语言学课后习题答案
现代语言学前五章课后习题答案
Chapter 1 Introduction1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. 请解释以下语言学的定义:语言学是对语言的科学研究。
Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic investigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.语言学研究的不是任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。
语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。
只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严肃的语言学结论:观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正确性。
1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?语言学的主要分支是什么?他们每个人都研究什么?Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified语音学——语音是如何产生和分类的Phonology-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系学——声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形态学——词素如何组合成单词Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)语义学——意义的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study of meaning in context of use语用学——在使用语境中对意义的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社会语言学——研究与社会有关的语言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理语言学:研究与大脑活动有关的语言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning应用语言学——语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用1.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?现代语言学与传统语法有何不同?Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。
语言学教程课后习题答案第一章资料(最新整理)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
语言学导论课后习题答案
Chapter 4 MorphologyWhat is morphology?The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structur e and the formation of words.Morphemes and allomorphsThe smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletivesSome countable n ouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.Some verbs have irreg ular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.Free and bound morphemesSome morphemes constitut e words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes. The distinct i on between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Inflexional and derivational morpheme sInflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words. English affixes a re divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Conclusion: classification of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesInflexionalDerivational: affixesPrefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -sSuffixesFormation of new wordsDerivationDerivation forms a wo rd by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.Some English suffixes also change the word stress.CompoundingCompounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes. The majority of E nglish compounds are the combination of words from the three classes –nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.ConversionConversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.ClippingClipping is a process that shortens a pol y syllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.BlendingBlending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).Back-formationBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television asthat suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.Acronyms and abbreviationsAcronyms and abbrevia tions are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formation is common in names of org anizations and scientific terminology.EponymsEponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.CoinageCoinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86983.html Chapter 3 PhonologyWhat is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses o n three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Pho nemes and allophonesA phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.We use allophones to realize phonemes.Discovering phonemesContrastive distribution – phonemesIf sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.Complementary distribution – allophonesSounds that are not found in the sam e position are said to be in complementary distribution.If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.Free variationIf segments appear in the same position but the mutual subs titution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.Distinctive and non-distinctive featuresFeatures that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.Distinc tive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.Phonological rulesPhonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as exam ples.[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_Syllable structureA syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.Every syllable h as a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.Sequence of phonemesNative speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.When new words are coined, they may fill some accident a l gaps but they will never fillsystematic gaps.Suprasegmental featuresFeatures that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.These features are distinctive features.StressStress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress. If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a sec ondary stress.In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.IntonationWhen we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distin guish utterance meaning.The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.ToneTone is the variation of pitch to disting uish words.The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.Chinese is a typical tone language.-转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86123.html Chapter 2 PhoneticsWhat is phonetics?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.Sub-branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics – the production of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech soundsAuditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the cavities?O ral cavityPharyngeal cavityNasal cavityTranscription of speech soundsUnits of representationSegments (the individual sounds)Phonetic symbolsThe widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcripti o n (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Description of speech soundsDescription of English consonantsGeneral feature: obstructionCriteria of conson ant descriptionPlaces of articulationManners of articulationV oicing of articulationPlaces of articulationThis refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]Labiodental: [f] [v]Interdental: [ ] [ ]Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]Palatal: [ ] [ ] [t ] [d ] [j]Velar: [k] [g] [ ]Glottal: [h]Manners of articulationThis refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]Fricatives: [s] [z] [ ] [ ] [f] [v] [ ] [ ] [h]Affricates: [t ] [d ]Liquids: [l] [r]Glides: [w] [j]Nasals: [m] [n] [ ]V oicing of articulationThis refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.V oiced soundsV oiceless soundsDescription of English vowelsGeneral feature: without obstructionCriteria of vowel descriptionPart of the tongue that is raisedFrontCentralBackExtent to which the tongue rises i n the direction of the palateHighMidLowKind of opening made at the lipsPosition of the soft palateSingle vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongsPhonetic features and natural classesClasses of sounds that share a feature or features a re called natural classes.Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.第三章“词汇”问题和练习1. 解释下列术语语素复合词屈折变化词缀派生词词根语素变体词干粘着语素自由语素词位词汇语法词词汇词封闭类开放类混成法借词混合借词转移借词缩略语脱落逆构词法同化异化俗词源2. 给下列词加上适当的否定前缀a. removable m. syllabicb. formal n. normalc. practicable o. workabled. sensible p. writtene. tangible q. usualf. logical r. thinkableg. regular s. humanh. proportionate t. relevanti. effective u. editablej. elastic v. mobilek. ductive w. legall. rational x. discreet3. 语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。
语言学第四章课后答案
语言学第四章课后答案1、“桌子”，“书包”都属于名词，这体现了语法的什么性质（）。
[单选题] *A.抽象性(正确答案)B.递归性C.系统性D.稳定性答案解析：“桌子”、“书包”等词语，虽然意思不同，但根据某种共同特点——大都能受数量词的修饰，就可以建立“名词”这个类：这就是词的用法对语法单位类别的抽象。
这体现了语法的抽象性。
2、语法规则的“系统性”是指（）。
[单选题] *A.对语言的结构和成分进行类的概括B.相同规则可在一个结构里重复使用C.语法规则之间可以相互推导和解释(正确答案)D.语法规则的发展变化过程十分缓慢答案解析：所谓“系统”，指的是语法规则具有推导性和解释性。
3、“三思而后行”在今天读来依旧朗朗上口，体现了语法的什么性质（）。
[单选题] *A.抽象性B.递归性C.系统性D.稳定性(正确答案)答案解析：“三思而后行”这句话产生在古代，现在依旧适用，体现语法的稳定性。
4、下列不属于共时语法的是（）。
[单选题] *A.现代汉语语法B.先秦汉语语法C.汉语语法的演化(正确答案)D.近代汉语语法答案解析：共时语法指的是从某一时期存在的语法现象横向地静态地研究语法。
因此A、B、D选项都属于共时语法。
汉语语法的演化属于历时语法的体现。
5、以下关于“教学语法和信息语法”的内容说法有误的一项是（）。
[单选题] *A.这是根据语法研究的用途区分的语法B.教学语法研究的结果面对的是人，或者说这种语法系统要充分考虑人的特点C.信息语法也叫“计算机语法”D.语法规则体系，方便计算机处理信息。
其特点是精确可靠，定义和规则具有可推导性和可开发性(正确答案)答案解析：教学语法和信息语法是根据语法研究的用途区分的语法。
教学语法研究的结果面对的是人，或者说这种语法系统要充分考虑人的特点；信息语法也叫“计算机语法”，其研究结果服务的是机器，即建立一套可以自动识别和操作的语法规则体系，方便计算机处理信息。
其特点是精确可靠，定义和规则具有可推导性和可验证性。
语言学课后答案第2章
1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the InternationalPhonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996. consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived. coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sou nd shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymouslywith ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; t he converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.8.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voi ce][–voice] in other places2.1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the ―Adam‘s Apple‖. The larynx contains the vocal folds, als o known as ―vocal cords‖ or ―vocal bands‖. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam‘s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction ofair. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this spacewould involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowest position the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or open-mid, and mid-low or close-mid).5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] isfollowed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛn̪θ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪn̪θ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound: ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] >[faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] >[hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn]> [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] >[ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word isformed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or[ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-1)。
语言学chapter3课后答案
语⾔学chapter3课后答案Chapter 3Revision exercises reference1.Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. micro + film e. tele + com + muni + cat + ionb. be + draggle + d f. fore + fatherc. announce + ment g. psycho + physicsd. pre + digest + ion h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.suffix: -mentmeaning: added to some verbs to form nouns that refer to actions, processes, or statesstem type: added to verbsexample: statement, “something you say or write, especially publicly or officially, to let people know your intentions or opinions, or to record facts” enjoyment, “the feeling of pleasure you get from having or doing something, or something you enjoy doing”suffix: -nessmeaning: added to adjectives to form nouns which often refer to a state or quality stem type: added to adjective example: happiness, “the state of being happy”Kindness, “kind behavior towards someone”suffix: -shipmeaning: added to some nouns to form nouns which often denote a state, status, or skillsstem type: added to nounsexample: friendship, “a relationship between friends”readership, “all the people who read a particular newspaper ormagazine regularly”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify thetypes of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.in-: when added to adjectives, it means not; when added to nouns, it means without, lack of; it can also be spelt as il- before l, im- before b, m, p, and ir- before r. e.g.inability inaccuracy inaction inconsistencyinconvenience indeterminacy indiscretion inequityinhuman inapt infrequent infiniteingenuous infiltrate inhospitable immuneimmortal imperceptible imperfectde-: This prefix can form verbs and their derivatives meaning down, away; when added to the verb and their derivatives, it denotes removal or reversal. e.g.decaf decipher decolour descenddebase deform defrost defocusdegrade debrief debug deactivatedehydrate defoliate delimit dematerialize re-: This prefix means 1) once more, afresh, anew as in the world reaccustom; 2) returning to a previous state as in restore; or 3) in return, mutually as in react etc.E.g.recap reanimate rearm reassemblereassessing reattach reapply reappear Note: There is an exception to the rule when the word to which re- attaches begins with e. In this case a hyphen is often inserted for clarity, e.g. re-examine, re-enter, re-enact. A hyphen is sometimes also used where the world formed with the prefix would be identical to an already existing words, e.g. re-cover (meaning cover again), nor recover (meaning getting better in health).4.The Italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectionalmorpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.●Sue moves in high-society circles in London.-s, third person singular, present simple tense● A traffic warden asked John to move his car.-ed, past tense●The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.has -ed, present perfect●The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.are + v-ing, present continuous (plural).5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a)go, goes, going, gone (inflection)●go, the root form●go + -es, present participle●go + -ing, present participle●gone, past participleb)discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability (derivation)●dis-, prefix ( added to the nouns to form verbs) meaning reversal●-y, suffix (added after the verbs form nouns) denoting a state or an actionor its result●-er, a noun suffix added to the verbs, meaning a person or thing thatperforms a specified action or activity●-able, an adjective suffix added to the verbs meaning able to be●-ability, a noun suffix, or a derivative suffix of -able. It can also spell as-ibility, meaning having the quality as in manageability (可处理性) and suitability (适合性).c)inventor, inventor`s, inventors, inventors` (a mixture of inflection or derivation)●derivation: invent + -or●inflection: inventor`s, inventors`, `s indicating possessive cased)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize (derivation)●-cy, added to the nouns ending with t to form another noun denoting astate governed in such a way●-ic, an adjective suffix, added to the nouns to form adjectives meaningrelated to or in resemblance with...●-ize, a suffix added to the nouns to form verbs denoting the conversion,or transforming.6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a)b)c)d)e)The strongest rower continued.f)g)h)Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.2.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.4.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.5.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.6.Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:7.M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.8.The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.9.D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.10.C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words tocreate new words.11.The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form anew word are called m___________ rules.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:12.The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme13.The compound word “bookstore” is the place wh ere books are sold. Thisindicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.14.The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part ofspeech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.15._______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words16.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semanticIV. Answer the following question(s):17.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.。
语言学第一章习题(含答案)
第一章语言的功能一、填空题.从语言的社会功能上看，语言是人类独有的最重要的交际工具和思维工具：从语言的内部结构上看，语言是一套音义结合的符号系统。
1 .文字是建立在语言基础上的最重要的辅助交际工具:旗语之类是建立在语言和」^基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。
2 . 一种语言的句子数量是无限的，但无限的句子中却包含着有限的博鼠和为数不多的规则。
3 .人类的交际工具分的交际工具和身势等非语言的交际工具。
4 .语言是一种特殊的社会现象的含义是，语言具有全人类性，没有阶级性。
5 .思维的类型可分为宜.观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维。
抽象思维的三种形式是概念、判断、推理。
6 .人和动物的区别是人会制造工具，而且人类有语言，这是人和动物相区别的重要标志之一。
7 .在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务，例如汉民族点头袤示同意，摇头表示不同意，咬牙切齿表示愤怒，手舞足蹈京示激动或高兴°.人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的上半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性思维。
8 .汉语的哥哥、弟弟，英语用brother表示:汉语的舅妈、姑妈、姨妈、婶婶，英语用aunl 表示。
9 .英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个.儿童最早的智力活动就是学习^10 .如果一个病人大脑&半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出他家的地址，却认得自己的家门。
相反，大脑）半球发生损伤，他尽管能说出他家的地址，却找不到自己的家门。
二、判断题.从理论上来说，句子的长度是可以无限的。
（1 .语言是在文字基础之上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
（X）.文字始终是从属于语言的。
（X）2 .在一定的条件下，身势等伴随动作也可以脱离语言而独立完成一些交际任务。
（J）.现代社会沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性正日渐削弱。
（X）3 .语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
（J）.我们常听人们说“工人有工人的语言，农民有农民的语言”，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
《语言学概论》课后习题答案.docx
课后习题思考题1.答：人们在各个领域的活动中都离不开语言，语言活动深入到人类生活的一切领域，这种情况必然使语言学和其他学科发生密切的联系，因此说，语言学在现代科学体系中处于领先和关键的重要地位。
⑴语言学的特定研究对象，即人类的语言几乎牵涉到现代科学的每个学科。
现代许多学科的发展最后都与语言问题、思维问题等有关，语言学的突破必将为这些学科的发展起到促进作用。
⑵语言学与社会科学、自然科学有着密切的联系，围绕着语言学，已经形成了众多的边缘学科。
2.答：语言的应用研究统称为应用语言学，它着重解决现实中与语言有关的各种实际问题，把语言学的基础研究成果转化为社会效益。
根据研究范围的不同，应用语言学有狭义和广义之分。
狭义应用语言学主要以语言教学问题为研究对象, 基本可以看作是语言教学的理论与方法的科学。
语言教学包括第一语言教学即本族语的教学和第二语言教学即外族语的教学。
第一语言的学习非常重要，因为它是学习各门知识的基础和手段，也是进行各种交际活动的工具。
第二语言教学包括本族人学习外族语及教外族人学习本族语。
广义应用语言学是把语言学的研究成果同有关学科的某些实用研究结合起来，着重解决有关学科及语言学本身所涉及的应用方面的问题。
它主要包括语言统计、信息传递、自动控制、情报检索、机器翻译、人机对话、人工智能、自然语言理解、语言文字信息处理等。
此外，还涉及到语言规划、语言的使用等问题。
3.答：转换生成语言学的创始人是美国语言学家诺姆-乔姆斯基。
转换生成语言学的研究对象是语言能力而不是语言行为。
1957年，乔姆斯基出版《句法结构》一书，标志着转换生成语言学的诞生。
转换生成语法理论是欧美语言学理论中最有影响的一种，因此，它的诞生被称为“乔姆斯基革命”。
乔姆斯基的生成语法学理论使我们在一定程度上摆脫了行为主义言语获得理论的束缚，认识到婴儿言语获得过程中神经系统的重要作用，同时也向我们提出了研究言语过程的心理机制的问题，这是很有理论意义和借鉴价值的。
语言学课后练习
语言学教程(修订版) 练习参考答案修订版第一章语言学导论 1第二章语音 3第三章词汇 8第四章句法 11第五章语义 15第六章语言与思维 18第七章语言、文化与社会 20第八章语用 21第九章语言与文学 24第十章语言与计算机 25第十一章语言学与外语教学 28第十二章现代语言学的学派与理论 30第一章语言学导论1. Define the following terms:1) design features: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2) function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).Language functions include informative function (also ideational function), interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3) etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviorsly inconsequential, differentiations, just as was often the case with phonetic vs. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4) emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.5) synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixedinstant(usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6) diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7) prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.8) descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9) arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, whichrefers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning(2) At the syntactic level(3) Arbitrariness and convention (convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning)10) duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.11) displacement: one design feature of human language, which means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.12) phatic communion: one function of human language, which refersto the social interaction of language.13) metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.14) macrolinguistics: The interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.15) competence: a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16) performance: the actual use of language in concretesituations.(Chomsky, 1965:3)17) langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18) parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of language that each gives.After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussingwhich points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?Not really. Onomatopoeia is at most suggestive of the natural sounds they try to capture. They are arbitrary as signifiers.Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. For example, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)Yes. Changing the order of the two clauses may change the meaningof the sentence, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators such as “before” or “after” will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combinedfreely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, red—stop, green—go and yellow—get ready to go or stop.7. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.8. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication.It is decided by their shared design features.9. Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？10. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I. (B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to? (B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything. (B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal andI is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.11. Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories.It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.12. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidlyin China and why? (up to you)13. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?Ethnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state changes within the individual, such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness.14. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a varietyof different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an accountof the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation.(M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquir ing the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.附：1. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…2. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor bu t honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings?When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking.A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.3. There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking,for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.第二章语音1. Define the following terms:1) articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.2) coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is know as anticipatory coarticulation.If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation, as is the case of map.3) Voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds.When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be “voiced”. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be “voiceless”. When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop [?]4) Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.5) consonant: consonants are sound segments produced byconstricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.6) phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.7) vowel: vowels are sound segments produced without obstruction of the vocal tract, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.8) allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.9) manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.10) place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.11) distinctive features: a term of phonology, i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another. (suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s)12) complementary distribution: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.13) IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 2005.14) suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.2. Answer the following questions.1) What organs are involved in speech production?Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in theoral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered toallow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the “Adam’s Apple”. The larynx contains the vocal folds, also known as “vocal cords” or “vocal bands”, a nd the ventricular folds. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam’s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.2) How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips andits final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air. The former is known as the Manner of Articulationand the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract foran instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between thelips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation aredistinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this space would involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positionsfor vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue canachieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowestposition the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or close -mid, and mid-low or open-mid).3) To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds inthem, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.4) What is assimilation?The change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.3. Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1) [e]2) [?]3) [?]4) [d]5) [p]6) [k]7) [l]8) [?]9) [u?]10) [?]1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel注：lax:短音，tense: 长音4. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B Cbite [b??t] bide [ba?d] tie [ta?]rice [r??s] rise [ra?z] by [ba?]type [t??p] bribe [bra?b] sigh [sa?]wife [w??f] wives [wa?vz] die [da?]tyke [t??k] time [ta?m] why [wa?]nine [na?n]tile [ta?l]tire [ta?r]writhe [ra?e]1) How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B be characterized?All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([ - voiced ]) and all the sounds that end the words in column B arevoiced([ + voiced ]).2) How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B?The words in column C are all open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) Are [??] and [a?] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [??]appear before voiceless consonants and [a?] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?Life [l??f] lives[la?vz]5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice (d) fly (e) mine(a) [tra?l] (b) [b??k] (c) [l??s] (d) [fla?] (e) [ma?n]6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to the phonetic transcriptions of the words given above./a?/ →[??] / _____[–voice][a?] in other places5. What is the rule that underlies the past tense forms of the regular verbs in English? Collect some data and state the rule.d→ id/t /[ - voiced ]d elsewherecons: continual. 附：Low(1) /p/→[p]/[s]__________/p/在[s]后发音为[p][p] elsewhere/p/在其它地方发音为[p](2) /l/→[l]/__________V/l/在元音前发音为[l] (alveolar)[?]/V__________/l/在元音后发音为[?] (lateral)(3) f, v; , ; s, z;Fricatives and affricatives in English may be assimilated in voicing.(4) /v/→[f]voiced fricative →voiceless/__________voiceless在清音间前摩擦音变为清音(5) Nasalization rule[ - nasal] →[ + nasal]/__________ [ + nasal](6) Dentalization rule[ - dental] →[ + dental]/__________ [ + dental](7) Velarization rule[ - velar] →[ + velar]/__________[ + velar](8) → [n]/[]__________Va在元音前发音为[n] (an)(9) a. The /s/ appears after voiceless sounds.b. The /z/ appears after voiced sounds. (All vowels are voiced.)c. The /z/ appears after sibilants.(10) z → s /[ - voice, C]__________ (Devoicing浊音变清音)(11) → /sibilant__________ z (Epenthesis插音)(12) a. // + // b.// + // c.// + //N/A N/A Epenthesiss N/A N/A Devoicingbdz kesz Output(13)a. [ - voiced, - cont] → [ - spread]/s______b. [ + spread]spread: aspirated.(14) Syllabic structure of clasp(15) Sonority scale:Most sonorous醒目的 5 Vowels4 Approximants3 Nasals2 FricativesLost sonorous 1 Stops(16) clasp(18) *lkaps。
《语言学概论》课后习题参考答案
《语言学概论》练习（一）参考答案一、填空1、中国、印度、希腊—罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐渐发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
4、一个符号，如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有形式，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。
5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。
6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。
7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子。
8、语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这种关系是组合关系和聚合关系。
9、组合关系是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合关系是指符号在性质上的归类。
二、判断正误1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）2、地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
（错）3、在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（错）4、现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。
（错）5、语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。
（对）6、语言和思维互相依存，共同发展。
（对）7、任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。
（错）8、从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。
（对）9、人类选择语音而不是色彩、手势作为语言符号的形式，是因为语音比较好听。
（错）10、语言符号的约定俗成是指语音形式和意义内容的结合是社会成员共同约定认同的。
（对）三、问答题：1、语言的作用是什么，举例说明。
为什么说语言是最重要的交际工具？答：它是人类社会的交际工具。
每个社会，无论它是经济发达的社会，还是经济十分落后的社会，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离不开语言这个交际工具，语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物区别的重要特征之一。
《语言学概论》课后习题参考答案
《语言学概论》练习（一）参考答案一、填空1、中国、印度、希腊—罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐渐发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
4、一个符号，如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有形式，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。
5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。
6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。
7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子。
8、语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这种关系是组合关系和聚合关系。
9、组合关系是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合关系是指符号在性质上的归类。
二、判断正误1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）2、地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
（错）3、在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（错）4、现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。
（错）5、语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。
（对）6、语言和思维互相依存，共同发展。
（对）7、任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。
（错）8、从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。
（对）9、人类选择语音而不是色彩、手势作为语言符号的形式，是因为语音比较好听。
（错）10、语言符号的约定俗成是指语音形式和意义内容的结合是社会成员共同约定认同的。
（对）三、问答题：1、语言的作用是什么，举例说明。
为什么说语言是最重要的交际工具？答：它是人类社会的交际工具。
每个社会，无论它是经济发达的社会，还是经济十分落后的社会，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离不开语言这个交际工具，语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物区别的重要特征之一。
语言学概论 语言学课后习题答案
P7 3. Discuss the relation of arbitrariness and rules?Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.P12 3.Please explain the primacy of human language over animalcommunication.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may beimpossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances,but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animalcommunication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animalcommunication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages areopen-ended.P18 1. Identify the functions of the following sentences.a)I like your house very much. b)I now declare the meeting closed.c)Nice to meet you d)I met Mary in the library this morning.a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. InformativefunctionP24 2.Please list five Chinese onomatopoetic words轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3.What are the functions of onomatopoetic words?Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.P28 3.What is the real object of linguistics?The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.P58 1. What is a phoneme? And what is an allophone?Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block thatcannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.P62 1. What does the word 'distinctive' mean in the term 'distinctive features'?Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.P65 1. What does complementary distribution mean?When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say,complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more soundsoccur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which theother sound(s) never occur(s).P69 2. What is the importance of stress in English?Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.P75 3. How can you identify the meaning of a word?Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including theconnotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, andcollocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As forits various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context,including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context ofculture.P821. Divide the following words into morphemes by placing a "+" between each morpheme and the next.1) unbearable 2) watchful 3) personification 4) unexceptionally5) uneducated 6) inspiring 7) soft-hearted 8) horsemanship1. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + except+tion + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship3. How many allomorphs does the plural form s have?The plural s has 3 phonologically-conditioned allomorphs... and 5morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en:as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth";and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".P93 2. What is the difference between lexeme and word?A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that canbe distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest formof a language that can occur by itself. A lexeme may be or may not be identical with aword. For example, the definite article "the" is both a lexeme and a word. However,the lexeme "put up with" has three different words.P100 1. Is immediate constituent analysis effective to explain discontinuousconstituents?No. Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence. One approach to explain sentences with discontinuous constituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related.One phrase marker is derived from another. By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively. Transformational rules are responsible for the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2. Diagram the constituent structure of each of the following.(a) a very old wooden house down the lane(b) His old friend arrived yesterday.P103 2. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a tree diagram of constituent structure for each of the following sentences:(a) A smart boy fooled the class.(b) The pavilion on the hill collapsed in the wind.(c) Everybody knew that the president would win the election.P110 1. Draw the tree diagrams for the following sentences:(1) She found a book on Madison Street.(2) Jack advised Henry to see the dentist.(3) Jack promised Henry to see the doctor.P115Exercises:What is the relationship between surface structure and deep structure?Surface structure can be derived from deep structure. A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker. This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure. In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents. The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed through transformational rules. In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed. The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structureP120 1. The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntactic movement. Show the deep structures for each of following sentences.(a) The boss of the bus company was severely criticized by the public.(b) The woman threw the rake away in the yard.(c) Will the new school master hire her?(a) The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are thesubject NP (here the public), the object NP (here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V (criticize) and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted. The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b) In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure,The woman threw away the rake in the yard. is also the deep structure. It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V (verb) consists of a Vprt (verbsthat can combine with verbal particles) and a Prt (verbal particles). In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c) The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarativesentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence (in this case, will) immediately before the first NP of that sentence (here, the new school master). So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2. Please display the transformational rules involved in the followingsentences.(a) What can the computer program do for us?A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similarto that of the declarative counterpart. So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive from a deep structure in the form of The computer program can do "what" for us?. The wh-element occurs initially and is followed by tense and an auxiliary. In this sentence, the object is fronted. First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer program - known as 'I' (inflexion) movement, and in the second step, a 'wh' transformation - known as 'wh' movement - that moves the noun phrase what- "the content", to the front of the sentence, see the following diagram.(b) The window was broken by Jack.This sentence is traditionally called the "passive" sentence, and its variant is "active".This pair is broadly speaking the same in meaning. The formulations of the passive rules must capture the fact that the active sentence and the passive sentence have their NP's (here the window and Jack) in reverse order, and that both a be + en auxiliary and the preposition by occur in the passive sentences and not in the active ones. AUX refers to past tense in this sentence.(c) They gave the door a gentle push.A corresponding sentence to the sentence is They gave a gentle push to the door. Both ofwhich have the same basic meaning, and differ in the order of NP's in the VP. In the corresponding sentence we find NP1 + to + NP2, in the above given sentence. Yet, in the sentence They gave the door a gentle push., we have reversed NP's. Transformational rules capture these facts by viewing the sentence, They gave the door a gentle push. as derived from the sentence, They gave a gentle push to the door., by deleting to and reverses the order of (i.e., permutes) the two NP's. A phrase marker is changed into a new one.P133 Exercise 2:2. What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.P140 Exercise 1&3：1、Please explain why there are not true synonyms.True synonyms are rare. The so-called "synonyms" are always different either in their origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.3、What category of antonym does each of the following pair of wordsbelong to?a. black, whiteb. buy, sellc. big, smalld. parent, childe. upstairs,downstairs f. polite, rudea)black, white: complementary antonyms; b)buy, sell: relational antonyms;c）big, small: gradable antonyms; d)parent,child:relational antonyms;f)polite,rude: complementary antonyms.P142 Exercise 2:2. What is the semantic relation between the words in the following pairs.1) hand, foot 2) rose, narcissus 3) tree, willow 4) bottle, cork1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or "subordinates"), each denoting apart of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy;they are both the subordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree isthe hypernym (or "superordinate") and willow is the hyponym (or "subordinate).In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. "cork"is part of a bottle.P146 Exercise 3:3. What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy?When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.P150 Exercise 1&2：1. Try to identify the presuppositions that lie behind each of the followingutterances:a) John has stopped smoking. b) She regretted having told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. d) The paper turned red when itwas dipped into the liquid.a) John has stopped smoking. →John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret.→She had told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. →The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. →The paperwas dipped into the liquid2. What does each of the following utterances entail?a) He lost his bike yesterday. b) They went to the Great Wall.c) Mary's computer is terrific. d) We met two of our friends at the party.a) He lost his bike yesterday. →His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. →They are not here at present.c) Mary's computer is terrific.→Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party. →Two of our friends were at theparty.P154 Exercise 2:2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic features are essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify.Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, for they seem to have no semantic features.P156 Exercise 1:1. Please identify the types of predicate in each of the verbs in the followingsentences.a) He gave me the book. b) It was snowing hard.c) The computer is working properly. d) Someone invented the story.a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs threearguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the)book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs noargument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does notplay the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs oneargument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs twoarguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.P159 Exercise 2:2. Please comment on the role of tautology in the following:看看人家，冰箱是冰箱，彩电是彩电。
语言学课后练习(附参考答案)
Chapter 1I. Define the following terms.1. design features2. diachronic3. arbitrariness4. competence5. parole6. prescriptive7. duality 8. performance 9. synchronic10. descriptive 11. displacement 12. langueII. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?Answer:Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.III. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language? Answer:On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means “OK/YES” for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.IV. Why is the distinction between competence and performance important in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept communicative competence?Answer:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair---competence and performance.Chapter 2I. Define the following terms.1. phonetics2. consonant3. allophone4. vowel5. assimilation6. syllable7. intonation8. phonology 9. phoneme 10. toneII. Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1. [ð]2. [ʃ]3. [ŋ]4. [d]5. [p]6. [k]7. [l]8. [i]9. [u:] 10. [ɔ]Answers:1. [ð]: voiced dental fricative2. [ʃ]: voiceless postalveolar fricative3. [ŋ]: velar nasal4. [d]: voiced alveolar stop5. [p]: voiceless bilabial stop6. [k]: voiceless velar stop7. [l]: (alveolar) lateral 8. [i]: high front unrounded lax vowel9. [u:]: high back rounded tense vowel10. [ɔ]: low back rounded lax vowelIII. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below.1. voiceless labiodental fricative2. voiced postalveolar fricative3. palatal approximant4. voiceless glottal fricative5. voiceless alveolar stop6. high-mid front unrounded vowel7. high central rounded vowel 8. low front rounded vowel9. low-mid back rounded vowel10. high back rounded tense vowelAnswers:1. [f]2. [Ʒ]3. [j]4. [h]5. [t]6. [e]7. [ʉ]8. [ɶ]9. [ɔ] 10. [u:]IV. To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?Answer:Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology is the study of sound systems that occur in a language and the patterns where they fall in. Minimal pairs, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it focuses on chaos. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add theappropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language. It focuses on order.V. The pronunciation of tell is [teɫ], but that of teller is [telə]. Discuss why the phoneme /l/ is realized as [ɫ] and [l] respectively in this situation.Answer:The word teller is formed by adding a suffix –er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the [l] must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme [l] is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word is formed. In word-formation it is tell+-er while in syllablestructure it is [te+lə].Chapter 3I. Define the following terms.1. morpheme2. affix3. allomorph4. free morpheme5. derivation6. stem7. blending8. back-formation9. inflection 10. root 11. bound morpheme 12. acronym II. Complete the words with suitable negative prefixes.a. removable m. syllabicb. formal n. normalc. practicable o. workabled. sensible p. writtene. tangible q. usualf. logical r. thinkableg. regular s. humanh. proportionate t. relevanti. effective u. editablej. elastic v. mobilek. ductive w. legall. rational x. discreetAnswers:a.irremovable m. dissyllabicrmal n. abnormalc.impracticable o. unworkabled.insensible p. unwrittene.intangible q. unusualf.illogical r. unthinkableg.irregular s. inhumanh.disproportionate t. irrelevanti.ineffective u. uneditablej.inelastic v. immobilek.inductive w. illegall.irrational x. indiscreetIII. Morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammaticalconcept or a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme? Can amorpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole?Answer:Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, that is, it is involved both in grammatical and semantic aspects.A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. For example, the phoneme /s/ in ‘looks’, ‘tapes’, ‘Frank’s’, ‘race’ is the same one, yet they represent different morphemes or even is not a morpheme individually. The phoneme /s/ in ‘looks’: the third-person singular present tense morpheme; the phoneme/s/ in ‘tapes’: the plural morpheme; the pho neme /s/ in ‘Frank’s’: the possessive case morpheme; the phoneme /s/ in ‘race’: is not a morpheme, for it has neither lexical meaning or grammatical meaning.Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structure other than a single phoneme. In other words, a morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. an independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.Chapter 4I. Define the following terms.1. syntax2. constituent3. subordination4. endocentric5. category6. construction7. exocentric8. coordinateII. Put brackets around the immediate constituents in each sentence.1.I rode back when it was dark.2.The boy was crying.3.Shut the door.4.Open the door quickly.5. The happy teacher in that class was becoming away.6. He bought an old car with his first pay cheque.Answers:1.((I) ((rode) (back))) ((when) ((it) ((was) (dark)))).2.((The) (boy)) ((was) (crying)).3.(Shut) ((the) (door)).4.((Open) ((the) (door))) (quickly).5. ((The) (((happy) (teacher)) ((in) ((that) (class))))) ((was) ((becoming) (away))).6. (He) ((( bought) ((an) ((old) (car)))) ((with) ((his) ((first) ((pay)(cheque)))))).III. For each of the underlined constructions or word groups, do the following.—State whether it is headed or non-headed.—If headed, state its headword.—Name the type of constructions.e.g.: His son will be keenly competing.Answer: headed; headword—competing; verbal group(a) Ducks quack.(b) The ladder in the shed is long enough.(c) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.(d) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries.(e) His handsome face appeared in the magazine.(f) A lady of great beauty came out.(g) He enjoys climbing high mountains.(h) The man nodded patiently.(i) A man roused by the insult drew his sword.Answers:(a) non-headed; independent clause(b) non-headed; prepositional phrase(c) headed; headword---damaged; adjectival group(d) headed; headword---singing; gerundial phrase(e) headed; headword---face; nominal group(f) non-headed; prepositional phrase(g) headed; headword---climbing; gerundial phrase(h) non-headed; independent clause(i) headed; headword---roused; adjectival phraseChapter 5 MeaningI. Define the following terms.1. conceptual meaning2. denotation3. connotation4. reference5. sense6. synonymy7. gradable antonymy 8. complementary antonymy9. converse antonymy 10. relational opposites11. hyponymy 12. superordinateII. Do the following according the requirements.(a) Write out the synonyms of the following words:youth; automobile; remember; purchase; vacation; big (b) Give the antonyms of the following words:dark; boy; hot; go; lend; male(c) Provide two or more related meanings for the following:bright; to glare; a deposit; planeAnswers:(a) youth: adolescent automobile: carremember: recall purchase: buyvacation: holidays big: large(b) dark: light boy: girlhot: cold go: comelend: borrow male: female(c) bright: a. shining; b. intelligentto glare: a. to shine intensely; b. to stare angrilya deposit: a. minerals in the earth; b. money in the bankplane: a. a flying vehicle; b. a flat surface。
语言学概论课后答案
《语言学概论》习题答案(自考,新版教材) 选择题第一章总论1 言语是×. 言论与语言×. 音义结合的符号系统√. 说话和所说的话2 语言是一种×. 形式和内容相统一的视觉符号√. 音义结合的听觉符号系统×. 用来交际的触觉符号系统3 抽象思维的一般特性是×. 概括性、民族性×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造√. 概括性、社会性4 语言是思维的工具指的是×. 一切思维必须由语言完成√. 主要指抽象思维和直观动作思维、形象思维的高级阶段离不开语言×. 指直观动作思维和表象思维离不开语言5 思维的三种类型是√. 直观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造6 语言符号的任意性是×. 语言符号的创造和使用总是任意的×. 我们可以任意理解语言的符号√. 语言符号音义之间没有本质的联系7 语言符号的线条性×. 语言符号的排列没有阶级性，象一根线条排列在一起×. 语言符号一个跟一个依次出现，随时间推移不分层次逐渐延伸√. 语言符号在时间的线条上逐个出现，同时不排除层次性8 "他肯定不会来了！" 这句话强调了说者的×. 说话行为√. 施事行为×. 取效行为×. 言语行为9汉语声调从中古到现代的"平分阴阳，入派三声"的规律是√. 个别语言的发展规律×. 一般语言的发展规律×. 汉民族各种方言的发展规律□一个民族内部共同使用的语言称为√. 民族共同语×. 民族交际语×. 国际交际语10 克里奥尔语是语言的√. 混合×. 融合×. 分化×. 整化11 语言融合的"底层"现象是×. 语言装置的最下面一层，即语音部分√. 被融合的语言的某些遗留下来的因素×. 被压迫的阶层第二章语音□声调决定于√. 音高×. 音强×. 音长×. 音质□[p、t?、b、k]在发音方法上的共同特点是×. 清音×. 不送气√. 塞音×. 擦音□舌尖后浊擦音是×. [x] ×. [b] √. [?] ×. [z]□[tA]（大）是√. 开音节×. 闭音节×. 元音首音节√. 辅音首音节□[]（血）中的[?]是×. 起音√. 领音×. 收音□[kai51]（盖）中的[i]是×. 起音×. 领音√. 收音×. 辅音□普通话[?in55k?u214]（辛苦）快读是[?i? 55k?u214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化×. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□普通话[f?n214pi214]快读是[f?m35pi214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化√. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□普通话[tou51fu214]（豆腐）快读是[tou51f]这种现象是×. 同化×. 异化×. 弱化√. 脱落×. 增音第三章语义□________是指语言单位的意义在一定的语境的作用下，内部变得具体、丰富或增加一些附加意义。
语言学概论课后习题答案(胡晓研)
术语解释1.语言学：语言学就是专门以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。
语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题，揭示语言存在和发展的规律，使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。
2.语文学：语文学是从文献角度研究语言文字学科的总称。
它以文献评审为主，目的在于解释、注疏和考订。
3.语言：语言是一种特殊的社会现象，它作为人类最重要的交际工具为全社会服务，它同人的思维有密切的联系，是人区别于其他动物的本质特征之一，语言是音义结合的符号系统。
4.言语：言语是人们为了某种目的，在特定条件下发生的说话行为和说出来的话。
这里的“说话行为”是指说话的动作和过程；“说出来的话”是指一连串有意义的声音。
5.索绪尔：现代语言学的历史，是从瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔开始的。
索绪尔的代表作是《普通语言学教程》。
索绪尔被誉为“现代语言学之父”，《普通语言学教程》是现代语言学的奠基之作。
索绪尔的语言学思想和19世纪以前的语文学最根本的区别在于：把语言看成是由各个符号之间的关系组成的有价值的结构系统。
6.布龙菲尔德：是美国描写语言学派的核心人物。
他们注重语言行为的描写，而不注重语言能力的解释；着眼于语言间的差异，而不重视语言的普遍性。
其著作有《语言论》7.乔姆斯基：1957年美国语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基《句法结构》的出版，标志着“转换生成语法”的诞生。
这一理论是建立在理性主义的哲学基础之上的，它完全不同于建立在经验主义基础之上的美国结构主义，因此，它的出现是对当时居于主流地位的美国结构主义语言学的一大挑战，被人称作“乔姆斯基革命”。
8.菲尔墨：是格语法的代表，其代表作是1968年发表的《格辩》。
他认为标准理论无法说明类似下列两个句子中名词短语与动词短语之间的关系究竟有何区别：Thechildopensthedoor./Thekeyopensthedoor.这种名词短语与动词短语之间的功能关系只有用更深一层的语义区别才能解释清楚。
英语语言学概论第三版课后练习题含答案
英语语言学概论第三版课后练习题含答案第一章绪论
1.简述语言的定义及其特点。
答：语言是人类交流思想、感情和意志的符号系统。
它具有以下特点：•人类独有性：只有人类才能拥有语言能力。
•交际性：语言是交流的工具。
•社会性：语言是社会文化的产物。
•文化性：语言是文化中心。
•双重指指性：语言既可以指称实际存在的实体、事件和关系，也可以指称抽象的概念、意义和想象。
•交通性：语言符号的可传递性。
第二章语音学
1.简述国际音标的出现及其特点。
答：国际音标是国际音韵学者为了能够准确地表示各国语音而发展出来的一种共同表音符号。
它的特点包括：
•形式稳定：国际音标使用的符号稳定，统一且规范化。
•指音性别：国际音标能指明一个音到底是元音还是辅音，可以度量语音的音高。
•表示语音环境：国际音标可以显示语音的特定发音环境。
•独立的字母符号：国际音标各符号代表唯一的语音。
2.什么是音位?音素?请举例说明
答：音位是声音在一种特定语言或方言中的意义区别的最小单位。
音素是语言
中被认为是单个发音单位的最小音单位。
音位和音素有相似之处，但是音位是意义区别的最小单位，而音素是语音体系中的最小音单位。
例如，在英语中，“bat”和“pat”是两个不同的单词，它们的差别在于第一
个音位的发音不同。
即使两个单词中其他的音素相同，“b”和“p”都是辅音音素，但是它们被语言学家视为在英语中区别语义的两个不同音位。
语言学chapter1课后练习答案
Chapter 1Revision exercises reference1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is thescientific study of language?Refer to section1.1.1Linguistics investigates not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Arabic and Latin, but language in general. Its ultimate goal is to find the rules that govern the structure and use of language that can be applied to all human languages. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of objective linguistic data, not sentence made up by linguists themselves. In their investigation linguistics follow a procedure quite similar to that of natural scientists. First of all they have to observe and collect language facts, i.e. the language people actually use. Based on the data thus obtained, they make some hypotheses about the structure of the language. Then the hypotheses have to be checked again and again against more language data before its validity is fully proved. Only at this stage can the linguists draw a conclusion. From the way the linguists work, we can say their study of language is objective and scientific.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Refer to section1.1.2The major branches of linguistics include the following:Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistics communication.Phonology: The study how sounds are put together and are used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: The study of how morphemes, i.e. symbols, are arranged and combined to form work.Syntax: The study of rules that govern the grammatical formation of sentences.Semantics: The study of language meaning.Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in actual communication.The study of language can also be combined with other branches of learning of the humanities. These include the following:Sociolinguistics: The study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholinguistics: The study of how the mind works when language is used.Applied linguistics: The study of how findings in linguistics studies can be applied to the solution of practical problem, such as the recovery of speech ability and foreign language teaching and learning.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditionalgrammar?Refer to section 1.1.3, part 6.Modern linguistics and traditional grammar differ in at least the following three ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A modern linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said.He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of “correctness”.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Thirdly, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists, it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another.4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic because modern linguists believe that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather thanto writing?Refer to section 1.1.3, part 3.First, from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Above all, for modern linguistics, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech .Thus the former is authentic language in their eyes, and thus the source of data for their investigation.6.How i s Saussure’s distinction between language and parole similar toChomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?According to Saussure, language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. Language is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of theconventions and application of the rules. Chomsky defines competence as the id eal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. The similarity between the two distinctions is that Saussure’s language and Chomsky’s competence refer to what the lang uage user knows about his language, and Saussure’s parole and Chomsky’s performance refer to the actual use of language.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good,comprehensive definition of language?A comprehensive definition of language should include the following features:1) Language is governed by rules; thus it is a system, or it is systematic.2) Language is primarily spoken, rather than written; therefore the system ofsymbols used in language is vocal rather than written.3) The symbols used in language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connectionbetween the symbols and meanings.4) Language is used by humans to communicate with each other.5) And finally language is human-specific, i.e. it is unique to the human species.All the five features mentioned above are included in the following concise definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?In the coursebook five of the twelve features of human language specified by C.Hockett are discussed: arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement, and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary,i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.This feature may seem to be shared by animal communication systems, as the means used by animals to communicate are also arbitrary. But the arbitrary nature of human language is a sign of sophistication and makes it possible for human language to have an unlimited source of expression.The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. This feature is undoubtedly human-specific for animals have, if any, a very limited number of signals for communication.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower or the basic level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher or the superficial level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number. This enables language users to express whatever they want to express. This feature is not possessed by anyanimal communication system.The feature “displacement” means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future. This means that the expressive power of human language is not restricted to “the here and now.” In contrast, animal communication is restricted to the current time and circumstances. Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it. The ability to use a language is not transmitted genetically from our parents. But young animals seem to be born with the ability to use particular ways to communicate with their fellow creatures.9.What are the major functions of the language? Think of your own examplesfor illustration.Refer to section 1.2.3.To answer this question, you can base yourself on either tripartite framework or Jakobson’s model of language functions.According to the tripartite framework, there are three main functions: descriptive, expressive, and social.In Jakobson’s model, six functions have been specified: emotive, conative, referential, poetic, phatic communication, and metalinguistic.Supplementary exerciseWhy do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can beformed out of a small number of elements -----for instance, tens of thousands of words out ofa small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, whichin turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systemsdo not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, it will be like animal communicationalsystem which will be highly limited . It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations ( e.g. words ), which are distinct in meaning.。
《语言学概论》课后练习题（附答案）
《语言学概论》课后练习题（附答案）语言学概论一、单项选择题1. 由单纯字符组合而成的字符，被叫做（）。
A. 声符B. 单纯字符C. 复合字符D. 意符【正确答案】 C2. 语言是个层级体系，底层是语音单位层，凡是跟底层语言单位联系的文字就叫（）。
A. 楔形文字B. 象形文字C. 表意文字D. 表音文字【正确答案】 D3. 语言是个层级体系，上层是音义结合的符号层，凡是跟上层语言单位联系的文字就叫（）。
A. 楔形文字B. 象形文字C. 表意文字D. 表音文字【正确答案】 C4. “楔形文字” 也叫（）。
A. 丁头字B. 大头字C. 丁形字D. 图文字【正确答案】 A5. 刻在雕像座、庙宇和金字塔墓室石头和祭器上的（），是一种象形程度很高的符号。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 模形体【正确答案】 A6. 跟碑铭体并行的有一种僧侶阶层平时使用的已经线条化的近乎草书的字体，称为（）。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 圣书字【正确答案】 B7. 公元前7世纪还出现了一种在僧侣体基础上加以简化供老百姓使用的字体，称为（）。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 圣书字【正确答案】 C8. 腓尼基文字被称做（）。
A. 元音音素文字B. 表意文字C. 辅音音素文字D. 意音文字【正确答案】 C9.希腊人在借用腓尼基文字来书写希腊语时增添了（）。
A. 元音字母B. 辅音字母C. 多音节语素D. 单音节语素【正确答案】 A10. 把两个或两个以上象形字或指事字拼合在一起且把它们的意义结合成一个新的意义的造字方法叫做（）。
A. 象形B. 形声C. 会意D. 指事【正确答案】 C11. 炼字的基本功是（）。
A. 精心挑选关键词语B. 恰当使用修饰词语C. 合理使用修辞手法D. 注意词语的巧妙配合【正确答案】 A12. 一般来说，（）的特点是信息量大、逻辑严谨、细致准确。
A. 长句B. 短句C. 陈述句D. 反问句【正确答案】 A13. 我国古典诗文中常用的修辞方式是（）。
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Chapter 1Introduction1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign and what itrelates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters)combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formal abstraction anddistinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e. performance.(6) performance: Chomsky’s te rm for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features.(8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintainsocial contact between the speaker and the hearer.(9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function incommunication.(10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.(11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are used at a givenmoment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrast to looking atlanguage as it is used at a given moment.2. No, language is human-specific. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural tra nsmission. These features are found utterly lacking in dogs’ or pigs’ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection bet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.5. Firstly, linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of the written language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man’s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of productivity also distinguishes human language from wolf ’s postures.Chapter 2The Sounds of Language1. Define each of the following terms briefly.(1) articulator: the tongue, lips, and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract toproduce different speech sounds.(2) assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phonetically similar (oridentical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when followed by a[+nasal] consonant.(3) consonant: a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocaltract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Consonants aredescribed in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.(4) elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.(5) intonation: the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and rhythm to the tune thevoice plays in ordinary speech.(6) phoneme: the abstract element of a sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.(7) phonetics: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced,how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8) phonology: the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.(9) stress: the prominence given to certain sounds in speech.(10) voicing: the vibration in the larynx caused by air from the lungs passingthrough the vocal cords when they are partly closed; speech sounds are said to be eithervoiced or voiceless.(11) voiceless: When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from thelungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely.The sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless sounds.(12) vowel: a speech sound produced without significant constriction of the air flowingthrough the oral cavity.2. Minimal pair test or substitution test.Minimal pair test or substitution test is to see whether substituting one sound for 4another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example, as to the English word bear, if we substitute p for b, we get the word pear, the two are different words. Then /b/ and /p/ represent different phonemes. Other examples are chunk/junk, ban/bin, bet/beat, fine/vine, side/site, etc.3. Take the word big for example, in the word big /big/, /b/ is the onset, /i/ is the nucleus and /g/ is the coda. The difference between open syllables and closed syllables is whether the words have codas. If there are codas, they are closed syllables, such as pig, hat and at; if not, they are open syllables, such as do, I, tea and key.4. (1) stop, consonant(2) back, rounded, vowel5. (1) voiceless / voiced(2) bilabial / labiodental(3) close / semi-open(4) stop / nasal(5) alveolar / palatal(6) alveolar / dental(1) kit/git, bucker/bugger, bag/back(2) mark/nark, smack/snack, sum/sun(3) best/vest, ober/over, lib/live(4) bore/more, abate/amate, mob/mom(5) pat/fat, apt/aft (AmE), harp (BrE)/half7. (1) The stresses are placed on the second syllable except for “promise”. We may easily conclude that the verbs usually are stressed on the second syllable.(2) Syllable representations of the words:collide [k2#laid] elect [i#lekt] consider [k2n#sid2]Chapter 3Morphology1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) morphology: the study of the structure of words.5(2) morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves agrammatical function.(3) free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word, e.g.ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the levelof parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s, -es, and en are allallomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(7) derivation: the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morpheme s inmorphology and word formation.(8) clipping: the process by which parts of a word of more than one syllable have been cutoff, and reduced to a shorter form.(9) acronym: words which are composed of the first letter of a series of words and arepronounced as single words. Examples: NATO, radar and yuppy.(10) initialism: Some new words are composed of the first letters of a series of wordsand pronounced by saying each letter in them. Such words are called initialism.(11) blending: A single new word can be formed by combining two separate forms.Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word andjoining it to the end of another word. For example, brunch is formed by theshortened forms of breakfast and lunch.(12) root: the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word, e.g.system from un- + system + atic + ally.(13) stem: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complexform that may be another stem or a word. For example, book is the stem of bookish. (14) prefix: Affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which casethey are called prefixes.(15) suffix: Affixes can be joined to the end of the root or ste m, in which case they are calledsuffixes.2. (3), (5), (7)3. (1) simple: fly tree suite(2) bound morpheme rootfly / flyreuse re- usespiteful -ful spitepreplan pre- plandesks -s desktriumphed -ed triumphsuite / suiteoptionality -ality optionuntie un- tiedelight de- lightfastest -est fastprettier -ier prettytree / treejustly -ly justdeform de- formmistreat mis- treatdislike dis- likepayment -ment paydisobey dis- obeypremature pre- mature4. (1) Column I: ablaut (vowel modific ation)Column II: suppletionColumn III: stress modification(2) The process in the Column I is finished by changing the vowel of each word, while inColumn II, the process is finished by changing vowel and consonant of each word. (3) Column I: awake/awoke bear/bore arise/aroseblow/blew bite/bit hide/hidlie/lay know/knew foot/feetgoose/geese tooth/teeth louse/liceColumn II: bad/worse are/were many/moreColumn III: ‘combine/com’bine ‘compress/com’press7‘conduct/con’duct ‘insert/in’sert‘insult/in’sult ‘intern/in’tern5. (1) Omitted.(2) Other examples:‘rerun (n.) –re’run (v.) ‘contra st (n.) –con’trast (v.)‘convert (n.) –con’vert (v.) ‘desert (n.) –de’sert (v.)‘export (n.) –ex’port (v.) ‘increase (n.) –in’crease (v.)‘conduct (n.) –con’duct (v.) ‘object (n.) –ob’ject (v.)‘content (n.) –con’tent (v.) ‘prote st (n.) –pro’test (v.)‘insult (n.) –in’sult (v.) ‘produce (n.) –pro’duce (v.)When a word belongs to different word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on different syllables. When all the words above are stressed on t he first syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verbs.6. (1) It means “the inhabitant of ”.(2) It means “the person who does”.(3) The morphological rule working here is “n. + -er ––n.”, and the lastphoneme of the noun, which the suffix -er is added to, should be a consonant. (4) The rule in (3) doesn’t work in the word discoverer because the last phonemeof discoverer is a vowel /2/.7. (1) inflection (2) derivation (3) inflection (4) inflection (5) derivationChapter 4Syntax1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentencestructure.(2) word class: a group of words which are similar in function; words which are grouped intoword classes according to how they combine with other words, how they change theirforms, etc.(3) prescriptive approach: This view regards grammar as a set of rules forthe 8“proper” use of a language, that’s to say, it tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language.(4) descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with which linguists collectsamples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regularstructures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how theyshould be used.(5) IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituentsby using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents. For example, theimmediate constituents of “The man bought a car” are the man and bought a car. Theimmediate constituents of the man are the and man, and so on until no further cutscan be made. The ultimate constituents of “The man bought a car” at the word level arethe, man, bought, a, and car.(6) structural analysis: a type of descriptive approach to study the distribution of linguisticforms in a language through such me thods as the use of “test frames”.(7) immediate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into small constituents, whichcan be further analyzed into smaller constituents. This process continues until no further divisions are possible. The first division or units are known as immediateconstituents.(8) ultimate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into small constituents, which canbe further analyzed into smaller constituents. This process continues until nofurther divi sions are possible. The final division or units are known as ultimateconstituents.(9) constituent structural grammar: It refers to a grammar which analyzes sentences usingonly the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels.(10) transformational grammar: a type of grammar which attempts to define and describe by aset of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences (without ungrammatical ones) of a language.(11) ideational function: the use of language as a means of giving structure to our experience ofthe real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function: the use of language for maintaining social roles and interactingwith others.(13) textual function: to create written or spoken texts which cohere within themselves andwhich fit the particular situation in which they are used.2. Yes. As we know, morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms and 9classes of words, while syntax focuses on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. The major distinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, while the latter is concerned with the combination of words.3. (2) Instead of using the form “suggest somebody to do something”, we usuallyuse “suggest + that-clause” or “suggest doing”, here we’d better substitute “advise”for “suggest”(4) The word “request” is a transitive verb which should take an object directly, so the word“for” should be omitted.(6) The word “donate” cannot be followed by double objects as “donate somebodysomething”. Instead we always use “donate something to somebody”.(10) The subject of the verb “write” is usually a human; an “article” cannot write itself. In thiscase the passive construction is normally used: The article was very well writen.(11) Usually we don’t use “be bored of something/somebody”, but “be bored withsomething/somebody” which means losing interest in somebody/something.(13) Here “myself ” is a reflexive pronoun, which can’t be used as subject, and it shouldbe replaced by “I”.(14) The word “surprise” is usually used as a transitive verb, so the expression“…surprise for you” is ungrammatical, and it can be replaced by “surp risesomebody (with something)” or “I was surprised by your getting married.”(15) The word “sleep” is usually used as an intransitive verb, which can’t take an object.The cases of “sleep” being used as a transitive verb are semantically limited, as in “to sleep a good sleep” or “the room can sleep 3 people”.4. It’s ungrammatical, because “us” is the objective case which can’t serve as the subject, while“she” is the subjective case which can’t serve as the object. The sentence should be “Wevisit her on Sundays”. The personal pronouns “you” and “it” have the same form whetherused as the subject or object.5. (1) NP: A Guns “N” Roses concert, an arena, some 2500 fans, a full-fledged riot, A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena , A Guns “N” Roses c oncert at an arena near ST. Louis ,The trouble, venue security, a camera, the front, the stage, the front of the stage. PP: at an arena, at an arena near ST. Louis, near ST. Louis, in disaster, near the front, of the stage, near the front of the stage. VP: staged a full-fledged riot, asked venue security, confiscate a camera.(2) N: Guns, Roses, concert, arena, ST. Louis, disaster, fans, riot, trouble, Axl10Rose, venue, security, camera, front, stage. Prep: at, near, in, of. V: end, stage, start, ask,confiscate, see.6. (1) You mustn’t end a sentence with a preposition.You mustn’t split infinitives7. (i)(ii)8. (1) a. Terry loves his wife and I love his wife, too. b. Ilove my wife as well as Terry loves his wife.(2) a. It’s yesterday that they said she would go. b. Shewould go yesterday as they said.(3) a. The governor is a street fighter who is dirty.b. The governor is a fighter in a dirtystreet.(4) a. The design has squares and circles, both of which are big. b. The design has bigsquares, and it also has some circles. (The sizes of the circles are not mentioned.)Chapter 5Semantics1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.(2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning of the sentenceis the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentence is true or false, andknowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowing the part that it plays in thetruth or falsehood of the sentence containing it.(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or names.(4) behaviorist theory: the view that the meaning of a linguistic form is defined as observablebehaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.(5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning of anexpression is determined by its use in communication and more generally, insocial interaction.(6) sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, together with the context,determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense of a noun phrasesuch as the president of the United States in 2004 allows one to determine that GeorgeW. Bush is the referent.(7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things,actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in English is the relationshipbetween the word tree and the object “tree” (referent) i n the real world.(8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed in terms ofwhat they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitive meaning. It is theessential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as thecentral factor in verbal communication. For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he” inEnglish is any male person or male animal.(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word or acombination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purely conceptualmeaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” is emotional, frail,inconstant, irrational, etc.(10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressions into asystem which shows their relationship to one another. For example, kinship terms suchas father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a semantic field whose relevantfeatures include generation, sex, membership of the father’s or mother’s side of family.(11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language.For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but noseparate lexemes for “male” and “female” cousin.(12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyzesa word into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example,the meaning of the English word boy may be shown as [+human][+male][-adult]. (13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaning of wordmay be described as a combination of semantic components or features. Forexample, the feature [+male] is part of the meaning of father, and so is thefeature [+adult], but other features are needed to make up the whole meaning of father.Often, semantic features are established by contrast and can be stated in terms of [+] and[-], e.g. woman has the semantic features [+human], [-male] and [+adult].(14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexical items,e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning between lexical items,e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where a moreparticular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (the superordinate): Xis a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.(17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not only sections ofthe body but defined in terms of specific functions. For example, the head is the part ofthe body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involved in the situationdescribed or represented by the clause, for example as agent, patient, orcause.(19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one (thesecond) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Corday assassinated Marat and Maratis dead; if the first is true, the second must be true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make an utterancemeaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is a presupposition of“Take some more tea!”2. (1) He waited by the bank.a. He waited by the financial institution which people can keep their money in or borrowfrom.b. He waited by the bank of the river.(2) Is he really that kind?a. Is he really that type of person?b. Is he really that kind-hearted?(3) We bought her dog biscuits.a. We bought dog biscuits for her.b. We bought biscuits for her dog.(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.a. He saw that gasoline container explode.b. He saw that gasoline may explode.(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total.b. Each of the fifty soldiers shot three wil d foxes.(6) He saw her drawing pencils.a. He saw her pencils for drawing.b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpfuliron: strong, brave, hard, determinedmole: traitor, betrayal, spysnow: pure, virgin, cleanstreet: homeless, living hard, pitiable5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory(2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smellThese words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tendto be used more frequently. They consist of only one morpheme and are easier tolearn and remember than others. They are also often broader in meaning and cannot bedescribed by using the name of another member ofthe same field.6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace, househomonyms: ear.7. In a semantic field, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status. The less markedmembers of the same semantic field (1) are usually easier to learn andremember than more marked members; (2) consist of only one morpheme incontrast to more marked members; (3) cannot be described by using the name of anothermember of the same field; (4) tend to be used more frequently than more marked terms;(5) broader in meaning than more marked members; (6) are not the result of themetaphorical usage of the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram.The (a) and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.The (b) words are animals.(2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, hollerThe (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds.The (a) words are normal voice quality.The (b) words are produced by modifying one’s normal voice quality.(3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swimb. fly, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glideThe (a) and (b) words are sports (movement).The (a) words are sports without instruments.The (b) words are sports with instruments.Chapter 6Pragmatics1.Define the following terms briefly.(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations withrespect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things, actions, events,and qualities they stand for.(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word orphrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make anutterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken” is apresupposition of “Take some more tea!”(6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has been developedby J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or todescribe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts. In saying“Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology.(7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location) andintended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt?is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive foraction.(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Gricewhereby those involved in communication assume that both parties willnormally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutors as a meansor strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such assaving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation.This principle requires speakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It iscomposed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy.(10) conversational implicature: the use of conversational maxims in the CooperativePrinciple to produce extra meaning during conversation.。