of formality- High flexibilityFinance Personnel- family company -easy to survey number of employees- limited possibilities of financing -wide expertise-high satisfaction of employeesSupply chain Innovation-closely involved in local -high potential of innovationeconomic cycles in special fields- intense relationship with customersand suppliers2Keeping these characteristics in mind, the chosen ECA approachshould be easy to apply, should facilitate the handling of complex structures and at the same time be suited to the special needs of SMEs.Despite their size SMEs are increasingly implementing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems like SAP R/3, Oracle and Peoplesoft. ERP systems support business processes across organizational, temporal and geographical boundaries using one integrated database. The primary use of ERP systems is for planning and controlling production and administration processes of an enterprise. In SMEs however, they are often individually designed and thus not standardized making the integration of for instance software that supports ECA implementation problematic. Examples could be tools like the “eco-ef ficiency” approach ofIMU (2003) or Umberto (2003) because these solutions work with the database of more comprehensive software solutions like SAP, Oracle, Navision or others. Umberto software for example (see Umberto, 2003)would require large investments and great background knowledge of ECA –which is not available in most SMEs.The ECA approach suggested in this chapter is based on anintegrative solution –meaning that an individually developed database is used, and the ECA solution adopted draws on the existing cost accounting procedures in the company. In contrast to other ECA approaches, the aim was to create an accounting system that enables the companies to individually obtain the relevant cost information. The aim of the research was thus to find out what cost information is relevant for the company’s decision on environmental issues andhow to obtain it.2(METHOD FOR IMPLEMENTING ECASetting up an ECA system requires a systematic procedure. Theproject thus developed a method for implementing ECA in the companiesthat participated in the project; this is shown in Figure 1. During the implementation of the project it proved convenient to form a core team assigned with corresponding tasks drawing on employees in various departments. Such a team should consist of one or two persons from the production department as well as two from accounting and corporate environmental issues, if available. Depending on the stage of theproject and kind of inquiry being considered, additional corporate members may be added to the project team to respond to issues such as IT, logistics, warehousing etc.Phase 1: Production Process Visualization3At the beginning, the project team must be briefed thoroughly on the current corporate situation and on the accounting situation. To this end, the existing corporate accounting structure and the related corporate information transfer should be analyzed thoroughly. Following theconcept of an input/output analysis, how materials find their ways into and out of the company is assessed. The next step is to present the flow of material and goods discovered and assessed in a flow model. To ensure the completeness and integrity of such a systematic analysis, any input and output is to be taken into consideration. Only a detailed analysisof material and energy flows from the point they enter the company until they leave it as products, waste, waste water or emissions enables the company to detect cost-saving potentials that at later stages of the project may involve more efficient material use, advanced process reliability and overview, improved capacity loads, reduced wastedisposal costs, better transparency of costs and more reliable assessment of legal issues. As a first approach, simplified corporate flow models, standardized stand-alone models for supplier(s), warehouse and isolated production segments were established and only combinedafter completion. With such standard elements and prototypes defined, a company can readily develop an integrated flow model with production process(es), production lines or a production process as a whole. From the view of later adoption of the existing corporate accounting to ECA,such visualization helps detect, determine, assess and then separate primary from secondary processes.Phase 2: Modification of AccountingIn addition to the visualization of material and energy flows, modeling principal and peripheral corporate processes helps prevent problems involving too high shares of overhead costs on the net product result. The flow model allows processes to be determined directly or at least partially identified as cost drivers. This allows identifying and separating repetitive processing activity with comparably few options from those with more likely ones for potential improvement.By focusing on principal issues of corporate cost priorities and on those costs that have been assessed and assigned to their causes least appropriately so far, corporate procedures such as preparing bids, setting up production machinery, ordering (raw) material and related process parameters such as order positions, setting up cycles of machinery, and order items can be defined accurately. Putting several partial processes with their isolated costs into4context allows principal processes to emerge; these form the basisof process-oriented accounting. Ultimately, the cost drivers of the processes assessed are the actual reference points for assigning and accounting overhead costs. The percentage surcharges on costs such as labor costs are replaced by process parameters measuring efficiency (see Foster and Gupta, 1990).Some corporate processes such as management, controlling and personnel remain inadequately assessed with cost drivers assigned to product-related cost accounting. Therefore, costs of the processes mentioned, irrelevant to the measure of production activity, have to be assessed and surcharged with a conventional percentage.At manufacturing companies participating in the project, computer-integrated manufacturing systems allow a more flexible and scope-oriented production (eco-monies of scope), whereas before only homogenous quantities (of products) could be produced under reasonable economic conditions (economies of scale). ECA inevitably preventseffects of allocation, complexity and digression and becomes a valuable controlling instrument where classical/conventional accounting arrangements systematically fail to facilitate proper decisions.Thus, individually adopted process-based accounting produces potentially valuable information for any kind of decision about internal processing or external sourcing (e.g. make-or-buy decisions).Phase 3: Harmonization of Corporate Data – Compiling andAcquisitionOn the way to a transparent and systematic information system, it is convenient to check core corporate information systems of procurement and logistics, production planning, and waste disposal with reference to their capability to provide the necessary precise figures for the determined material/energy flow model and for previously identified principal and peripheral processes. During the course of the project, afew modifications within existing information systems were, in most cases, sufficient to comply with these requirements; otherwise, a completely new software module would have had to be installed without prior analysis to satisfy the data requirements.Phase 4: Database conceptsWithin the concept of a transparent accounting system, process-based accounting can provide comprehensive and systematic information both on corporate material/ energy flows5and so-called overhead costs. To deliver reliable figures over time, it is essential to integrate a permanent integration of the algorithms discussed above into the corporate information system(s). Such permanent integration and its practical use may be achieved by applying one of three software solutions (see Figure 2).For small companies with specific production processes, anintegrated concept is best suited, i.e. conventional andenvironmental/process-oriented accounting merge together in one common system solution.For medium-sized companies, with already existing integrated production/ accounting platforms, an interface solution to such a system might be suitable. ECA, then, is set up as an independent software module outside the existing corporate ERP system and needs to be fed data continuously. By using identical conventions for inventory-datadefinitions within the ECA software, misinterpretation of data can be avoided.Phase 5: Training and CoachingFor the permanent use of ECA, continuous training of employees onall matters discussed remains essential. To achieve a long-term potential of improved efficiency, the users of ECA applications and systems must be able to continuously detect and integrate corporate process modifications and changes in order to integrate them into ECA and, later, to process them properly.6中小企业环境成本会计的实施一、中小企业的环境成本会计自从成立三十年以来，环境成本会计已经发展到一定阶段，环境会计成本体系已经从以环境成本评估为基础的会计制度核心中分离出来(参考Fichter et al., 1997, Letmathe和 Wagner , 2002)。
环境会计文章翻译
DOI:10.1007/s00267-003-2625-2PROFILEEconomic Values and Corporate Financial StatementsV ANESSA MAGNESSSchool of Business ManagementRyerson University350VictoriaSt.Toronto, Ontario M5B2K3, CanadaABSTRACT/Corporate financial statements do not include environmental values. This deficiency has contributed to the criticism that company managers do not include environmental impacts in the internal decision-making process. The accounting profession has not developed effective environmental reporting guidelines. This situation contributes to a second problem: the apparent inability of corporate reports to provide useful information to external parties. It has been suggested that by using nonmarket valuation methodologies, financial statements can be used to measure progress toward sustainable development. Nonmarket valuations are not generally accepted by the accounting profession. They are too subjective to support effective decisions, and too costly to obtain.Furthermore, demand for this sort of information appears small. Some of these issues may be resolved overtime. The most serious challenge, however, concerns how enhanced financial reports would be used. Financial statements are supposed to help investors assess the amount, timing, and uncertainty of future cash flows. A substantial portion of environmental value is based on nonuse benefits, much of which will never be realized in company cash flows. In other words, the role of financial statements would have to change. Furthermore, since there is no general agreement as to the meaning of “sustainable development,” efforts to operationalize the term have been fraught with difficulty. Moreover, monetization of environmental values could jeopardize their preservation, leaving some to question the overall objective of this form of reporting. For these reasons, while it is to be hoped that better reporting of environmental impacts will be forthcoming, the greatest advances will likely be outside the financial statements themselves.Key words: Environmental accounting; Social responsibility; Social responsibility reportingOne goal of accounting is to secure economic growth by luring investment dollars and labor resources away from low value uses toward higher value ones (Scott1997,Wildavsky1994). Accounting procedures were designed to track and report business activity with this as the overriding objective. There was no theoretical framework, however, providing guidance as to what information company managersshould disclose in financial statements. Initial attempts to develop external reporting theory focused on the needs of a very narrow segment of society: shareholders and creditors. There is a history, however, of company annual reports including nonfinancial disclosures on human resource management, community involvement, and environmental issues. This history gave rise to what is now called “social responsibility acc ounting.”Of all social responsibility issues appearing in financial statements over time, environmental information has been the most persistent. Accounting literature, both early and recent, stresses the need for information externalities (Mobley1970, Estes1972, Ramanathan76, CICA1997) or business impacts that are omitted from accounting records but borne by outside parties, as these may result in future monetary claims against a company. Accounting procedures rely on market-based transactions, however. Given the nonmarket nature of environmental values, the development of a generally accepted disclosure format has been fraught with difficulty. While accounting users draw their information from a variety of sources, not just the financial statements (Ball and Brown 1968), the annual report remains the most common medium for communication for the general users of accounting information (CICA1994), and for financial analysts in particular (Barron and others1999). So if the accounting profession is to maintain its usefulness in the business community, it must compete with these other sources to provide investment related information in a timely and cost-effective manner(Beaver1973,Rockness1985). On the part of the companies themselves, the persistence of environment-related information implies two significant changes in managers’views of the annual corporate report:(1)that they now address a much broader based group of accounting users and(2)that environmental matters warrant a regular place in these reports.This article begins with a review of methods used by economists to quantify environmental values and the impact of business activity upon those values. Company efforts to incorporate these values into the accounting framework for both internal and external decision-making purposes are then discussed. While existing accounting procedures can accommodate such values, these methods raise both theoretical and practical issues for the accounting profession. These issues, and the idea that tailoring financial statements to reflect environmental values could help in the pursuit of sustainable development, are discussed in the following pages.Economic Valuation MethodologiesOne way to assess the value of an environmental resource, such as a park, is the travel cost method (TCM). The TCM uses a regression model to relate the number of visits to a site with the costs associated with those trips. In its crudest form, the TCM measures only the direct costs associated with travel and makes several strict assumptions, the most contentious of which is that time itself has no value. In truth,TC models are sensitive to assumptions concerning time (Bishop and Heberlein 1979, Fletcher and others 1990). However, it is not clear that one way of integrating time into the models is superior to any other (Fletcher and others 1990). Furthermore, the divergence between perceptions of site availability, distance, and cost from actual measures affects the reliability of TC models. Perceptions play a significant role in decision-making (Fletcher and others1990). Economists, however, have tended to work with real measures (Fletcher and others 1990), thus introducing measurement error into the model.Clawson and Knetch (1966) said that once a TC model has been devised to estimate demand for a recreational experience, it is simple to adapt it to measure the value of the resource area itself. However, any problems or errors in the recreational experience model will transfer into the resource value model. Nevertheless the TC method has been used extensively to measure demand for national parks in the United States (Clawson and Knetch 1966). It has also been used to estimate the value of environmental amenities such as the Louisiana wetlands ( Costanza and Wainger 1991) and fishing opportunities in the Adirondacks( Mullen and Menz 1985). Assessments of the environmental impacts on human welfare, such as changes in health, aesthetics, or recreational opportunities, are complicated by the interrelationship of diverse disciplines. For example, an estimation ( in dollars ) of the impact of air pollution on humans depends upon three functional relationships(Freeman1993) involving a combination of scientific and behavioral analyses. These relationships are between:(1) the rate of discharge into the environment, and a change in environmental quality;(2) a change in environmental quality and a change in the flows of environmental services (such as the loss of a clear view or a change in health ); and(3) a change in environmental services and a change in utility.While the travel cost method, with its emphasis on use values, is not sufficiently sensitive to quantify all of these relationships, hedonic pricing (discussed below ), is designed to capture their net effect.The hedonic method estimates the implicit prices of characteristics which differentiate closely related products. For example, if the value of a piece of real estate can be viewed as the discounted stream of costs and benefits associated with its attributes, then a change in any of those attributes, such as local air quality, should be reflected in a change in price. Complications associated with this method pertain to the quality of the data (Freeman 1993). Imprecision in the parameter estimates arises from the inability to mix and match in dependent variables, such as house size and number of rooms (Freeman 1993). Furthermore, the stochastic nature of the measurements creates serious problems with this estimation procedure(Freeman1993).The hedonic approach assumes that individuals have complete information aboutthe asset being valued (Freeman 1993). For example, in the real estate market it is assumed that individuals have complete information about the houses available for sale. In reality, buyers /sellers of houses accept or reject offers as they are received. The seller sets an asking price without knowing if there are buyers who would have paid more, and a buyer makes an offer to purchase, not knowing if the seller would have accepted less. In other words it is incorrect to assume the transaction price reflects the minimum willingness to accept, or the maximum willingness to pay for any of the attributes of the house (Freeman1993).。
环境会计【外文翻译】
外文翻译外文出处Business & Economic Review,2006（4）:21-27外文作者布莱恩.斯坦科，艾琳.布罗根,艾琳,亚历山大,约瑟芬.蔡.梅齐原文：Environmental AccountingHere's why projected cleanup costs from hazardous waste sites will be findingtheir way onto the balance sheets of Corporate America.Monitoring the production and disposal of hazardous waste has been a top priority of the United States government and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) since the mid-1970s, largely as a result of the Love Canal environmental disaster. Unfortunately, the remediation of hazardous waste sites is not finished, and cleanup cost estimates range anywhere between $500 billion and $1 trillion. American corporations will ultimately be held accountable for these costs. What remains to be seen, however, is exactly who, when, and how much.In terms of corporate responsibilities, this article discusses requirements regarding the financial reporting of environmental liabilities and current initiativesthat should improve the measurement and disclosure of these liabilities. Investors and business professionals alike must understand the significance of these obligations asthey relate to current and future corporate financial statements.Financial ReportingFinancial reporting requirements have evolved over time under several governing bodies. The Securities Act of 1934 created the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and gave it the authority to administer federal securities laws and prescribe accounting principles and reporting practices. Companies that are considered under the jurisdiction of the SEC include any company whose stock is publicly traded. As a result, these companies are required to follow SEC disclosure requirements in their filings.The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is responsible for establishing the current standards of financial accounting and reporting. The standards or pronouncements that the FASB issues, "Statements of Financial Accounting Standards" (SFASs), are officially recognized as authoritative by the Securities and Exchange Commission and the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), the national professional organization of CPAs.Until recently, the AICPA played a prominent role in the accounting and reporting environment. But as a result of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the AlCPA's Auditing Standards Board (ASB) was limited in its role of establishing Generally Accepted Auditing Standards. Auditing and related professional practice standards as they pertain to public companies are now established by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), a private-sector, nonprofit corporation created to oversee the auditors of public companies in order to protect the interests of investors and further the public interest in the preparation of informative, fair, and independent audit reports.Evolution of Environmental Accounting StandardsThe common definition of "environmental accounting" is "the identification, measurement, and allocation of environmental costs, the integration of these environmental costs into business decisions, and the subsequent communication of the information to a company's stakeholders" (AICPA).Typical environmental costs include off-site waste disposal costs, cleanup costs, litigation costs, and other related costs.The first accounting standards or interpretation of standards that could be applied to environmental liabilities were enacted by the FASB in 1975 and 1976. These rules covered a generic grouping of contingent liabilities (including environmental liabilities). Initially the FASB stated that contingent liabilities arising from environmental cleanup costs should be accounted for and disclosed according to Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) No. 5, "Accounting for Contingencies" (FASB 1975). One year later, the FASB issued Interpretation (FIN) No. 14, "Reasonable Estimation of the Amount of a Loss" (FASB 1976), offeringadditional guidance regarding loss contingencies. Essentially, the standard required losses to be accrued for when they became "probable and reasonably estimable." SFAS No. 5 is still followed today by accountants who are considering the measurement and disclosure of environmental liabilities.SuperfundPrior to Congress passing legislation granting the EPA authority to identify and sanction Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs), most reported environmental liabilities were minimal. That changed in 1980 when Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), commonly known as the Superfund Act. CERCLA established strict regulatory requirements regarding the release of hazardous substances from existing or future waste sites.Six years later, Congress amended CERCLA with the Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act (SARA).This strengthened the EPA’s authority and increased the agency’s fund balance. Under the new Superfund Act, the EPA became responsible for identifying and listing those locations throughout the United States where hazardous substances or waste either have caused or may cause damage to the environment. The EPA, through administrative or legal action, seeks to require PRPs to accept responsibility for the remediation of contaminated sites.Under CERCLA, a PRP is defined as any individual or company that is potentially responsible for, or contributed to, the contamination problems at a Superfund site. According to Paul D. Hutchinson, this can include:• Current owners or operato rs of facilities where hazardous substances have been deposited• Owners or operators of facilities at the time hazardous substances were deposited• Generators of hazardous substances deposited at facilities• Transporters of hazardous substances to facilities• Persons who arranged for disposal or treatment of hazardous substances at facilitiesOnce the EPA identifies a PRP, a liability-based program is used to address the cleanup of the site. Under the liability-based program, a potentially responsible party is classified into one of three categories:• Strict Liability - the PRP is liable for cleanup costs even when there was no negligence• Joint and Several Liability – any one party can be forced to bear the full cost of the remedy, even if several parties contributed to the waste at a site• Retroactive Liability - the provisions apply to actions that took place before CERCLA was passedAfter the EPA identifies the PRPs and their respective liability, it sends notification to the SEC and the respective companies or individuals.Regulation S-K and FRR 36With the increased environmental regulation, the accounting regulatory bodies began to issue standards regarding the reporting and disclosure of environmental liabilities. In 1982, the SEC integrated all of its environmental disclosure requirements into Regulation S-K, requiring disclosure if pollution expenditures had a material effect on the company's earnings. Regulation S-K Item 101, known as the Description of Business, requires registrants to disclose, among other things, the material effects of complying or failing to comply with environmental requirements on the capital expenditures, earnings, and competitive position of the registrant and its subsidiaries. S-K Item 103 requires registrants to describe any material concerning pending legal proceedings unless the legal proceedings involve ordinary routine litigation incidental to the business. S-K Item 303, often referred to as Management Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, requires the disclosure of environmental contingencies that may reasonably have a material impact on net sales, revenue, or income from continuing operations.In 1989, the SEC provided further guidance by issuing Financial Reporting Release (FRR) 36. FRR 36 discusses and illustrates various disclosure requirements for the Management's Discussion and Analysis (MD&A) component of the SEC annual report 10-K filing and the shareholder annual report.Staff Accounting Bulletin (SAB) 92Even with this increase in regulation, companies were still finding it difficult to estimate liabilities that needed to be disclosed. In response, the SEC issued Staff Accounting Bulletin No.92 (SAB 92) to further clarify its disclosure requirements. SAB 92 specifically discussed the disclosure of environmental liabilities in the balance sheet. The SEC's position on the disclosure of environmental liabilities was strengthened through an agreement with the EPA in 1990. Essentially, the EPA would provide the SEC with certain quarterly information, including names of PRPs, a list of all cases filed under CERCLA, and a list of civil and criminal cases under federal environmental laws. In exchange for this information, the SEC agreed to target the enforcement of environmental disclosures.AICPA Statement of Position 96-1By 1996, the EPA had identified more than 36,000 hazardous waste sites in the United States. The EPA then took what they considered to be the most severe of the contaminated sites and developed the National Priorities List (NPL). This list contained 1,405 sites, each referred to as a Superfund site. From these Superfund sites alone, the EPA proceeded to identify 15,000 PRPs connected to these sites. These PRPs would eventually be responsible for cleanup costs that would range from $35 million to $1 billion per site. The release of this information revealed to the accounting profession that the remedial liabilities of the PRPs were significant and, therefore, required better accounting and disclosure. As a result, the AICPA issued Statement of Position (SOP) 96-1, "Environmental Remediation Liabilities," which provided specific guidance on estimation and the financial reporting of environmental accruals and contingencies.Analysis of the Standards (Past and Present)(A) Recognition of Environmental LiabilitiesRecognition pertains to when a liability should be reported in the financial statements. Contingent liabilities are obligations that are dependent upon the occurrence or nonoccurrence of one or more future events to confirm the amount payable, the payee, the date payable or its existence. The most significant liability thata firm faces in relation to environmental accounting comprises the remediation costs. Remediation costs typically include cleanup costs, litigation costs, and other costs associated with legal compliance.FAS No. 5，mentioned earlier，requires that a provision for a loss contingency be recorded and a liability recognized in financial statements when both of the following conditions are met:• It is probable that an asset has been impaired or a liability has been incurred at the date of the financial statements• The amount of the loss can be reasonably estimatedFASB Interpretation (FIN) No. 14 provides additional guidance on how to recognize a loss contingency when the estimated loss is within a specified range. It recommends that the minimum amount of the range be accrued, unless some amount within the range appears at the time to be a better estimate than any other amount within the range.The AICPA SOP 96-1 expands the types of costs that may be appropriately accrued and the ability to consider technologies under development in order to help assess the ultimate cost of remediation efforts more accurately. PRPs must now use a more conservative approach (increase the probability of loss recognition) than under the prior provisions of SFAS No. 5 to ascertain if they should accrue such liabilities. According to the SOP 96-1, the probability criterion of SFAS No. 5 is met if the EPA has decided (or probably will) that the company must participate in remediation. Liabilities must now be recognized when litigation has commenced or an assertion of a claim is probable whenever the PRP is associated with that site. In addition, PRPs must now accrue potential environmental remediation liabilities "up front," all at once, rather than recognize the expenses when they are actually paid.(B) Accounting for Recognized Environmental LiabilitiesWhen a company has determined that an environmental obligation exists, it must be measured and accounted for based on available information. Key accounting issues related to the recognition of environmental liabilities are highlighted below: Estimates of the Environmental LiabilityAccording to AlCPA's SOP 96-1, once a liability is determined, its magnitude must be estimated. In developing the estimates, according to Kathleen Blackburn Hethcox, Richard Riley, and Jan R. Williams writing in National Public Accountant, the factors below should be considered:• The extent and type of hazardous substances at the site, and the costs to be included in the estimate• The effect of expected future events or developments• The range of technologies that can be used in remediation• The number and financial condition of other PRPs• T he effect of potential recoveriesEarly estimates of loss can be revised later if new information gives cause for a change. The revisions should be accounted for as a change in accounting estimate, thereby only affecting current and future financial reporting. No retroactive restatement of prior year financial statements is allowed under SOP 96-1. The SOP 96-1 also recommends that for various stages of remediation, benchmarks be used to evaluate the extent of the amount that can be estimated. At a minimum, the estimate should be evaluated as each benchmark occurs; which includes identification of the company as a PRP, receipt of a unilateral administrative order requiring a removal action, participation in a remedial investigation (Rl) or feasibility study (FS) as a PRP, completion of a feasibility study, and issuance of a record of decision.Source: Brian B Stanko, Erin Brogan, Erin Alexander, and Josephine Choy-Mee Chay.Environmental Accounting[J]. Buinese & Economic Review, 2006,(4):21-27. 译文：环境会计本文讲述了，为什么从预算有害废物的清除成本可以看出美国公司编制资产负债表的方式。
中小企业财务管理 外文文献翻译
文献出处：Kilonzo JM, Ouma D. Financial Management Practices on growth of Small and Medium Enterprises: A case of Manufacturing Enterprises in Nairobi County, Kenya[J]. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 2015, 17(8): 65-71第一部分为译文，第二部分为原文。
默认格式：中文五号宋体，英文五号Times New Roma，行间距1.5倍。
中小企业财务管理实践：肯尼亚内罗毕县制造业企业案例摘要：中小企业对国内经济社会发展做出了重要贡献。
本研究的目的是确定中小企业采用的财务管理做法及其对增长的影响程度。
本研究的具体目标是确定营运资金管理实践，投资实践，财务计划实践，会计信息系统，财务报告和分析实践对中小企业增长的影响。
内罗毕县记录显示，该县有五万多家小微企业。
肯尼亚制造业协会1999年的基线研究报告（KAM 2009）在肯尼亚记录了745家活跃的制造业中小企业，在内罗毕县有410人。
使用向中小型企业的业主/经理管理的问卷调查，从41家中小企业收集了主要数据。
使用简单的随机抽样技术来选择中小企业。
使用描述性和推论统计分析数据。
研究确定，75％的中小企业出售其产品现金，82％保持现金限额，92％有手动库存登记，35％的企业投资长期资产，45％的企业用内部资金进行商业融资。
55％没有正式的会计制度，74％的会计师没有合格的会计师准备财务报表。
在财务管理实践中，工业化部应引入中小企业能力建设方案。
关键词：中小企业（SME），财务管理实务，内罗毕县中小企业为任何国家的经济和社会发展做出重要贡献。
据国际劳工组织（2008年），日本约有80％的劳动力和德国的50％的工人在中小企业工作。
对于发展中国家，中小企业对乌干达（20％），肯尼亚（19.5％）和尼日利亚（24.5％）的国内生产总值做出了重大贡献。
精编【财务会计管理】企业环境成本会计外文翻译
【财务会计管理】企业环境成本会计外文翻译xxxx年xx月xx日xxxxxxxx集团企业有限公司Please enter your company's name and contentvIMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL COSTACCOUNTING IN SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZEDCOMPANIES1．ENVIRONMENTAL COST ACCOUNTING IN SMESSince its inception some 30 years ago, Environmental Cost Accounting (ECA) has reached a stage of development where individual ECA systems are separated from the core accounting system based an assessment of environmental costs with (see Fichter et al., 1997, Letmathe and Wagner , 2002).As environmental costs are commonly assessed as overhead costs, neither the older concepts of full costs accounting nor the relatively recent one of direct costing appear to represent an appropriate basis for the implementation of ECA. Similar to developments in conventional accounting, the theoretical and conceptual sphere of ECA has focused on process-based accounting since the 1990s (see Hallay and Pfriem, 1992, Fischer and Blasius, 1995, BMU/UBA, 1996, Heller et al., 1995, Letmathe, 1998, Spengler and H.hre, 1998).Taking available concepts of ECA into consideration, process-based concepts seem the best option regarding the establishment of ECA (see Heupel and Wendisch , 2002). These concepts, however, have to be continuously revised to ensure that they work well when applied in small and medium-sized companies.Based on the framework for Environmental Management Accounting presented in Burritt et al. (2002), our concept of ECA focuses on two maingroups of environmentally related impacts. These are environmentally induced financial effects and company-related effects on environmental systems (see Burritt and Schaltegger, 2000, p.58). Each of these impacts relate to specific categories of financial and environmental information. The environmentally induced financial effects are represented by monetary environmental information and the effects on environmental systems are represented by physical environmental information. Conventional accounting deals with both –monetary as well as physical units –but does not focus on environmental impact as such. T o arrive at a practical solution to the implementation of ECA in a company’s existing accounting system, and to comply with the problem of distinguishing between monetary and physical aspects, an integrated concept is required. As physical information is often the basis for the monetary information (e.g. kilograms of a raw material are the basis for the monetary valuation of raw material consumption), the integration of this information into the accounting system database is essential. From there, the generation of physical environmental and monetary (environmental) information would in many cases be feasible. For many companies, the priority would be monetary (environmental) information for use in for instance decisions regarding resource consumptions and investments. The use of ECA in small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) is still relatively rare, so practical examples available in the literature are few and far between. One problem is that the definitions of SMEs vary between countries (see Kosmider, 1993 and Reinemann,1999). In our work the criteria shown in Table 1 are used to describe small and medium-sized enterprises.Table 1. Criteria of small and medium-sized enterprisesNumber of employees TurnoverUp to 500 employees Turnover up to EUR 50mManagement Organization- Owner-cum-entrepreneur -Divisional organization is rare- Varies from a patriarchal management -Short flow of information stylein traditional companies and teamwork -Strong personal commitmentin start-up companies -Instruction and controlling with- Top-down planning in old companies direct personal contact- Delegation is rare- Low level of formality- High flexibilityFinance Personnel- family company -easy to survey number ofemployees- limited possibilities of financing -wide expertise-high satisfaction of employeesSupply chain Innovation-closely involved in local -high potential of innovationeconomic cycles in special fields- intense relationship with customersand suppliersKeeping these characteristics in mind, the chosen ECA approach should be easy to apply, should facilitate the handling of complex structures and at the same time be suited to the special needs of SMEs.Despite their size SMEs are increasingly implementing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems like SAP R/3, Oracle and Peoplesoft. ERP systems support business processes across organizational, temporal and geographical boundaries using one integrated database. The primary use of ERP systems is for planning and controlling production and administration processes of an enterprise. In SMEs however, they are often individually designed and thus not standardized making the integration of for instance software that supports ECA implementation problematic. Examples could be tools like the “eco-efficiency” approach of IMU (2003) or Umberto (2003) because these solutions work with the database of more comprehensive software solutions like SAP, Oracle, Navision or others. Umberto software for example (see Umberto, 2003) would require large investments and great backgroundknowledge of ECA – which is not available in most SMEs.The ECA approach suggested in this chapter is based on an integrative solution –meaning that an individually developed database is used, and the ECA solution adopted draws on the existing cost accounting procedures in the company. In contrast to other ECA approaches, the aim was to create an accounting system that enables the companies to individually obtain the relevant cost information. The aim of the research was thus to find out what cost information is relevant for the company’s decision on environmental issues and how to obtain it.2．METHOD FOR IMPLEMENTING ECASetting up an ECA system requires a systematic procedure. The project thus developed a method for implementing ECA in the companies that participated in the project; this is shown in Figure 1. During the implementation of the project it proved convenient to form a core team assigned with corresponding tasks drawing on employees in various departments. Such a team should consist of one or two persons from the production department as well as two from accounting and corporate environmental issues, if available. Depending on the stage of the project and kind of inquiry being considered, additional corporate members may be added to the project team to respond to issues such as IT, logistics, warehousing etc.Phase 1: Production Process VisualizationAt the beginning, the project team must be briefed thoroughly on thecurrent corporate situation and on the accounting situation. To this end, the existing corporate accounting structure and the related corporate information transfer should be analyzed thoroughly. Following the concept of an input/output analysis, how materials find their ways into and out of the company is assessed. The next step is to present the flow of material and goods discovered and assessed in a flow model. T o ensure the completeness and integrity of such a systematic analysis, any input and output is to be taken into consideration. Only a detailed analysis of material and energy flows from the point they enter the company until they leave it as products, waste, waste water or emissions enables the company to detect cost-saving potentials that at later stages of the project may involve more efficient material use, advanced process reliability and overview, improved capacity loads, reduced waste disposal costs, better transparency of costs and more reliable assessment of legal issues. As a first approach, simplified corporate flow models, standardized stand-alone models for supplier(s), warehouse and isolated production segments were established and only combined after completion. With such standard elements and prototypes defined, a company can readily develop an integrated flow model with production process(es), production lines or a production process as a whole. From the view of later adoption of the existing corporate accounting to ECA, such visualization helps detect, determine, assess and then separate primary from secondary processes.Phase 2: Modification of AccountingIn addition to the visualization of material and energy flows, modeling principal and peripheral corporate processes helps prevent problems involving too high shares of overhead costs on the net product result. The flow model allows processes to be determined directly or at least partially identified as cost drivers. This allows identifying and separating repetitive processing activity with comparably few options from those with more likely ones for potential improvement.By focusing on principal issues of corporate cost priorities and on those costs that have been assessed and assigned to their causes least appropriately so far, corporate procedures such as preparing bids, setting up production machinery, ordering (raw) material and related process parameters such as order positions, setting up cycles of machinery, and order items can be defined accurately. Putting several partial processes with their isolated costs into context allows principal processes to emerge; these form the basis of process-oriented accounting. Ultimately, the cost drivers of the processes assessed are the actual reference points for assigning and accounting overhead costs. The percentage surcharges on costs such as labor costs are replaced by process parameters measuring efficiency (see Foster and Gupta, 1990).Some corporate processes such as management, controlling and personnel remain inadequately assessed with cost drivers assigned to product-related cost accounting. Therefore, costs of the processes mentioned, irrelevant to the measure of production activity, have to be assessed and surcharged with aconventional percentage.At manufacturing companies participating in the project, computer-integrated manufacturing systems allow a more flexible and scope-oriented production (eco-monies of scope), whereas before only homogenous quantities (of products) could be produced under reasonable economic conditions (economies of scale). ECA inevitably prevents effects of allocation, complexity and digression and becomes a valuable controlling instrument where classical/conventional accounting arrangements systematically fail to facilitate proper decisions.Thus, individually adopted process-based accounting produces potentially valuable information for any kind of decision about internal processing or external sourcing (e.g. make-or-buy decisions).Phase 3: Harmonization of Corporate Data – Compiling and Acquisition On the way to a transparent and systematic information system, it is convenient to check core corporate information systems of procurement and logistics, production planning, and waste disposal with reference to their capability to provide the necessary precise figures for the determined material/energy flow model and for previously identified principal and peripheral processes. During the course of the project, a few modifications within existing information systems were, in most cases, sufficient to comply with these requirements; otherwise, a completely new software module would have had to be installed without prior analysis to satisfy the data requirements.Phase 4: Database conceptsWithin the concept of a transparent accounting system, process-based accounting can provide comprehensive and systematic information both on corporate material/ energy flows and so-called overhead costs. To deliver reliable figures over time, it is essential to integrate a permanent integration of the algorithms discussed above into the corporate information system(s). Such permanent integration and its practical use may be achieved by applying one of three software solutions (see Figure 2).For small companies with specific production processes, an integrated concept is best suited, i.e. conventional and environmental/process-oriented accounting merge together in one common system solution.For medium-sized companies, with already existing integrated production/ accounting platforms, an interface solution to such a system might be suitable. ECA, then, is set up as an independent software module outside the existing corporate ERP system and needs to be fed data continuously. By using identical conventions for inventory-data definitions within the ECA software, misinterpretation of data can be avoided.Phase 5: Training and CoachingFor the permanent use of ECA, continuous training of employees on all matters discussed remains essential. T o achieve a long-term potential of improved efficiency, the users of ECA applications and systems must be able to continuously detect and integrate corporate process modifications andchanges in order to integrate them into ECA and, later, to process them properly.中小企业环境成本会计的实施一、中小企业的环境成本会计自从成立三十年以来，环境成本会计已经发展到一定阶段，环境会计成本体系已经从以环境成本评估为基础的会计制度核心中分离出来（参考Fichter et al., 1997, Letmathe 和Wagner , 2002）。
精编【财务会计管理】环境会计方面的外文文献
【财务会计管理】环境会计方面的外文文献xxxx年xx月xx日xxxxxxxx集团企业有限公司Please enter your company's name and contentvEVOLUTION OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT PROGRAMJ. H. MadayT. L. KuusinenOctober 1991Presented at theEnvironmental Auditing ConferenceOctober 22-23, 1991Seattle, WashingtonWork supported bythe U.S. Department of Energyunder Contract DE-ACO6-76RLO 1830Pacific Northwest LaboratoryRichland, Washington 99352DISCLAIMERThis report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States。
Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.Evolution of an Environmental Audit ProgramJoseph H. Maday, Jr. (ASQC-CQA)Technical Group Leader - Quality Verification DepartmentandTapio KuusinenSenior Research ScientistEnvironmental Policy and Compliance GroupPacific Northwest LaboratoryRichland, Washington 99352ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThis document was prepared under the direction of the U.S. Environment Protection Agency’s (EPA)Small Business Division. There were numerous reviewers from government and private organizations.Additionally, the following provided important advice and/or reference materials:* Small Business Ombudsman, Maine Department of Environmental Protection* Tennessee Small Business Assistance Program* New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection* Massachusetts Office of Technical Assistance for Toxics Use Reduction (OTA)* Iowa Waste Reduction Center, University of Northern Iowa* Florida Small Business Assistance ProgramThe products and services included in this document were contributed for review by commercial andgovernment sources. The project team is thankful for their timely cooperation.ABSTRACTInternational and national standards, and in some cases corporate policies require that planned and scheduled audits be performed to verify all aspects of environmental compliance and to determine effective implementation of the environmental management program. An example of this can be found in the definition of auditing as provided by U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Policy Statement on Environmental Auditing. It defines environmental auditing as follows:"Environmental auditing is a systematic, documented, periodic and objective review by regulated entities of facility operations and practices related to meetingenvironmental requirements. Audits can be designed to accomplish any or all of the following: verify compliance with environmental requirements, evaluate the effectiveness of environmental management systems already in place, or assess risksfrom regulated and unregulated materials and practices.Auditing serves as a quality assurance check to help improve the effectiveness of basic environmental management by verifying that management practices are in place, functioning and adequate. ''Many specifications further emphasize that the audit be performed to written procedures or checklists (to provide later documentation) by personnel who do not have direct responsibility for performing the activities being audited. The results of such audits are generally required to be documented, reported to, and reviewed by, responsible management. Follow-up action will be taken where indicated. The responsible organization can then take follow-up action as needed.An effective auditing program is a useful tool for improving environmental compliance. If developed properly, the program will point out areas of weakness and areas ofpotential problems. An auditing program will also identify environmental compliance activities that meet or exceed expectations.At the Pacific Northwest Laboratory(PNL), Environmental Audits used to consist of nontechnical auditors auditing to findings published in General Accounting Office reports. Today's practice of deploying a composite team of technical specialists and nontechncial auditors to audit to specific environmental programmatic requirements provides, we believe, a significant improvement.国际和国家的标准, 而且在一些情形企业的政策需要那计划了的和预定的稽核是运行到查证所有的环境服从的方面和决定环境管理的有效落实计画。
环境会计核算模式研究外文文献翻译最新译文字数3000多字
环境会计核算模式研究外文文献翻译最新译文字数3000多字文献出处：Mount R. Environmental reporting and accounting in Australia: Progress, prospects and research priorities [J]. Science of the T otal Environment, 2015, 7（3）: 338-349.原文The Research of Environmental Accounting ModeMount RAbstractEnvironmental accounting research began in the 1970 s. Bemons wrote the social cost of pollution control research on conversion and marin's article 1973 accounting problems of pollution, has opened the prologue of environmental accounting research. Into the 80 s countries have serious consequences for the environmental pollution, more alert, intuitive understanding, many large multinational companies began to prepare the annual environmental special expense budgets, to solve the problem of environmental protection. In June 1992, the United Nations held a conference on environment and development in Brazil, through the convention on environmental protection, "21st century agenda", will determine the sustainable development as a guide to the common development of the global strategy and action. Was held in March 1995, the international accounting and reporting standard thirteenth session of the intergovernmental expert working group, the main issue is the environment accounting; it marks the environmental problems in the development of the world as a important subject has to depth development.Keywords: Environmental accounting; Measurement; The internalization of external costs. Information disclosure1 IntroductionWith the progress of science and technology, the development of productivity, the surge of population, more and more serious damage to natural, human caused global warming, acid rain, flood, abnormal climate phenomena, such as have constitute a serious threat to human survival and development. These widespread environmental problems derived from the social and economic activities of the whole world, and as the main economic activities of enterprises lack by accounting systemarrangement, etc, necessary constraints, did not effectively take responsibility to society, natural environment pollution. It caused the world attention to people of insight, hope to carry out international cooperation norms and constraints in enterprise production and business operation activities affect the environment resources. Then, in 1998 Geneva, Switzerland, the United Nations international accounting and reporting standard intergovernmental expert working group on the 15th meeting, discuss and passed about environmental accounting and reporting system, complete the international guide - the announcement of the position of environmental accounting and reporting. Out of this guide pointed out the direction for the research of environmental accounting. After that, to solve the problem of environmental accounting, many experts and scholars put forward the view of the environmental accounting system should be established.Environmental accounting system is generally divided into two aspects of macroscopic and microscopic. Macro environment accounting is a social perspective to look at the value of resources and environment and ecological environment balanceproblems. At the same time, the micro environmental accounting as a macro environment accounting support, reflected the enterprise as a member of the society, should assume due to the business activities on the environment pollution caused by the responsibility and obligation. This requires the micro field should reflect the enterprise environment accounting system, adopts appropriate recognition and measurement method, comprehensive, continuous, systematically reflect the enterprise's environmental expenditure and income, and the environmental behavior of enterprises to supervise and analysis of information relevant to the user to provide comprehensive enterprise information, meet the requirements of the public enterprise shall bear the obligation of environmental protection demands.2 The overview of current researchEnvironmental accounting as a new branch of accounting is a combination of environment, environmental economics and development economics, accounting concepts and knowledge. Accordingly, environmental accounting in addition to adhering to the basic principle and basic method of accounting, it at the same time toabsorb and reference to include the environment, environmental economics (and its branch disciplines such as economics and pollution hazards economics, resource economics, ecological economics), in the field of development economics and other disciplines and a series of concepts and methods, on this basis to form a set of environmental accounting theory and method system. Environmental accounting theory and method of system involves the environment accounting hypothesis, accounting target, environment accounting object,etc. Core at the same time, involved in the field of environmental accounting measurement problem, given the environment accounting measurement are different from the traditional accounting, environment accounting measurement basis has the characteristics of multiplicity: opportunity cost, marginal cost and replacement costs can act as environmental accounting measurement basis. In addition, in view of the fuzziness of environmental accounting measurement can be reference to the principle of environmental economics explained; About environmental accounting report, there are two main types: supplementary report mode and independent mode. In addition, about the content of the environmental cost accounting management involves both environmental financial accounting recognition, measurement, and embodies the environmental management accounting cost control, investment decision-making, and the requirements of performance evaluation. Environmental accounting is an important part of implementing sustainable development strategy. Under the concept of sustainable development, the enterprise should be the environmental protection work through to the whole process of production and operation of the enterprise. At the same time, the assessment on the operator's fiduciary duty, should not only consider the economic accountability, should also include the social and environmental accountability.2.1 Environmental accounting research in the United StatesThe research and application of the environmental accounting is in the leading level in the world. This is mainly due to the United States environmental protection agency (hereinafter referred to as the EPA) strong impetus. Under the impetus of the EPA, many research institutions and associationreleased the stakeholders actionagenda: studio of environmental cost accounting and capital budget of a report. The report, for the development of environmental accounting, needs to solve the problem of four centers: (1) the good understanding of related terms and concepts;(2) to create internal and external management incentives;(3) education, guidance and promotion;(4) the development and dissemination of analysis tools, methods and systems. Since then, the EPA environmental accounting project along the direction of theoretical research and practical experience summed up two. In the first, first expounds the significance of environmental accounting, define the basic concepts of environment accounting. Second, EPA within the enterprise environment cost can be divided into traditional costs, hidden costs, or costs, image and public relations costs four categories, in addition to the external social costs. Finally, analyzes how the environment accounting for cost allocation, capital budgeting, process or product design, etc. The EPA argues that successful environmental management system must carry on the measurement of all environmental costs, and applied to a variety of decision-making; In the second aspect, the EPA has obtained results can be further divided into three types: one is the individual case study, to summarize the successful experience of the world's leading enterprises. Two is case set, is mainly the study of some of the same industry company; it is through the field observation and interview, questionnaire survey form a benchmark study. The combination of theory with practice to make the environment more accurately find out the problems existing in the accounting job, determine the direction of further improvement.2.2 South Korea's environmental accountingSince the mid - 1990 - s, South Korean some company began to research environmental accounting. This is mainly originated from South Korea the increased cost of environmental pollution prevention. South Korean company’s pollution p revention and control of cost from 1993 to 1999 at double-digit rate has increased dramatically, which makes the enterprise product cost rising, seriously affected the market competitiveness. On the other hand, due to the government regulation force increasing environmental regulations make financial institutions such as the external creditors more focus on enterprise environmental risk and performance, underpressure to companies to look for cost effective optimization method to improve environmental performance. Based on this, many companies have begun to realize the advance of the importance of environmental management strategy and environmental performance report, but the practice is in its infancy. Environmental accounting practice in order to promote South Korea, South Korea's environment ministry (KMOE) issued a covering the scope of environmental accounting related about "the accounting standards of environmental costs and liabilities" report, the purpose is to provide theoretical basis and the introduction of environmental accounting in South Korea relevant methods, mainly includes the definition of environmental accounting, environmental accounting conceptual framework, and the field environment accounting practices and environmental accounting in South Korea, and other standard draft.3 Environmental accounting theory basisEnvironmental accounting is closely connected withaccounting, the accounting profession of the environmental accounting mainly embodied in environmental accounting as a branch of accounting, the recognition and measurement should be the product of the multi-discipline together, its basic value can be activities to the environment and related economic activity provides reflect and control. Mainly embodied in five aspects:3.1 Environmental accounting is a new branch of accountingHere involves three levels of content: first, the environmental accounting as a branch of enterprise accounting, on the whole reflects the existing enterprise accounting (including financial accounting, management accounting, etc.), the basic principle and basic methods, and only in special cases should be considered the influence of environmental factors; Second, the economic development, the more important accounting, this concept applies not only to environmental accounting, but also in the environmental accounting factors coordination, balance social interests, enterprise and play an important role in environmental effects; Third, environment accounting is aimed at companies, administrative institution of environmental effect and influence is relatively small, or only play the role of enterprises andenvironmental work, so in the future a period of administrative institutions to establish the necessity of environmental accounting is low. This from another Angle, interpretation of environmental accounting is a branch of accounting.3.2 Environmental accounting is the product of the combination of interdisciplinary developmentEnvironmental accounting is the environment, environmental economics and development economics, theproduct of the combination of accounting. Accordingly, environmental accounting in addition to adhering to the basic principle and basic method of accounting, it at the same time to absorb and reference to include the environment, environmental economics (and its branch disciplines such as economics and pollution hazards economics, resource economics, ecological economics), in the field of development economics and other disciplines and a series of concepts and methods, on this basis to form a set of environmental accounting theory and method system.3.3 Environmental accounting to make the scope of the accounting entity is broaderEnvironmental accounting and financial accounting is the same need to consider the concept of accounting entity. This due to the accounting entity concept as the main body of accounting in the enterprises, to undertake the rights and obligations of assets and liabilities. For environmental accounting, the body is not just a for-profit economic organization, and should be considered a social unit and link in the total system, need a certain amount of social responsibility, and environmental accounting entity concept is beyond the scope of general enterprise accounting entity and should as far as possible from the perspective of social and environmental control of the enterprise the management activities. Otherwise, environmental accounting will be established. At the same time, the accounting should not only on the enterprise's economic benefit, but also examine environmental benefits as well as the reflection of the enterprise the combination of two kinds of benefits, which is reflected in the environmental accounting measurement model selection. Concrete embodiment in should adopt the method ofmonetary measurement, and to use the real measurement. In the monetary measurement should not only use the strong historical cost, reliabilityand need to consider the adoption of other measurement model.译文环境会计核算模式研究作者：Mount R摘要环境会计的研究始于70 年代。
英文文献翻译 绿色会计成本的措施
绿色会计成本的措施摘要在过去，大型公司和中小企业的环境问题往往是被忽略的。
然而，在最近的几年，环境会计或简称“绿色会计”秉承着越来越多的关注。
许多企业，尤其是中小型企业（中小企业）现在对“绿色”感兴趣，许多投资者将环境责任看成是高价值的。
从业务和管理的变化看，许多环境成本能够显著减少或消除作为业务的决策，从而投资于更环保的工艺技术中，然后重新设计流程。
工业和绿色运动正朝着倾斜可持续发展的关键概念达成共识。
更好的自然资源和绿色帐目会为环境与经济之间的相互作用提供有价值的见解。
然而，在组织实施绿色会计，由于某种原因导致抵抗，如缺乏意识，缺乏道德教育，忽视等，如在马来西亚的中小企业。
本文重点围绕企业绿色会计在财务报告的问题进行研究。
本文的主要目的是勾勒出一套在环境管理会计事务所的制度和加以解决绿色会计的措施。
关键词：绿色会计;环境会计;绿色成本;马来西亚的中小企业1.引言绿色会计是有关环境信息和环境生态审计制度，并已被定义为“识别，跟踪，分析和重新移植的材料和成本与组织的环境因素有关的信息。
绿色会计是比较新的和发展的领域。
然而，马来西亚的绿色会计被认为是处于起步阶段，因为，绿色会计的组织，由于某种原因导致抵抗性，如缺乏认识，缺乏绿色和道德教育的忽视，等等，如中小企业在马来西亚的实施。
绿色会计处理有关的环境和社会影响的会计和管理问题，规定和限制，安全，环保和经济上可行的能源生产和供应。
绿色会计的首要任务是解决社会环境问题，并可能对实现在任何国家的可持续发展和环境，影响了公司在面对社会和环境责任问题行为的因素。
国际会计师联合会将绿色会计环境定义为“通过适当的环境相关的会计制度和办法的制定和实施管理的经济绩效，虽然这可能包括报告和审计的一些企业，绿色交流计数通常会涉及到生命周期成本，全成本核算，效益评估和环境管理战略规划”。
此外，联合国可持续发展司强调，绿色会计系统产生的信息用于内部决策，这种信息可以是物质的或货币的焦点。
中小企业会计准则的应用外文文献翻译中英文
中小企业会计准则的应用外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Nerudova D, Bohusova H. The application of an accounting standard for SMEs[J]. International Journal of Liability & Scientific Enquiry, 2009, 2(2):233-246.英文原文The application of an accounting standard for SMEsDanuse Nerudova and Hana BohusovaAbstractSmall and medium-sized companies have a very important position in the European Union (EU) economy, mainly in the area of employment. Their activities in the internal market are limited by a great deal of obstacles. The most important obstacles are the different national accounting and tax systems. At present, it is obvious that a certain degree of accounting and tax harmonization has to take place. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) for Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) is designed to apply to the general-purpose harmonized financial statements of all profit-oriented SMEs. General-purpose financial statements are directed toward the common information needs (an entity’s financial position, performance, cash flow) of a wide range of users (shareholders, creditors,employees). Determining taxable income requires special-purpose financial statements designed to comply with the tax laws and regulations in a particular jurisdiction. An entity taxable income is defined by the laws and regulations of the country or other jurisdictions in which it is domiciled. Tax authorities are also important external users of the financial statements of SMEs. Profit or loss recognized under IFRS for SMEs could be a starting point for determining taxable income. Keywords: small- and medium-sized enterprises; SMEs; taxable income; International Financial Reporting Standards; IFRS; cash flow; tax; accounting.1 IntroductionSmall- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) comprise a substantial part of thecompanies operating in the European Union (EU) member states. Based on the latest statistics, there are 25 million SMEsoperating in 27 member states, which represent 234 D. Nerudováand H. Bohušov á99% of all business. These companies create more than 100 million jobs in the EU (Eurostat, 2003). In some industry sectors, such as textiles or construction, they even create more than 75% of the jobs. SMEs are considered the key factor of economic growth and employment in the EU. Therefore, they have received a great deal of attention in the EU in the last ten years. The structure of the EU 25 businesseconomy by the number of persons employed is shown in Table.There are 988 787 SMEs (with less than 250 employees), which represent 99.81% of all the enterprises operating in the Czech market (Czech Statistical Office, 2003). SMEs employ 1 961 000 people, which represent a 62.21% share of the total employment in the Czech Republic. The share is even 80% higher than the other sectors of the national economy –agriculture 85% and restaurant services 89.34%. For this reason, SMEs also play a very important role in the Czech Republic not only in the area of employment, but also in the economy as a whole.The increase in the importance of SMEs in the EU economy has propelled the European Commission to commission several studies, such as COM (2001)582 final and COM (2005)532 final in this area. These studies have dealt with the SMEs’position in the internal market and have identified the obstacles which these types of enterprises face while operating in the internal market. The existence of obstacles mainly in the form of 25 different accounting and tax systems, which generate disproportionate high compliance costs for SMEs (in comparison with large enterprises), is the reason why SMEs are less involved in cross-border activities and operate less in the internal market in comparison with large enterprises. The studies have revealed that SMEs operate mainly in the domestic (national) markets. It seems that in today’s globalised world, a higher involvement of SMEs in cross-borderactivities and its higher operation on the internal market could bring an increase in their competitiveness and performance, which would remarkably influence the economy and growth of the EU as a whole.The aims of the paper are to evaluate the Exposure Draft (ED) of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) for SMEs and design some modifications of SME financial reporting harmonization. The theoretical background of the paper presents the objectives of SME financial reporting harmonization and the efforts of the European Commission to harmonies the area of corporate taxation and introduce the recommended taxation models of EU companies. This paper contains a research on the implementation used in harmonising SME financial reporting. The full IFRS is transformed for SMEs by the simplification of some standards and by the omission of irrelevant standards. Finally, the paper summarises the results of the research and suggests alternative solutions.2 The characteristics of SMEsThe application of an accounting standard for SMEs 235 At present, various definitions which have been developed for application in different countries can be found. The criteria often used for classifying enterprises are turnover, the number of employees, capital base, profits, etc. Whether an enterprise appears to be large, medium or small differs widely across the countries and depends on their degree of development and the generalscale of economic activity.1 According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2005), the characteristics of SMEs reflect not only economic, but also the cultural and social dimensions of a country. The paper uses the definition of SMEs which has been introduced in the EU by the adoption of the Commission There is at present relatively little cross-country experience with generalised approaches to SMEs’taxation and accounting. On the other hand, there are available literature on the challenges faced in designing tax regimes for SMEs. Different accounting and tax systems which trigger high compliance costs represent the barrier for SMEs wishing to take part in cross-border activities in the EU.The efforts to unify the accounting systems of the EU member states are connected with the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) –the harmonisation of accounting and taxes is confirmed in the Treaty of Rome signed in 1957. The aim was to coordinate the protective rules of companies not only in the interest of shareholders and third parties (creditors, employees), but also in the interest of equal competitive conditions and equal business relations in the member states.The first harmonisation efforts in the area of accounting were accomplished by the adoption of directives (Fourth Directive No. 78/660/EEC, Seventh Directive No. 83/349/EEC and Eighth Directive No.84/253/EEC). They create the code of EU accounting legislation and represent the basic harmonisation tool of the European Commission. These directives comprise elements from the continental legal system typified by Germany or France, as well as the elements from the Anglo-Saxon system. Both approaches differ mainly in the area of financial statements’arrangements.The most important directive in the area of accounting is represented by the fourth directive, which concerns the financial statements of large and medium-sized capital companies. The directive reflects the compromises between the continental and Anglo-Saxon approaches –the structure and form of financial statements are variable and its final form is left to national competence.Since the 1970s, the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) has played a very important role in the area of accounting harmonisation. The IASC was followed in 2001 by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), which was asked to create unified International Accounting Standards (IAS) and later, the IFRS.The efforts to harmonise taxation systems for SMEs within the EU have started mainly in 2001, when the European Commission introduced the green paper which surveyed the tax obstacles for the companies in the internal market. Until that time, the European Commission was always trying to harmonise or coordinate the system of direct taxation in generalwithout any special emphasis on SMEs. After the publication of the abovementioned study in 2001, the European Commission suggested four possible models of corporate tax harmonisation.2 One of them –Home State Taxation (HST) –was aimed at SMEs. Under that system, the companies will use for the taxation of their European activities the rules which are valid in the country where the company has a seat or headquarters. HST is voluntary –companies could opt to use domestic taxation rules or not.The model does not represent harmonisation, for under this system, 27 different national taxation systems, would still exist. The application of the model could also increase tax competition in order to attract the companies that would tax their profits from the European activities in the country. The European Commission has prepared the pilot project, under which the model should be tested for five years in selected countries. However, no member state applied to participate; therefore, the Commission turned its attention to a second model –the Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (CCCTB). At present, the CCCTB represents the priority of the European Commission –the draft of the CCCTB directive should be finished by the end of 2008. The problem is that the model is mainly aimed at large companies and will probably not be reachable for SMEs (for details, see Nerudová, 2007).At present, the directives connected with accounting are undergoingthe revision. The aims are to adopt the directives to the requirements connected with the internalisation of the business environment and harmonise the directives with IFRS. In 2003, Directive No. 2003/51/EC was adopted, which enables the member states which do not apply IAS/IFRS on all companies to use the similar financial reporting systems.The situation in the area of accounting harmonisation is solved for large companies listed on the world stock markets. SMEs have a legal obligation to prepare financial statements in accordance with a set of accounting principles accepted in their country. Those statements are available to creditors, suppliers and the government in their country, but they could be difficult to understand for creditors, suppliers and those in other countries.The financial statements of SMEs that are comparable from one country to the next are needed for the following reasons. Firstly, financial institutions make loans across borders and operate on a multinational level. Secondly, vendors want to evaluate the financial health of buzzers in other countries before they sell goods or services on credit. Credit rating agencies try to develop ratings uniformly across borders. Furthermore, many SMEs have overseas suppliers and use a supplier’s financial statement to assess the prospects of a viable long-term business relationship. V enture capital firms also provide funding to SMEs across borders.Many SMEs have external investors who are not involved in the day-to-day management of the entity. Global accounting standards for general-purpose financial statements and the resulting comparability are especially important when those external investors are located in a different jurisdiction from the entity and when they have interests in other SMEs. Moreover, global standards also improve the consistency in audit quality and facilitate education and training. On the other hand, good accounting and more disclosures add to SMEs’burdens rather than reduce them; SMEs are also often concerned about the competitive harmfulness of greater transparency.The benefit of global financial reporting standards is not limited to enterprises whose securities are traded in public capital markets. SMEs –and those who use their financial statements –can benefit from a common set of accounting standards different from full IFRS. Users may have less interest in some information in general-purpose financial statements prepared in accordance with full IFRS than the users of financial statements of publicly traded entities (users of the financial statements of SMEs may have greater interest in short-term cash flows, liquidity, balance sheet strength and interest coverage or they may need some information that is not ordinarily presented in the financial statement of publicly traded companies).The differences between full IFRS and IFRS for SMEs must bedetermined on the basis of users’needs and cost-benefit analyses as quotes (Bohušová, 2007). There can be found different attitudes to the introduction of standards for SMEs in accounting theory. As stated by Březinová(2004), it is very important to consider who the users of financial statements are while making the decision about the application of accounting standards for SMEs. Also, V eerle (2005) and Street and Larson (2004) were in opposition to SMEs’accounting harmonisation based on full IFRS, which is applied in Malta, Cyprus or Croatia (mainly because of the different needs of users of the information from the financial statements). With quotes (Březinová, 2004), the basic problem is the approaches to the valuation methods used by IFRS for companies which are not the subjects of public interest. The philosophy of IFRS is primarily to provide the information for financial investors and supervising institutions while the standards for SMEs (which are not the subjects of public interest) should reflect the needs of different accounting information users (owners, managers, state, tax authorities, insurance companies, creditors, etc.). On the contrary, Haller (2002) asked whether the size of the enterprise is the reason for the application of different methodical approaches to financial statements. Furthermore, Oberreiter (2005) expressed doubt about the harmonisation of the standards for SMEs mainly because of its local character. According to the author, SMEs lack the ambition to become large or listed companies.He suggested different approaches to the individual SMEs.3 BackgroundSince 2004, the IASB has been working on a project to develop accounting standards suitable for enterprises that are not obliged to prepare financial statements in accordance with IAS/IFRS. In June 2004, the discussion paper Preliminary Views on Accounting Standards for SMEs was published. The responses (120 responses) to the discussion paper showed a clear demand for an IFRS for SMEs and the preference to adopt the IFRS for SMEs rather than locally or regionally developed standards. Based on the responses to the discussion paper, the enterprises which should prepare their financial statements in accordance with IFRS for SMEs were defined. They were defined by the IASB as enterprises that either do not have public accountability or publish general-purpose financial statements for external users.The IASB definition of SMEs does not include quantified size criteria for determining what a small or medium-sized entity is because those standards could be used in over 100 countries (from the reasons already mentioned). It is not feasible to develop a quantified test that would be applicable and long-lasting in all of those countries. In deciding which entities should be required or permitted to use the IFRS for SMEs, jurisdiction may prescribe the quantified size criteria in a particular country. Despite this fact, the IASB approach focuses on ‘the typicalSME’with about 50 employees. It is a quantified size test for defining SMEs, but rather, for helping it decide the kind of transactions, events and conditions that should be explicitly addressed in the IFRS for SMEs.中文译文中小企业会计准则的应用Danuse Nerudova和Hana Bohusova摘要中小企业在欧盟经济中占有非常重要的地位，主要集中在就业领域。
关于会计的英文文献原文(带中文翻译)
The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be re placed by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.I.. INTRODUCTIONBased on international-accounting-convergence approach, the Ministry of Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the International Financial Reporting Standards (hereinafter referred to as “the International Standards”) for reference. The Enterprise Accounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively. The objective of accounting reformation following-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advanced theory for reference, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thorough evaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards, this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of accounting regulations.II. OPTIMIZA TION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTA TIONAs an important management activity, accounting should make use of information systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic management and macro-economic regulation at the same time. Optimization of financial statements system should try to take all aspects of the demands of the financial statements in both macro and micro level into account.Why do companies need to prepare financial statements? Whose demands should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questions are basic issues we should consider on the optimization of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evidence are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". From the perspective of "private interest", security investors and financial regulatory authoritieshope that financial statements reflect changes of market prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is the origin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statements can be compatible with these two different views and balance the public interest and private interest? To solve this problem, we design a new balance sheet and an income statement.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are introduced into China's accounting practices from international accounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives enriched the understanding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and standard-setters are also aware that International Standards are still in the process of developing .The purpose of proposing new formats of financial statements in this paper is to push forward the accounting reform into a deeper level on the basis of international convergence.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the financial statements are able to maintain their stability? It is necessary to mobilize the initiatives of both supply-side and demand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial statements could meet the demands of the macro-economic regulation and business administration, and whether they are popular with millions of accountants.Accountants are responsible for preparing financial statements and auditors are responsible for auditing. They will benefit from the implementation of the new financial statements.Firstly, for the accountants, under the isolated design of historical cost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Accounting process will not need assets impairment and fair value any longer. Accounting books will not record impairment and appreciation of assets any longer, for the historical cost accounting is comprehensively implemented. Fair value information will be recorded in accordance with assessment only at the balance sheet date and only in the annual financial statements. Historical cost accounting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustment. Accountants will not need to calculate the deferred income tax expense any longer, and the profit-after-tax in the solid line table is acknowledged by the Company Law, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not need to record the fair value information needed by security investors in the accounting books; instead, they only need to list the fair value information at the balance sheet date. In addition, because the data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of accountants can be well controlled. Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced, and the auditors’ review process will be greatly simplified. The independent auditors will not have to bear the considerable legal risk for the dotted-line table they audit, because the risk of fair value information has been prompted as "not supported by legalevidences". Accountants and auditors can quickly adapt to this financial statements system, without the need of training. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve management efficiency. Surveys show that the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of accounting and auditing have been substantially reduced, therefore, the total expenses for auditing and evaluation will not exceed current level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and demand-side, the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of financial statements, without increase the burden of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core concept of fair value is to make financial statements reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the current International Standards do not implement this concept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. China's accounting academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already introduced a mixed-attributes model into corporate financial statements.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we can balance public interests and private interests and can redesign the financial statements system with enhancing management efficiency and implementing higher-level laws as main objective. By presenting fair value and historical cost in one set of financial statements at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books according to domestic laws, but also meet the demand from financial regulatory authorities and security investorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial statements system which not only meets the domestic needs, but also converges with the International Standards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。
中小企业财务管理外文翻译文献
文献信息：文献标题：Strengths and Weaknesses among Malaysian SMEs: Financial Management Perspectives（马来西亚中小企业的优势和劣势：财务管理视角）国外作者：Norasikin Salikin，Norailis Ab Wahab，Izlawanie Muhammad 文献出处：《Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences》,2014, 129:334-340字数统计：英文1918单词，10677字符；中文3291汉字外文文献：Strengths and Weaknesses among Malaysian SMEs:Financial Management PerspectivesAbstract In Malaysia, 97.3% of business establishments are comprised of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) which account for about 52.7% of total employment that is generated in the country. Malaysian government through the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) and its agencies works hard on assisting SMEs through various activities to promote exposures on prudent financial management. This paper aims to identify the financial strengths and weaknesses face by SMEs in helping those entities to plan appropriate financial management programme. Semi- structured interviews were conducted among thirty five SMEs that are willing to participate voluntarily. This study found that capital is the key elements in both strengths and weakness among SMEs. Running the business without any external capital (loan) reducing the financial risk of the business. It will be easier for the managers to make business decisions without any constraint as there is no limitation set by fund provider. The study also revealed capital insufficiency is the crucial problems among SMEs which might due to the difficulties to obtain external fund. Although the results should be taken with caution, nevertheless financialmanagement is vital in order to face new business challenges as well as for the survival of the business in the future.Keywords: Small Medium Enterprises; SMEs; Financial Management1.IntroductionSmall and medium enterprises (SMEs) play important roles in Malaysian economy. Report of Malaysia Economic Census 2011 showed that there were 645,136 SMEs operating in Malaysia, representing 97.3 per cent of total business establishments. Furthermore, SMEs employed about 3.7 million out of a total of 7.0 million workers amounting 52.7 per cent of total employment in the country. With a total share of gross output reached 28.5 per cent in year 2011 as compared to only22.2 per cent in year 2000 it shows that the roles are getting significant.A considerable amount of literature has been published on the management issues of SMEs. On the other hand only few studies were focusing on the financial management, especially in developing countries although it has been known that, financial management plays crucial function in business management. Report on case study conducted by Bank Negara Malaysia (2003) on SMEs, suggested that one of the key elements SMEs should adopt to survive for a long term, in a global environment is prudent financial management. It will ensure that all the available business resources are used efficiently and effectively to provide optimum return (SME Corporation Malaysia, 2011).The aim of this paper is to identify the strengths and weaknesses face by Malaysian SMEs in term of financial management.2.SMEs Definition in MalaysiaThere is no solid meaning of SMEs as different countries are using different definition due to several demographic factors and characteristics including size, location, structure, age, number of employees, sales volume, ownership through innovation and technology (Zeinalnezhad et. al, 2011). Based on employees number and total turnover, Malaysia adopts slightly similar definition as being use by UnitedKingdom, United States of America, Japan, China and Korea (Norailis, 2013).Previously Malaysian SMEs were defined as firms with sales turnover not exceeding RM25 million or employment not exceeding 150 workers for manufacturing and sales turnover not exceeding RM5 million or employment not exceeding 50 workers for services and other sectors. As the economy has change and the business trends are moving abroad. On 11th July 2013, Malaysian Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak announced the new criteria of SMEs which will be effective on 1st January 2014. Table 1 shows the new classification of SMEs.The new definition is more comprehensive, covering all sectors of the economy including construction, as well as mining and quarrying sectors. It is expected to result in more firms being classified as SMEs to 98.5 per cent (currently: 97.3 per cent), particularly from the services sector to facilitate the country’s transformation to a high income nation through the initiatives under the SME Masterplan. In year 2013, a total of 155 programmes have been planned for the implementation with a financial commitment of RM18.4 billion, expecting to benefit 467,838 SMEs.With all the facilities provided by the government, SMEs should grab these opportunities to expand the businesses. However, the managers need to be equipped with latest knowledge and management skills to successfully manage their businesses in current business environment and stiff competition (Mohd. Amy Azhar, Harizal, & Hoe, 2010). In view of the fact that many entrepreneurs in Malaysia manage their business themselves without formal education background it lead to various management problems (Mohd Amy Azhar et al., 2010). One of the most common problems face by SMEs is financial management problem (Hashim & Wafa, 2002).3.Financial Management of SMEsFinancial management is concerning with the creation and maintenance of economic value or wealth (Titman et.al, 2011). It involves decisions to accumulate and preserve wealth of the business. Generally it covers the decision making process in several areas such as determining the source of finance and dividend policy, investment decisions and working capital management. There is no big different between managing financial functions of big businesses or small businesses except that SMEs only deal with capital budgeting and working capital decision, given that SMEs are not paying dividends (Agyei- Mensah, 2011).Comparative review on previous studies by Mohd Amy Azhar et al. (2010) suggested that financial management consist of six components; financial planning and control, financial accounting, financial analysis, management accounting, capital budgeting and working capital management. The study also highlighted that the adoption of financial management tools among Malaysian SMEs were very low. Seeing that most SMEs practicing proper financial planning and control, financial accounting and working capital management, these components were labeled as core components of financial management. Yet the other three components which were mostly neglected were labeled as supplement components of financial management.A small scale study by Agyei-Mensah (2011) concluded that the influence of fund providers and external accountants are the most dominant factors stimulate SMEs to adopt reasonable financial management. On the other hand, due to lack of internal accounting staff and high cost to hire qualified accountant, SMEs face difficulties to understand accounting record and practice sound financial management.4.MethodologySemi-structured interviews were conducted among thirty five SMEs that were willing to participate in this study. The process of data collection took almost two months, due to the process of getting responses from the SMEs that were willing to participate in the study. The interview sessions were divided into two main sections. Section A was on demographic profile of the interviewees made up of various types ofindustries. This part asked for background information, which includes type of ownership, age of business, initial capital, source of capital, time spent to manage business, number of employees and owners’ education background. The SMEs crossed the range of firm size, geographic location within Malaysia. Meanwhile, Section B focused on the financial management activities and related questions on the practices. Initially, to understand the behaviour of respondents, the data are first described using appropriate tables. Further analysis is conducted by categorizing the responses regarding strengths and weaknesses among participated SMEs and quantifying the results.5.Results and DiscussionsThere were thirty five SMEs that participated in the study and their profile as presented can be categorized as sole proprietorship, partnership and company which consisted several type of businesses as viewed in Table 2.As for age of SMEs, more than half of the participated SMEs were between 0 to 3 years (19.5%) and followed by 4 to 6 years (24.1%), 7 to 9 years (13.8%) and finally more than forty percent of the SMEs aged 10 years and above. A total of 74% were bootstrapped from their own savings or borrowing from friends and relatives for initial capital. From the total, 25.88% dared to bootstrapped for the amount less thanRM5,000; RM20,001 and above (43.5%). However, merely seven per cent had their initial capital from commercial banks and government grants where the amount was more than RM50,000. Surprisingly, nearly half (49.5%) of the business owners spent their time between 9 to 12 hours every day to manage their businesses.It is important to know the educational background of the business owners because it showed the extent of their willingness in accepting new knowledge through training, seminars and workshops. These events were managed mostly by agencies under Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) such as Pocket Talks by SME Corp., Domestic Investment activities by Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA) and Innovative and Creative Circle (ICC) Convention by Malaysia Productivity Corporation (MPC). The government urges the SMEs to utilize the skills and knowledge gained from these events so that they could adopt prudent financial management.5.1.Financial Strengths of SMEsThe overall response on the financial strengths of the business can be classified into several main aspects. The detail of the classification is summarise in Table 3. Of the thirty five respondents, only 28 per cent of the participants pinpointed their financial strengths. Perhaps the other 72 per cent of the participants did not have any financial strengths or unable to identify their financial strengths due to lack of knowledge or education background.The result showed 26 per cent of the responses indicated that running the business using their own capital as their main financial strength. However SMEs need to bear in mind that in order to expand their business in the future, more capital is needed. Therefore it is advisable for them to use financing facilities provided by the financial institutions or government entities in helping them to have stronger financial capabilities to run the business in more competitive world. Another 17 per cent of the responses indicate that financial stability as the financial strengths of their businesses, followed by support from government entities (11%), doing business on cash basis (11%) and other aspects as shown in.5.2.Financial Weaknesses of SMEsIn response to the financial weakness, more participants (33%) were able to identify their weakness, compared to their financial strengths (28%). 40 per cent of the responses stressed that the main aspect of financial weaknesses in running their businesses is capital insufficiency and followed by incomplete accounting record (16%). Deterioration in financial performance is listed as the third aspects, with the response rate of 13 per cent and the difficulties in obtaining loan from financial institutions and government agencies listed as the following aspects with 11 per cent response rate. A possible explanation for this might be that due to the problem in financial performance plus incomplete financial record, it might be difficult for the SMEs to obtain loan from any entities, causing them to face a problem of capitalinsufficiency to run their business efficiently. Among other responses revealed in the study as detailed in Table 4 are high operating costs and collection problems.6.ConclusionThis study outlines the financial strengths and weaknesses of Malaysian SMEs. One of the most significant findings to emerge from this study is that, capital is the most critical financial component among SMEs. Running a business without any external capital (financing) shows the business is in a good financial condition. External financing may increase the risk of bankruptcy due to inability to settle the debt within agreed period. However, as the business keep growing, it is advisable for the SMEs to inject more capital to accommodate the expansion. Hiring appropriate staff may help SMEs in overcoming the constraints in applying for external financing through the preparation of proper accounting record and practicing prudent financial management.中文译文：马来西亚中小企业的优势和劣势：财务管理视角摘要在马来西亚，97.3％的商业机构由中小型企业（SMEs）组成，占全国总就业人数的52.7%左右。
小企业会计准则文献综述及外文文献
本份文档包含：关于该选题的外文文献、文献综述一、外文文献Small and Medium Sized Entities Management's Perspective onPrinciples-Based Accounting Standards on Lease Accounting AbstractLease accounting is viewed as one of the top priorities for the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) convergence. Small and medium sized entities are an important part of the economy, and this research investigates the management's perspective on the adoption of principles-based IFRS about lease accounting. This researcher interviewed four managers from three different small and medium sized entities, and found the management to be more concerned about their long-term business success than the change of accounting standards. Only when the entities have a loan with the bank, then the management focuses on the lease classification. The interview also suggests that the managers and business owners in the small and medium sized entities have limited knowledge and skills in accounting reporting standards. These firms outsource their accounting needs to local accountants rather than having their own in-house departments. The other aspect of focus for management of these firms is tax consequence of IFRS adoption. The research suggests other regulatory agencies, ., Internal Revenue Service, should also be involved in enhancing financial statement transparency and usefulness after the adoption of accounting standards.KeywordsInternational Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), US General Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), Lease Accounting, Small and Medium Sized Entities (SME)1. IntroductionThis study examines small business managements' perspective on theconvergence of accounting standards to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) from US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). As the world continues to migrate towards an interconnected economy, the market recognizes that it is easier to have one set of accounting rules to record economic transactions and facilitate cross-border capital flows. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has been working closely with the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) to improve and converge US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) in the past decade. This study analyzes US GAAP and IFRS lease accounting's impact and the management's view on such implementation.The study uses the FASB definition of small and medium sized entities (SMEs), which are entities that are not subject to public accountability and do not have financial statements filed with a securities commission . SEC) or other regulatory agencies. Most businesses conform to this definition, and the study of SMEs is important to understand the impact of IFRS on the backbone of economy.The adoption of IFRS elicits many controversial debates regarding the costs and benefits of convergence. The main concern is the potential increase in management manipulation of financial statements since less specific principles-based accounting standards allow aggressive reporting opportunities. In addition, accounting principles that rely more heavily on managements' interpretation and accountants' judgment in principles-based accounting standards could decrease the comparability among the firms. Conversely, many also argue that the current rules-based accounting model has allowed management to exploit financial accounting engineering to achieve a preferred accounting treatment.Under GAAP reporting, accounting principles are clearly set into rules. Management and auditors are required to follow the "bright-line"definition. For example, the FASB's Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) No. 13, Accounting for Leases, lists four explicit criteria for lease classification. SFAS No. 13 was set down to avoid individual judgment in interpreting lease accounting and to have consistent applications across the firms [1]. One can argue that entities following precise standards are easier for comparison. However, the nature of the precision rules-based accounting standards provided incentive-consistent standard interpretation and achieved preferred accounting treatments [2]. In this case, firms were able to structure lease terms to prevent capitalization, which removed the lease liabilities from their balance sheets and improved their overall financial position [3]. Aggressive utilization of this method can be classified as "financial engineering" in the rules-based regime and manipulation of financial statements. Regulators and the overall market generally recognize that the classification of operating leases is one of the common forms of off-balance sheet financing for the lessee. The asset and liability are not recorded, so the lessee only needs to report the rental expense under the current GAAP standard. An operating lease does not impact any critical financial ratios, so it is a preferred classification for the firms that must report and operate under debt covenant restrictions. With all the above reasoning, the classification of the lease is an important topic for academic investigation.If a hypothetical lease were constructed precisely according to the SFAS No. 13 standard that does not fall under capital lease, the auditors would have no room to disagree. Auditors are generally reluctant to inquire for more information and use professional skepticism once the lease term fits the definition under SFAS 13. The principles-based standard classifies a capital lease as "(lease that) transfers substantially all the risks and rewards incidental to the ownership" (IAS 17). The auditors' judgmentis much more significant under IFRS since they would need to identify the circumstances and threshold that transfers "substantially" all the risks and rewards. Without a holistic understanding of the economic substance and good judgment, the auditors could not classify the lease to correctly reflect the economic reality. The adoption of IFRS is deemed to facilitate the reduction of asymmetric information in the market. As Daske et al. point out, the benefit of transparency and reduction of information asymmetry results in market liquidity and lower cost of capital [4]. This paper contributes to the literature by complimenting the understanding of the cost and benefits of IFRS from SMEs managements' perspective. Extensive studies show that implementation and audit fees would increase substantially at the public companies [5], but little is known regarding the SME managements' strategy to tackle the adoption of the accounting standards and the associated fees. Second, most SMEs are family-owned businesses, so the principle-agent model conflict is not as prevalent as it would be in public companies. SME's are generally more focused on survival in the long-term and passing down the business to heirs. Accounting standards and financial are lower on the priority list and management generally relies on external accountants to provide expertise [6]. This paper explores the field of self-managed businesses in IFRS adoption.The remainder of the paper is constructed as follows. Section II provides literature review and hypotheses development. Section III describes the interview questions and management response. Section IV provides the conclusion, implication, and suggestions for future research.2. Literature Review and Hypotheses DevelopmentThe proposed convergence of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) has initiated numerous academic and policy debates. Opponents of IFRS argue that the less specific standards decrease the inter-firmcomparability and provide opportunities for financial statement manipulation. The switch to more principles-based IFRS might provide aggressive accounting reporting opportunities to some management teams since they can interpret the accounting rules with less precise standards [7]. However, studies show that with a strong audit committee and independent external auditor, principles-based standards not only helps to allay the comparability issue across-firms, but they also produce more meaningful economic and financial information [8] [9]. Compared to rules-based standards, principles-based standards generate higher quality financial statements that reduce earnings management, are related to more timely loss recognition and leads to more value relevant accounting measures. This suggests that principles based standards leads to less information asymmetry and aids investors in making informed and unbiased judgments [10] [11]. This results in positive abnormal return and reduction in the cost of capital [12]. Furthermore, Psaros and Trotman [13] found that it would be easier for foreign investment if businesses were reported under IFRS. Many major capital markets . London, Hong Kong) report under IFRS, reducing information asymmetry and increasing capital flows between borders. This eventually leads to a more efficient capital allocation, allowing both investors and firms to benefit.The auditors' assessment of the business entities and their underlying economics is important to the process of interpreting accounting standards and evaluating financial information quality. The underlying economic reality is important to assess a firm since it relates to borrowing cost, stock price performance, and other contractual obligations. Some of the common earnings management used to improve the firms' perception of their economic situation includes manipulating accruals [14], and liabilities [15], and lowering goodwill write-off [16]. An operating lease is one of the methods that some management will useto minimize liabilities through financial engineering. The management's perspective is an important piece of knowledge to the puzzle of how IFRS in lease accounting is going to impact capital markets. This paper attempts to close the gap of our knowledge between the management, auditors, and regulators. Table 1 summarized the difference specification for both US GAAP and IFRS. The GAAP has very specific threshold to differentiate between operating lease and capital lease, which is subject to the criticism of financial engineering. While IFRS guideline is too general, and some people disapprove its comparison ability between different firms.The principles-based accounting standard enables management to apply accounting rules with more flexibility to reflect the economic substance of situations. On the other hand, management can also take advantage of this to report aggressively. The external auditors would potentially have more disagreement over the application of the accounting standard under a principles-based regime. The auditors have more negotiation power when the accounting issues are complex [17]. Auditors are conservative since the damage from loss of reputation is irreparable and litigation costs are onerous, leading them to favor a less aggressive reporting methodology under principles-based standards.This paper focuses on lease accounting since it is one of the important topics in the convergence of both standards. Management generally prefers to classify leases as operating leases since no lease liabilities are recorded under this designation. This improves debt covenant ratios, facilitates incremental debt capacity, and enhances the financial appearance of the firms. If, under IFRS, the auditors certify management's aggressive accounting practices without additional due diligence, the potential costs of litigation and loss of reputation are high. Auditors will therefore tend to be more conservative in their practices underprinciples-based IFRS standards than under comparable GAAP standards. Consequently, contrary to the management's preference, the auditors are more prone to classify the lease as a capital lease. However, management might disagree with the auditors' conservative attitude. In order for the management and the auditors to agree upon on the classification of the lease, the auditors need to understand the underlying economic substance. It is only after performing more substantive testing will auditors understand the substance of the transactions instead of just following numbers and ratios without further questioning. The additional work will result in better understanding of the underlying economic substance for the auditors. Thus, the classification on the financial statements would accurately reflect the "true and fair view" of the lease.Under IFRS, information disclosure is more robust, including management's assumptions and estimation. Studies show the mandated adoption of IFRS brings comparability and enhances the usefulness of accounting data and improves forecast accuracy [18]. The financial information is perceived to reflect current economic conditions and up-to-date expectations of the future and recognize news in a timely manner [19]. IFRS is substance over form, and the perceived risk is lower, resulting in a potentially lower cost of capital [11].3. Interview Questions and ResultsThe research includes four interviews from four different managers from three distinctive firms. The mangers are from retail industry, which is representative of typical small and medium size firm population. Unlike financial institutions, retail industry has a combination of capital and operating lease, which is a relatively relevant industry for this research. The gross revenue of the subject manager companies ranged from $3million to $28million, with 7 to 56 full time employees. These firms are considered typical small and medium sized entities under IFRS since the corporationsare privately owned and do not have accountability to the public. These firms do not have to file with regulatory agency to ensure the general public has access to fairly presented financial statements. The most common governmental agency for which these firms have to present financial information is the Internal Revenue Service in the form of tax returns, though this information is not disclosed to the general public.The researcher questioned the management of the subject companies on if they would change lease terms for their companies if the accounting standards were to be implemented by IFRS. Since most SMEs are familyowned, and the firms' financial statements are not typically available to external financial users other than regulatory agencies, most typically is the Internal Revenue Service, the management is generally concerned with their long-term profit. "We want our business to continue for the next 20 years, so when we make plans, we plan long term," said one of the interviewees. The same interviewees also prefer to purchase plant and machinery rather than entering into leases. One entity has capital leases on its copy machine and two vehicles and an operating lease for its administrative office space, which is minimal compared to the size of the entity. "The entity also gets a tax deduction if the corporation purchase certain qualified equipment, so I buy most of my machines whenever possible," the manager continued. The management did not intend to use operating lease to leverage financial ratio for this particular entity. Some of the typical interview questions and response are shown in Table 2. Another manager admitted that the entity preferred operating leases since the corporation has a loan with the bank subject to debt covenants. Debt to asset ratio must be less than 40%; otherwise an additional 5% interest is imposed on the loan balance. The current ratio is about 36%, and the management prefers not to increase any liabilities if possible. This manager is more concerned about the classification of a leasecompared to the manager mentioned above. When this manager was questioned about future expansion of the business, he stated his preference to construct the terms to conform to an operating lease if a purchase is not possible. The manager intended to pay off the bank loan before any major expansion of the business. The manager relied heavily on the accountant's advice on any major purchase for the business since he is very careful about the company's debt covenant. When questioned whether the change of the accounting standards is going to impact their decision on lease term, and the manager said: "We will rely on our accountants' expertise." The manager said they mainly focused on the growth of the business, but had little knowledge about accounting standards and the tax code. "The business has 12 employees, and we cannot afford to hire someone full time to manage our books. It is much cheaper for us to hire an accountant on a fee basis than to have a full time accountant or bookkeeper." The manager did not incorporate the cost of implementation of the new accounting standards change to the company's business operation, but he was more concerned about the immediate cost and benefits, such as interest rate and tax benefits.All managers are not very familiar with principles-based International Financial Reporting Standards, and they rely on the external accountants to provide expertise on the implementation of the new principles. Management is more interested in the tax benefits, such as qualified "section 179" equipment and property purchase to increase the immediate expense and reduce tax liability. Finally, management would consider the classification of the lease if the entity were subject to debt covenant. The research suggests the adoption of IFRS in lease accounting is not a major determinant for managements' consideration in business operation. Rather, they are generally more interested in potential tax liabilities since that impacts the cash flow in the foreseeable future. If FASB canincorporate IRS input for the new accounting standards, the fair presentation of financial statements can be more effective (Figure 1).4. Conclusions & ImplicationsThe research attempts to bridge the gap between the understanding between small- and medium-sized entities and the adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards. Many studies focus on the auditors' judgment, financial users reaction, and regulatory agency's cost benefit, but little is known about the management's perception. This research interviewed four managers and gained knowledge about the train of thoughts during the acquisition of plant and machinery. Most SMEs are family-owned business, and the corporations' principal-agent conflict model is at its minimal. The managers' goal is to survive and expand the firms, and pass down the business to their heir. The managers normally do not possess the accounting expertise, so they rely heavily on the accountant to assist them with financial statements and tax returns [20]. In order to improve the presentation of financial statement in accordance of IFRS, the accountants need to sharpen their skills and equip knowledge about the IFRS adoption.The managements are also interested in the tax consequences after the IFRS implementation. The current IFRS adoption does not incorporate any tax code changes. The SMES guard their cash flow carefully, one of which is tax payment. If FASB can work with IRS, the implementation of IFRS might go more smoothly. The cooperation between multiple departments would be the ideal environment to adopt, implement, and improve the convergence of accounting standards.二、文献综述我国小企业会计准则与税法的差异和协调文献综述摘要随着经济市场化的不断发展，一些小企业在世界经济中占领越来越重要的角色，发展的越来越突出。
280.E论中小企业的成本核算 外文翻译
xxx科技学院学生毕业设计（论文）外文译文院（系）经济管理学院专业班级会计学本科2006级学生姓名xxx学号xxx译文要求1.外文翻译必须使用签字笔，手工工整书写，或用A4纸打印。
2.所选的原文不少于2万字印刷字符，其内容必须与课题或专业方向紧密相关，注明详细出处。
3.外文翻译书文本后附原文（或复印件）。
译文评阅评阅要求：应根据学校“译文要求”，对学生译文的准确性、翻译数量以及译文的文字表述情况等作具体的评价。
指导教师评语：指导教师（签字）年月日译自：完全成本核算一个把环境和社会成本引入传统企业会计制度课程模块Noellette康威-申普夫博士卡耐基梅隆大学宾夕法尼亚州匹兹堡15213摘要：本模块描述了一种方法即将环境信息纳入会计管理信息系统，使金融决策者在其决策时包含环境标准。
该模块被细分，以便能够促进详细的有关会计制度能有所进展，并且扮演着鼓励设计和开发营销方面的角色，来使用更具有环保意识的产品、服务和生产过程。
该模块适合作为一个工程或企业环境管理课程，无论是在本科生或研究生的水平，都可以过模块的各个组成部分进行选择使用。
因此，举例来说，在MBA课程，对会计系统类型的早期材料是不必要的，或在工程环境管理的课程中，更加强调可放在管理/成本会计部而不是国民会计部。
该模块被细分如下：1) 引言：会计是什么;会计和资金预算管理和相关的环境工程问题;会计制度的类型;环境信息系统会计制度的缺点;全成本核算2) 纳入会计系统的社会和环境成本:国民会计；财务会计；成本会计制度和资本预算3) 环境评价4) 最终的目标 - 完全成本定价5) 全面的成本会计的全面的成本会计的有关的问题6) 其他的教学资源案例研究附录1：例如短期类项目和任务附录2：个案研究废料环境成本会计在汽车制造工厂，教师和学生版的版本的应用。
附录3：污染防治投资分析1.绪论1.1什么是会计?会计是为决策者（包括管理者，投资者），监管机构，放贷人和公众收集信息的集合体。
会计 外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 战略财务管理在中小企业
附件1：外文翻译译文战略财务管理在中小企业刘钟胜2010年2月该篇文章来源于JEL分类代码：G11号; G23号摘要：随着社会经济的发展和科学技术的进步,中国的企业在一个充满机会和危险的阶段。
介绍了安全管理的含义和意义战略财务管理中存在的问题,阐述了财务策略进行小中型企业一起,最后提出了一些对策和原因。
关键词：中小企业的战略财务管理、问题、对策一个企业的不确定性的金融环境其财务活动充满风险。
除了机会,有许多的危险从时间,以时间,其财务管理。
因此,它已经成为了成功的关键一个企业的财务管理是否能跟踪的趋势变化什么是有用的吸收。
应当拒绝接受什么是有害的。
战略管理思想是非常重要的在企业的财务管理,因为我们必须努力去分析和把握一般环境和发展一个企业的发展趋势,从而提高适应能力、可变性和适用性的金融中心管理不确定环境。
目前,中小企业在100年通过了工商登记、以企业总数的90%。
因此,其战略财务管理是特别重要的,这也是本论文的主题。
1 简介战略性的财务管理是财务管理理论,根据该融资应该的在最适当的方式进行,采集到的资本必须利用和管理的最有效的方式虽然企业和决策和利润分配应该最合理。
根据其内涵,总结三个主要内容的战略财务管理,包括融资策略,投资战略和利润分配决策策略。
详情如下:融资策略高度发达的现代企业具有的销售急剧增长。
当面对这样一种局势,企业倾向于有很大的要求从股票和应收账款是资本的提升。
更大的为销售增长的张力,但更大的资本要求。
因此,在融资策略都具有十分重要的意义战略管理财务。
融资策略的功能在于明确的指导方针融资、铺设融资目标下,建立整体规模、融资渠道和方法,安排战略资本结构优化方案,从各方面对此作了相应的对策,以达到融资目标,最后预测和收集的大量资金的企业的需要。
投资策略为核心的战略财务管理,这种策略决定一个企业只能分配它的首都资源合理而有效的方法。
投资策略包括确认投资固定资产的方向、公司规模和资本规模、投资选择相关的外部扩张或内部扩张,改革旧的产品或开发新的、独立或联合操作,自有资金投资决定或贷款之间的百分比固定资产、流动资产、投资策略和风险和那些在通货膨胀。
环境会计外文文献及其翻译
河南科技学院新科学院2013届本科毕业论文（设计）外文文献及翻译Environmental Accounting学生姓名：***所在系别：经济系所学专业：国际经济与贸易导师姓名：郭晓明（助教）完成时间：2013年4月18日Environmental Accountingby Joy E. HechtInterest is growing in modifying national income accounting systems to promote understanding of the links between economy and environment.The field of environmental accounting has made great strides in the past two decades, moving from a rather arcane endeavor to one tested in dozens of countries and well established in a few. But the idea that nations might integrate the economic role of the environment into their income accounts is neither a quick sell nor a quick process; it has been under discussion since the 1960s. Despite the difficulties and controversies described in this article, however, interest is growing in modifying national income accounting systems to promote understanding of the links between economy and environment.Environmental accounting is underway in several dozen countries, where bureaucrats, statisticians, and other proponents both foreign and domestic have initiated activities over the past few decades. Several countries have made continuous investments in building routine data systems, which are integrated into existing statistical systems and economic planning activities. Others have made more limited efforts to calculate a few indicators, or analyze a single sector. Some of the earliest research on environmental accounting was done at RFF by Henry Peskin, working on the design of accounts for the United States.One of the first countries to build environmental accounts is Norway, which began collecting data on energy sources, fisheries, forests, and minerals in the 1970s to address resource scarcity. Over time, the Norwegians have expanded their accounts to include data on air pollutant emissions. Their accounts feed into a model of the national economy, which policymakers use to assess the energy implications of alternate growth strategies. Inclusion of these data also allows them to anticipate the impacts of different growth patterns on compliance with international conventions on pollutant emissions.More recently, a number of resource-dependent countries have become interested in measuring depreciation of their natural assets and adjusting their GDPs environmentally. One impetus for their interest was the 1989 study “Wasting Assets: Natural Resources in the National Income Accounts,” in which Robert Repetto and his colleagues at the World Resources Institute estimated the depreciation of Indonesia’s forests, petroleum reserves, and soil assets. Once adjusted to account for that depreciation, Indonesia’s GDP and growth rates both sank significantly below conventional figures. While “Wasting Assets” called many to action, it also op erated as a brake, leading many economists and statisticians to warn against a focus on green GDP, because it tells decision makers nothing about the causes or solutions for environmental problems.Since that time, several developing countries have made long-term commitments to broad-based environmental accounting. Namibia began work on resource accounts in 1994, addressing such questions as whether the government has been able tocapture rents from the minerals and fisheries sectors, how to allocate scarce water supplies, and how rangeland degradation affects the value of livestock.The Philippines began work on environmental accounts in 1990. The approach used there is to build all economic inputs and outputs into the accounts, including non marketed goods and services of the environment. Thus Filipinos estimate monetary values for such items as gathered fuel wood and the waste disposal services provided by air, water, and land; they then add in direct consumption of such services as recreation and aesthetic appreciation of the natural world. While their methodology is controversial, these accounts have provided Philippine government agencies and researchers with a rich array of data for policymaking and analysis.The United States has not been a leader in the environmental accounting arena. At the start of the Clinton administration, the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) made a foray into environmental accounting in the minerals sector, but this preliminary attempt became embroiled in political controversy and faced opposition from the minerals industry. Congress then asked the National Research Council (NRC) to form a blue ribbon panel to consider what the nation should do in the way of environmental accounting. Since then, Congressional appropriations to BEA have been accompanied by an explicit prohibition on environmental accounting work. The ban may be lifted, however, once the recommendations of the NRC study are made public.How environmental accounting is being done varies in a number of respects, notably the magnitude of the investment required, the objectivity of the data, the ability to compare different kinds of environmental impacts, and the kinds of policy purposes to which they may be applied. Here are some of the methods currently in use.Natural Resource Accounts. These include data on stocks of natural resources and changes in them caused by either natural processes or human use. Such accounts typically cover agricultural land, fisheries, forests, minerals and petroleum, and water. In some countries, the accounts also include monetary data on the value of such resources. But attempts at valuation raise significant technical difficulties. It is fairly easy to track the value of resource flows when the goods are sold in markets, as in the case of timber and fish. Valuing changes in the stocks, however, is more difficult because they could be the result either of a physical change in the resource or of a fluctuation in market price.Green GDP. Developing a gross domestic product that includes the environment is also a matter of controversy. Most people actively involved in building environmental accounts minimize its importance. Because environmental accounting methods are not standardized, a green GDP can have a different meaning in each project that calculates it, so values are not comparable across countries. Moreover, while a green GDP can draw attention to policy problems, it is not useful for figuring out how to resolve them. Nevertheless, most accounting projects that include monetary values do calculate this indicator. Great interest in it exists despite its limitations.Environmental accounting would receive a substantial boost if an international consensus could be reached on methodology. The UN Statistics Department hascoordinated some of the ongoing efforts toward this end since the 1980s. In 1993, the UN published the System for Integrated Economic and Environmental Accounting (SEEA) as an annex to the 1993 revisions of the SNA. SEEA is structured as a series of methodological options, which include most of the different accounting activities described above; users choose the options most appropriate to their needs.No consensus exists on the various methods that the UN recommended. In fact, SEEA is now undergoing revision by the so-called “London Group,” comprised primarily of national income accountants and statisticians from OECD countries. The group’s work will be an important step toward consensus on accounting methods, but the process will be lengthy: Development of the conventional SNA took some forty years.A number of steps can be taken now toward the goal of ensuring that environmental accounting is as well established as the SNA. First, information must circulate freely about existing environmental accounts and how they are contributing to economic and environmental policy. Ongoing work needs to be identified and systematically reviewed and analyzed to learn lessons, which may inform the design and implementation of future accounting activities. The Green Accounting Initiative of the World Conservation Union has embarked on this effort, and a number of other organizations are calling for similar activities. Use of the World Wide Web may facilitate access to unpublished work, although it will require a concerted effort to obtain accounting reports and seek permission to load them on the Internet.Second, development of a core of internationally standardized methods will contribute to willingness to adopt environmental accounting. Experts in the field—including economists, environmentalists, academics, and others outside of the national statistical offices—should take a proactive role in tracking the work of the London Group and insist that the standard- setting process involve participants representing a spectrum of viewpoints, countries, and interested stakeholders. An opportunity exists for research institutes to take a lead in identifying the financial resources needed to facilitate a broader standard setting process, and to elicit a full range of voices to build a consensus on methodology.Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the more countries institutionalize construction of environmental accounts, the greater the momentum for more of the same.Still, building accounts—like developing any time series statistics—will not happen overnight. Their construction will require sustained institutional and financial commitment to ensure that the investment lasts long enough to yield results. But the experiences of Norway, Namibia, and the Philippines show that such a commitment can pay off; it is a commitment that more countries around the world need to make.环境会计by Joy E. Hecht由利益增长改变国民收入核算制度以促进了解经济和环境之间的联系。
中小企业代理记账外文文献翻译2021年译文3100字
中小企业代理记账外文文献翻译2021年译文3100字文献出处: Mendel B. The Research of Bookkeeping Agency in Small and Medium Sized Enterprise [J]. Journal of Investment Consulting, 2021, 13(1): 33-49.（声明：本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库。
）原文The Research of Bookkeeping Agency in Small and Medium Sized EnterpriseMendel BAbstractBookkeeping agency is a kind of accounting solutions, it provides thebasis of accounting services for small and medium enterprises \and medium-sized enterprises to choose acting book-keeping services, can at the same time of saving the cost of accounting, enjoy a high level of professionalaccounting services all the way, give full play to the professional advantages of financial and accounting team of the company, reduce the risk of the fiscal and taxation, to promote enterprise development\as a kind of new solutions and new social accounting services, are accepted by more and more small business owners, ACTS as a small businesses accounting role, but as a new thing of bookkeeping agency also exist some problems, how to avoid disadvantages, make bookkeeping agency to make greater contributions to the development of economy and society is a question worthy of our study. Key words: Bookkeeping agency; Meaning; Development; 1 IntroductionAt present, the bookkeeping agency institutions is mainly composed of bookkeeping agency company, accounting firms and other intermediary agencies with bookkeeping agency qualification to set up the bookkeeping agency institutions, bookkeeping agency co., LTD. It is a professional for some donot have the qualifications of independent accounting or agents need to helpthe enterprise to provide accounting services company, with its professional technology level, was commissioned by the main body, to legitimate and reasonable according to the quality to provide services for the enterprise, business scope is mainly review enterprise accounting statements, and issuethe audit report, validation enterprise capital, shallissue a capital verification report, deal with enterprise merger, division, liquidation matters in the audit business, issue the relevant report, thebasic construction of the annual financial statements audit, agency bookkeeping, accounting consulting, tax consulting, management consulting,training of laws and regulations, and other business, the certified public accountants usually work in the bookkeeping agency, however, other with bookkeeping agency qualification of intermediary institutions include: have certain work experience and on-the-job or part-time accounting personnel business knowledge, on the premise of customer recognition and trust, also can undertake bookkeeping agency for the customer \of a person with poor or interpersonal relationship means to attract customers, such as the quality of the agent is not assured, did not have the legal supervision and management,is likely to lead to enterprise accounting error is not standard, etc. 2 The realistic requirement of small and medium-sized enterprise bookkeeping agencyLarge number of small business development, there is a lot of market demand for bookkeeping agency, bookkeeping agency for small businesses still become a trend in today's social development \is now under development stage, the number is not much, in theory the demand, but in fact bookkeeping agency company is basically for some small business or individual industrial and commercial households to provide agent services, development momentum, development speed remains to be further promoted, there are many factors, one of the main factors is also need to further strengthen our country economy development, only the level of economic development to a certain extent, the social division of labor is more detailed, bookkeeping agency agents such as accounting will have a bigger development space\enterprises in growing at the same time, will need to hire more professional accountants to special accounting business services \need of various levels of professional accounting personnel at the same time, also set up a perfect office system, provide the necessary office conditions Office space and has the advantages of compensation, it will aggravate the burden of enterprises, energy consumption enterprise \and professional acting book-keeping services can not only provide professional accounting services, and the price is cheap,even appear personnel changes, but the service itself will not change, it is easy to form a long-term cooperation mechanism, the key is to have the law as the basis of cooperation\influence in the society \\agency bookkeeping institution can not only deal with agent business accounting, from the reality of customers, according to customer demand, provide the best quality services to the customers in different periods,\above all, bookkeeping agency in the industry is bound to have a more bright prospects for development\3 The problems of small and medium-sized enterprise bookkeeping agencyProfessional bookkeeping agency itself also has some disadvantages, some small agency bookkeeping institution is still a lack of standardization, there will be a lot of problems in the process of charge to an account \accounting irregularities distortion principal-agent accounting lack of necessary communication on both sides, bookkeeping agency workers, such as uneven\agency personnel daily not to work in the unit, to enterprise's daily business are new, just machine according to the enterprise to provide credentials are tallied, but the authenticity of these credentials to be considerations; Enterprise internal management system is not perfect, such as accounts inconsistent, actual inventory and the number of paper, plate profit not handled in time;If these data will be stored in the bookkeeping agency company, the enterprise can't check at any time \inconvenience to the bookkeeping agency work, bookkeeping agency company cannot work at any time according to the original vouchers for accounting, hinder the smooth completion of the bookkeeping agency work\activity between accounting business and enterprise management, enterprise employees do not understand the professional accounting data, and the generation of accounting personnel and little insight into enterprise actual operation situation \according to the enterprise to provide original vouchers filling in accounting vouchers, accounting books of the registration, preparation of financial reports, to complete the task in the contract, not conducive to the development of enterprise information in the accounting informationto unpack and put forward constructive Suggestions to the enterprise. 4 The effect of small business accountsIn the process of a new era of enterprise development, professional agent company with its strong vitality and attraction of charge to an account, it can play a big role in the agreed upon period of time \small business portfolio, bookkeeping agency company is a professional accounting personnel to complete a number of small business accounting business, can reduce the fee with economies of scale;2 it is can be effectively standardizing financial\division of work agency bookkeeping institution system accurately, there cost general ledger transaction execution, high degree of specialization, and high work efficiency, increase the authenticity of the accounting, but also contributed to the standardization of the financial development; it is bookkeeping agency company has a strong fiscal and taxation information support\can make the enterprise managers to get rid of complicated proceduralwork, have more energy to development of enterprises; Four is to avoid risk, the health of the financial system, normative financial treatment can enhance the enterprise internal control, professional agency bookkeeping institutions can help to an account, can reduce the possibility of wrong zhang, in some ways to evade the financial risks of enterprise should take on. 5 ConclusionsWith the high-speed development of small businesses %use of bookkeeping agency, attaches great importance to the supervision and management, bookkeeping agency personnel and to improve the problems appeared in the process of bookkeeping agency, then, accounts for small business benefits will outweigh the disadvantages, as long as you look at it objectively and correctly, use of it and improve it, believe in bookkeeping agency will be a very good there. Bookkeeping agency industry's development is comprehensive, this article only reflected the tip of the iceberg, such problems as how to improve the quality of bookkeeping agency business process did not involve, but the specification development of bookkeeping agency has the certain positive role.译文中小企业代理记账研究作者：曼德尔摘要代理记账是一种会计解决方案，为中小企业提供相应的基础会计服务\中小企业选择代理记账服务，能够在节约会计成本的同时，享受高水平专业化的会计全程服务,充分发挥财务公司的会计团队的专业优势，降低财税风险，促进企业发展\随着社会的发展和进步，代理记账作为一种新的会计解决方案和新的社会化会计服务项目，正被越来越多的小企业主所接受，充当着众多小企业的会计角色，但是作为新生事物的代理记账也存在着一些问题，如何趋利避害，使代理记账为经济社会的发展做出更大的贡献是一个值得我们探讨的问题。
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IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL COSTACCOUNTING IN SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZEDCOMPANIES1．ENVIRONMENTAL COST ACCOUNTING IN SMESSince its inception some 30 years ago, Environmental Cost Accounting (ECA) has reached a stage of development where individual ECA systems are separated from the core accounting system based an assessment of environmental costs with (see Fichter et al., 1997, Letmathe and Wagner , 2002).As environmental costs are commonly assessed as overhead costs, neither the older concepts of full costs accounting nor the relatively recent one of direct costing appear to represent an appropriate basis for the implementation of ECA. Similar to developments in conventional accounting, the theoretical and conceptual sphere of ECA has focused on process-based accounting since the 1990s (see Hallay and Pfriem, 1992, Fischer and Blasius, 1995, BMU/UBA, 1996, Heller et al., 1995, Letmathe, 1998, Spengler and H.hre, 1998).Taking available concepts of ECA into consideration, process-based concepts seem the best option regarding the establishment of ECA (see Heupel and Wendisch , 2002). These concepts, however, have to be continuously revised to ensure that they work well when applied in small and medium-sized companies.Based on the framework for Environmental Management Accounting presented in Burritt et al. (2002), our concept of ECA focuses on two main groups of environmentally related impacts. These are environmentally induced financial effects and company-related effects on environmental systems (see Burritt and Schaltegger, 2000, p.58). Each of these impacts relate to specific categories of financial and environmental information. The environmentally induced financial effects are represented by monetary environmental information and the effects on environmental systems are represented by physical environmental information. Conventional accounting deals with both – monetary as well as physical units – but does not focus on environmental impact as such. To arrive at a practical solution to the implementation of ECA in a company’s existing accounting system, and to comply with the problem of distinguishing between monetary and physical aspects, an integrated concept is required. As physical information is often the basis for the monetary information (e.g. kilograms of a raw material are the basis for the monetary valuation of raw material consumption), the integrationof this information into the accounting system database is essential. From there, the generation of physical environmental and monetary (environmental) information would in many cases be feasible. For many companies, the priority would be monetary (environmental) information for use in for instance decisions regarding resource consumptions and investments. The use of ECA in small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) is still relatively rare, so practical examples available in the literature are few and far between. One problem is that the definitions of SMEs vary between countries (see Kosmider, 1993 and Reinemann, 1999). In our work the criteria shown in Table 1 are used to describe small and medium-sized enterprises.Table 1. Criteria of small and medium-sized enterprisesNumber of employees TurnoverUp to 500 employees Turnover up to EUR 50mManagement Organization- Owner-cum-entrepreneur -Divisional organization is rare- Varies from a patriarchal management -Short flow of information stylein traditional companies and teamwork -Strong personal commitmentin start-up companies -Instruction and controlling with- Top-down planning in old companies direct personal contact- Delegation is rare- Low level of formality- High flexibilityFinance Personnel- family company -easy to survey number of employees- limited possibilities of financing -wide expertise-high satisfaction of employeesSupply chain Innovation-closely involved in local -high potential of innovationeconomic cycles in special fields- intense relationship with customersand suppliersKeeping these characteristics in mind, the chosen ECA approach should be easy to apply, should facilitate the handling of complex structures and at the same time be suited to the special needs of SMEs.Despite their size SMEs are increasingly implementing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems like SAP R/3, Oracle and Peoplesoft. ERP systems support business processes across organizational, temporal and geographical boundaries using one integrated database. The primary use of ERP systems is for planning and controlling production and administration processes of an enterprise. In SMEs however, they are often individually designed and thus not standardized making the integration of for instance software that supports ECA implementation problematic. Examples could be tools like the “eco-efficiency” approach of IMU (2003) or Umberto (2003) because these solutions work with the database of more comprehensive software solutions like SAP, Oracle, Navision or others. Umberto software for example (see Umberto, 2003) would require large investments and great background knowledge of ECA – which is not available in most SMEs.The ECA approach suggested in this chapter is based on an integrative solution –meaning that an individually developed database is used, and the ECA solution adopted draws on the existing cost accounting procedures in the company. In contrast to other ECA approaches, the aim was to create an accounting system that enables the companies to individually obtain the relevant cost information. The aim of the research was thus to find out what cost information is relevant for the company’s decision on environmental issues and how to obtain it.Phase 1: Production Process VisualizationAt the beginning, the project team must be briefed thoroughly on the current corporate situation and on the accounting situation. To this end, the existing corporate accounting structure and the related corporate information transfer should be analyzed thoroughly. Following the concept of an input/output analysis, how materials find their ways into and out of the company is assessed. The next step is to present the flow of material and goods discovered and assessed in a flow model. To ensure the completeness and integrity of such a systematic analysis, any input and output is to be taken into consideration. Only a detailed analysis of material and energy flows from the point they enter the company until they leave it as products, waste, waste water or emissions enables the company to detect cost-savingpotentials that at later stages of the project may involve more efficient material use, advanced process reliability and overview, improved capacity loads, reduced waste disposal costs, better transparency of costs and more reliable assessment of legal issues. As a first approach, simplified corporate flow models, standardized stand-alone models for supplier(s), warehouse and isolated production segments were established and only combined after completion. With such standard elements and prototypes defined, a company can readily develop an integrated flow model with production process(es), production lines or a production process as a whole. From the view of later adoption of the existing corporate accounting to ECA, such visualization helps detect, determine, assess and then separate primary from secondary processes.Phase 2: Modification of AccountingIn addition to the visualization of material and energy flows, modeling principal and peripheral corporate processes helps prevent problems involving too high shares of overhead costs on the net product result. The flow model allows processes to be determined directly or at least partially identified as cost drivers. This allows identifying and separating repetitive processing activity with comparably few options from those with more likely ones for potential improvement.By focusing on principal issues of corporate cost priorities and on those costs that have been assessed and assigned to their causes least appropriately so far, corporate procedures such as preparing bids, setting up production machinery, ordering (raw) material and related process parameters such as order positions, setting up cycles of machinery, and order items can be defined accurately. Putting several partial processes with their isolated costs into context allows principal processes to emerge; these form the basis of process-oriented accounting. Ultimately, the cost drivers of the processes assessed are the actual reference points for assigning and accounting overhead costs. The percentage surcharges on costs such as labor costs are replaced by process parameters measuring efficiency (see Foster and Gupta, 1990).Some corporate processes such as management, controlling and personnel remain inadequately assessed with cost drivers assigned to product-related cost accounting. Therefore, costs of the processes mentioned, irrelevant to the measure of production activity, have to be assessed and surcharged with a conventional percentage.At manufacturing companies participating in the project, computer-integrated manufacturing systems allow a more flexible and scope-oriented production (eco-monies of scope), whereas before only homogenous quantities (of products) could be produced under reasonable economic conditions (economies of scale). ECA inevitably prevents effects of allocation, complexity and digression and becomes a valuable controlling instrument where classical/conventional accounting arrangements systematically fail to facilitate proper decisions.Thus, individually adopted process-based accounting produces potentially valuable information for any kind of decision about internal processing or external sourcing (e.g. make-or-buy decisions).Phase 3: Harmonization of Corporate Data – Compiling and AcquisitionOn the way to a transparent and systematic information system, it is convenient to check core corporate information systems of procurement and logistics, production planning, and waste disposal with reference to their capability to provide the necessary precise figures for the determined material/energy flow model and for previously identified principal and peripheral processes. During the course of the project, a few modifications within existing information systems were, in most cases, sufficient to comply with these requirements; otherwise, a completely new software module would have had to be installed without prior analysis to satisfy the data requirements.Phase 4: Database conceptsWithin the concept of a transparent accounting system, process-based accounting can provide comprehensive and systematic information both on corporate material/ energy flows and so-called overhead costs. To deliver reliable figures over time, it is essential to integrate a permanent integration of the algorithms discussed above into the corporate information system(s). Such permanent integration and its practical use may be achieved by applying one of three software solutions (see Figure 2).For small companies with specific production processes, an integrated concept is best suited, i.e. conventional and environmental/process-oriented accounting merge together in one common system solution.For medium-sized companies, with already existing integrated production/ accounting platforms, an interface solution to such a system might be suitable. ECA, then, is set up as anindependent software module outside the existing corporate ERP system and needs to be fed data continuously. By using identical conventions for inventory-data definitions within the ECA software, misinterpretation of data can be avoided.Phase 5: Training and CoachingFor the permanent use of ECA, continuous training of employees on all matters discussed remains essential. To achieve a long-term potential of improved efficiency, the users of ECA applications and systems must be able to continuously detect and integrate corporate process modifications and changes in order to integrate them into ECA and, later, to process them properly.中小企业环境成本会计的实施一、中小企业的环境成本会计自从成立三十年以来，环境成本会计已经发展到一定阶段，环境会计成本体系已经从以环境成本评估为基础的会计制度核心中分离出来（参考Fichter et al., 1997, Letmathe 和Wagner , 2002）。