岩土工程中英文对照外文翻译文献

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土木工程岩土类毕业设计外文翻译

学号： 10447425X X 大学毕业设计（论文）外文翻译（2014届）外文题目 Developments in excavation bracing systems 译文题目开挖工程支撑体系的发展外文出处 Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 31 (2012) 107–116 学生 XXX学院 XXXX 专业班级 XXXXX校内指导教师 XXX 专业技术职务 XXXXX校外指导老师专业技术职务二○一三年十二月开挖工程支撑体系的发展1.引言几乎所有土木工程建设项目（如建筑物，道路，隧道，桥梁，污水处理厂，管道，下水道）都涉及泥土挖掘的一些工程量。

往往由于由相邻的结构，特性线，或使用权空间的限制，必须要一个土地固定系统，以允许土壤被挖掘到所需的深度。

历史上，许多挖掘支撑系统已经开发出来。

其中，现在比较常见的几种方法是：板桩，钻孔桩墙，泥浆墙。

土地固定系统的选择是由技术性能要求和施工可行性（例如手段，方法）决定的，包括执行的可靠性，而成本考虑了这些之后，其他问题也得到解决。

通常环境后果（用于处理废泥浆和钻井液如监管要求）也非常被关注（邱阳、1998）。

土地固定系统通常是建设项目的较大的一个组成部分。

如果不能按时完成项目，将极大地影响总成本。

通常首先建造支撑，在许多情况下，临时支撑系统是用于支持在挖掘以允许进行不断施工，直到永久系统被构造。

临时系统可以被去除或留在原处。

打桩时，因撞击或振动它们可能会被赶入到位。

在一般情况下，振动是最昂贵的方法，但只适合于松散颗粒材料，土壤中具有较高电阻（例如，通过鹅卵石）的不能使用。

采用打入桩系统通常是中间的成本和适合于软沉积物（包括粘性和非粘性），只要该矿床是免费的鹅卵石或更大的岩石。

通常，垂直元素（例如桩）的前安装挖掘工程和水平元件（如内部支撑或绑回）被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，从而限制了跨距长度，以便减少在垂直开发弯矩元素。

岩土工程外文文献

The focus of this paper is on spreadsheet-based procedures for FORM (which extends the Hasofer–Lind index for correlated normals into the nonnormal realm), SORM on the foundation of FORM results, system FORM, and reliability analysis accounting for spatially autocorrelated soil properties. Speciﬁcally, a simple geomechanics example is ﬁrst examined to illustrate spreadsheet based SORM analysis on the foundation of FORM reliability index and FORM design point. This is followed by a rock slope with correlated nonnormal random variables, solved using the u space approach for comparison with the Low and Tang [29] n space approach. Finally, spatially autocorrelated shear strength is modeled in the reliability analysis of an embankment on soft ground. The advantages and limitations of three FORM computational approaches, namely constrained optimization with respect to the original

土木工程专业外文文献及翻译

英文原文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Keyword: Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's is 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material. Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality. The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger. But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety. A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the resultthat. Modern age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside. The reinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision: Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width. But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack: Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack; Have outside carry the crack that the function cause; Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect. Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, workout a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week. In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't negative. Stem Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result: The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack. The relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy creation. Stem the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm,the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short to distribute. Stem Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure: While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement. Two is a concrete of stem the Suo be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, stem Suo more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water. Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use water quantity. Four is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time. Winter construction want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and Tu2 Shua protect to protect. Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2.The Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency. The Su constringency crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the center thin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance. Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm. It creation of main reason is: The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhapsconcrete just eventually Ning but strength very hour, be subjected to heat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharply constringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation cracked. The influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure: One is choose to use stem the Suo value smaller higher Huo sour salt of the earlier period strength or common the Huo sour brine mire. Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage. Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through. Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually before the Ning surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface. Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that; Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack. This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 °Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation. Crack width under the influence of temperature variety smaller. The foundation aftertransform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure: One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity of Hang solid with reinforce. Two is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even. Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water. Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence. Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure. Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500 kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suo dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction period.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope ofthe concrete surface creation.The alignment of the temperature crack usually none settle regulation, big area structure the crack often maneuver interleave;The size bigger structure of the beam plank length, the crack run parallel with short side more;Thorough with pierce through sex of temperature crack general and short side direction parallelism or close parallelism, crack along long side cent the segment appear, in the center more airtight.Crack width the size be different, be subjected to temperature variety influence more obvious, winter compare breadth, summer more narrow.The concrete temperature crack that the heat inflation cause is usually in the center the thick both ends be thin, but cold Suo crack of thick thin variety not too obvious.The emergence of the this kind crack will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, the anti- jelly which lower concrete melt, anti- tired and anti- Shen ability etc..Main prevention measure:One is as far as possible choose to use low hot or medium hot water mire, like mineral residue cement, powder ash from stove cement...etc..Two is a decrease cement dosage, cement dosage as far as possible the control is in the 450 kg/m 3 following.Three is to lower water ash ratio, water ash of the general concrete ratio control below 0.6.Four is improvement the bone anticipate class to go together with, the Chan add powder ash from stove or efficiently reduce water etc. to come to reduce cement dosage and lower water to turn hot.Five is an improvement concrete of mix blend to process a craft, lower sprinkle of concrete to build temperature.Six is the in addition that the Chan add a have of fixed amount to reduce water and increase Su, slow Ning etc. function in the concrete, improvement the concrete mix to match a thing of mobility, protect water, lower water to turn hot, postpone hot Feng of emergence time.Seven is the heat season sprinkle to build can the adoption take to establish to hide sun plank etc. assistance measure control concrete of Wen Sheng, lower to sprinkle temperature of build the concrete.Eight is the temperature of big physical volume concrete should the dint relate to structure size, concrete structure size more big, temperature should dint more big, so want reasonable arrangement construction work preface,layering, cent the piece sprinkle to build, for the convenience of in spread hot, let up control.Nine is at great inner part constitution of the physical volume concrete cool off piping, cold water perhaps cold air cool off, let up concrete of inside outside difference in temperature.Ten is the supervision which strengthen concrete temperature, adopt to cool off in time, protection measure.11 is to reserve temperature constringency to sew.12 is to let up to control, sprinkle proper before building concrete in the Ji rock and old concrete top build a 5 mm or so sand mat a layer or usage asphalt etc. material Tu2 Shua.13 is to strengthen concrete to protect, the concrete after sprinkle build use moist grass Lian in time, hemp slice's etc. overlay, and attention sprinkle water to protect, appropriate extension protect time, assurance the concrete surface be slow-moving cool off.At the cold season, concrete surface should constitution heat preservation measure, in order to prevent cold wave assault.14 is the allocation be a little amount in the concrete of reinforcing bar perhaps add fiber material concrete of temperature crack control at certain of scope inside.5.Crack and prevention that the chemical reaction causeAlkali bone's anticipating the crack that reaction crack and reinforcing bar rust eclipse cause is the most familiar in the reinforced concrete structure of because of chemical reaction but cause of crack.The concrete blend a future reunion creation some alkalescence ion, these ion with some activity the bone anticipate creation chemical reaction and absorb surroundings environment in of water but the physical volume enlarge, make concrete crisp loose, inflation open crack.In this kind of crack general emergence concrete structure usage period, once appear very difficult remediable, so should at under construction adopt valid the measure carry on prevention.Main of prevention measure:While being to choose to anticipate with the alkali activity small freestone bone.Two is the in addition which choose to use low lye mire with low alkali or have no alkali.Three is the Chan which choose to use accommodation with anticipate to repress an alkali bone to anticipate reaction.Because the concrete sprinkle to build, flap Dao bad perhaps is a reinforcingbar protection layer thinner, the harmful material get into concrete to make reinforcing bar creation rust eclipse, the reinforcing bar physical volume of the rust eclipse inflation, cause concrete bulge crack, the crack of this kind type much is a crack lengthways, follow the position of reinforcing bar ually of prevent measure from have:One is assurance reinforcing bar protection the thickness of the layer.Two is a concrete class to go together with to want good.Three is a concrete to sprinkle to note and flap Dao airtight solid.Four is a reinforcing bar surface layer Tu2 Shua antisepsis coating.Crack processingThe emergence of the crack not only would influence structure of whole with just degree, return will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, acceleration concrete of carbonization, lower durable and anti- of concrete tired, anti- Shen ability.Therefore according to the property of crack and concrete circumstance we want differentiation to treat, in time processing, with assurance building of safety usage.The repair measure of the concrete crack is main to have the following some method:Surface repair method, infuse syrup, the Qian sew method, the structure reinforce a method, concrete displacement method, electricity chemistry protection method and imitate to living from heal method.Surface repair the method be a kind of simple, familiar of repair method, it main be applicable to stability and to structure loading the ability don't have the surface crack of influence and deep enter crack of processing.The processing measure that is usually is a surface in crack daubery cement syrup, the wreath oxygen gum mire or at concrete surface Tu2 Shua paint, asphalt etc. antisepsis material, at protection of in the meantime for keeping concrete from continue under the influence of various function to open crack, usually can adoption the surface in crack glue to stick glass fiber cloth etc. measure.1, infuse syrup, the Qian sew methodInfuse a syrup method main the concrete crack been applicable to haveinfluence or have already defend Shen request to the structure whole of repair, it is make use of pressure equipments gum knot the material press into the crack of concrete, gum knot the material harden behind and concrete formation one be whole, thus reinforce of purpose.The in common use gum knot material has the cement the syrup, epoxy, A Ji C Xi sour ester and gather ammonia ester to equalize to learn material.The Qian sew a method is that the crack be a kind of most in common use method in, it usually is follow the crack dig slot, the Qian fill Su in the slot or rigid water material with attain closing crack of purpose.The in common use Su material has PVC gum mire, plastics ointment, the D Ji rubber etc.;In common use rigid water material is the polymer cement sand syrup.2, the structure reinforce a methodWhen the crack influence arrive concrete structure of function, will consideration adopt to reinforce a method to carry on processing to the concrete structure.The structure reinforce medium in common use main have the following a few method:The piece of enlargement concrete structure in every aspect accumulate, outside the Cape department of the Gou piece pack type steel, adoption prepare should the dint method reinforce, glue to stick steel plate to reinforce, increase to establish fulcrum to reinforce and jet the concrete compensation reinforce.3, concrete displacement methodConcrete displacement method is processing severity damage concrete of a kind of valid method, this method be first will damage of the concrete pick and get rid of, then again displacement go into new of concrete or other material.The in common use displacement material have:Common concrete or the cement sand syrup, polymer or change sex polymer concrete or sand syrup.4, the electricity chemistry protection methodThe electricity chemistry antisepsis is to make use of infliction electric field in lie the quality of electricity chemical effect, change concrete or reinforced concrete the environment appearance of the place, the bluntness turn reinforcing bar to attainthe purpose of antisepsis.Cathode protection method, chlorine salt's withdrawing a method, alkalescence to recover a method is a chemistry protection method in three kinds of in common use but valid method.The advantage of this kind of method is a protection method under the influence of environment factor smaller, apply reinforcing bar, concrete of long-term antisepsis, since can used for crack structure already can also used for new set up structure.5, imitate to living from legal moreImitate to living from heal the method be a kind of new crack treatment, its mimicry living creature organization secrete a certain material towards suffering wound part auto, but make the wound part heal of function, join some and special composition(such as contain to glue knot of the liquid Xin fiber or capsule) in the concrete of the tradition the composition, at concrete inner part formation the intelligence type imitate to living from heal nerve network system, be the concrete appear crack secrete a parts of liquid Xin fiber can make the crack re- heal.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence building of usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.From《CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING》中文原文：建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。

土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献

一、外文原文Talling building and Steel construction Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result ofseveral types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and thecontrol of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete bu ilding( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.二、原文翻译高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。

岩土基本术语英汉对照

岩土基本术语英汉对照一、工程勘测岩土工程geotechnical engineering岩石工程rock engineering土力学soil mechanics岩石力学rock mechanics土动力学soil dynamics岩石动力学rock dynamics非饱和土力学unsaturated soil mechanics工程地质学engineering geology水文地质学hydrogeology地下水动力学groundwater dynamics环境岩土工程geoenvironmental engineering近海岩土工程offshore geotechnical engineering 灾害地质学disaster geology流变学rheology散体力学mechanics of granular media断裂力学fracture mechanics理论土力学theoretical soil mechanics计算土力学computational soil mechanics地貌geomorphology地貌单元landform unit平原plain丘陵hill山地mountain河谷阶地fluvial terrace冲积扇alluvial fan洪积扇diluvial fan坡积裙talus apron岩溶Karst岩土和地质构造地质环境geologic environment地质环境要素geologic environmental element岩石rock岩体rock mass岩浆岩（火成岩）magmatic rock，igneous rock 沉积岩sedimentary rock变质岩metamorphic rock新鲜岩石fresh rock完整岩石intack rock 风化岩weathered rock构造岩structural rock，tectonite结构面structural plane结构体structural block岩体结构类型structural type of rock mass 软弱结构面weak structural plane软弱夹层weak intercalated layer基岩bed rock土soil土体soil mass残积土residual soil坡积土talus，slope wash洪积土diluvial soil冲积土alluvial soil风积土aeolian deposit海积土marine soil特殊性土special soil软土soft clay淤泥muck淤泥质土mucky soil黄土loess湿陷性土collapsible soil红粘土lateritic soil；red clay分散性粘土dispersive clay膨胀土expansive soil, swelling soil盐渍土saline soil有机质土organic soil泥炭质土peaty soil泥炭peat冻土frozen soil多年冻土perennially frozen soil季节冻土seasonally frozen soil人工填土fill，filled soil素填土plain fill杂填土miscellaneous fill，rubbish fill冲填土hydraulic fill，dredger fill压实填土compacted fill地质构造geological structure褶曲fold背斜anticline向斜syncline断裂rupture，fracture裂隙fissure节理joint断层fault活断层active fault破碎带fracture zone产状attitude风化作用weathering风化壳weathered crust风化带weathered zone风化程度degree of weathering，intensity of weathering地表水surface water地下水groundwater包气带水aeration zone water上层滞水perched water潜水phreatic water承压水confined water层间水interlayer water裂隙水fissure water不透水层impervious layer径流区runoff area地下径流subsurface runoff水头water head储水系数storage coefficient导水系数transmissivity给水度specific yield持水度water retaining capacity容水量water bearing capacity影响半径radius of influence弥散系数dispersion coefficient地下水化学类型chemical type of groundwater地下水总矿化度total mineralization of groundwater地下水硬度groundwater hardness地下水腐蚀性groundwater corrosivity地下水污染roundwater pollution地下水等水位线图contour map of groundwater水文地质勘察hydrogeological investigation水文地质测绘hydrogeological survey，hydrogeological surveying and mapping水文地质钻探hydrogeological drilling岩土工程勘察geotechnical investigations 工程地质测绘engineering geological mapping工程地质勘探engineering geological prospecting岩芯采取率core recovery取土器soil sampler薄壁取土器thin wall sampler厚壁取土器thick wall sampler不扰动土样undisturbed soil sample扰动土样disturbed soil sample土试样质量等级quality grade of soil samples坑探pit exploration地球物理勘探geophysical exploration电法勘探electrical exploration磁法勘探magnetic exploration电磁法electromagnetic geophysical exploration探地雷达法ground penetrating radar method（GPR）地震勘探seismic exploration声波探测acoustic exploration红外探测infrared detection遥感勘测remote sensing prospecting原位测试in-situ testing平板载荷试验plate loading test螺旋板载荷试验screw plate loading test旁压试验pressuremeter test（PMT）扁铲侧胀试验flat dilatometer test（DMT）静力触探试验cone penetration test（CPT）孔压静力触探试验piezocone test，piezocone penetration test （CPTU）圆锥动力触探试验dynamic penetration test（DPT）标准贯入试验standard penetration test（SPT）十字板剪切试验vane test，vane shear test（VST）原位直接剪切试验in-situ shear test应力解除法stress relief method应力恢复法stress recovery method水力劈裂法hydraulic fracturing technique波速测试wave velocity test抽水试验pumping test注水试验water injection test渗水试验infiltration test;pit permeability test压水试验pump-in test连通试验connecting test弥散试验dispersion test水质分析chemical and physical analysis of water勘察成果与评价岩土工程勘察报告geotechnical investigation report勘察阶段investigation stage工程地质单元engineering geological unit工程地质图engineering geologic map综合工程地质图comprehensive engineering geologic map综合柱状图composite columnar section工程地质剖面图engineering geological profile探坑展示图extension chart of pit & shaft赤平极射投影polar-sterometric projection岩土工程分级classification of geotechnical projects岩土工程评价geotechnical evaluation工程测量engineering survey精密工程测量precise engineering survey高斯平面直角坐标系Gauss-Krueger plane rectangular coordinate system独立坐标系independent coordinate system高程elevation; height国家高程基准National Height Datum 1985水准测量leveling精密水准测量precise leveling测量标志surveying mark基准点datum point工作基点operating control point监测网monitoring control network限差tolerance点位误差position error 点位中误差mean square error of points相对中误差relative mean square error现场监测与检测现场监测in-situ monitoring原型监测prototype monitoring现场检测in-situ inspection地下水监测groundwater monitoring地下水动态观测groundwater dynamic observation孔隙水压力监测pore water pressure monitoring土压力监测earth pressure test岩土体位移监测displacement monitoring for soil and rock地面沉降监测ground subsidence monitoring地基变形监测ground deformation monitoring岩土体测斜inclination monitoring for soil and rock分层沉降观测layered settlement observation围岩收敛观测ambient rock convergence monitoring岩土环境污染监测monitoring for geotechnical environment pollution基槽检验foundation trench inspection桩底沉渣检测sludge measurement for bored pile锚杆基本试验basic tests of anchor锚杆验收试验anchor acceptance test土钉抗拔检测pull-out test of soil nail地下连续墙质量检测test of diaphragm wall复合地基载荷试验loading test of composite foundation二、岩土基本特性与室内试验土的组构soil fabric土的结构soil structure土骨架soil skeleton比表面积specific surface孔隙水pore water自由水free water重力水gravitational water毛细管水capillary water吸着水absorbed water粒径grain size粒径分布曲线grain size distribution curve 限制粒径constrained grain size有效粒径effective grain size粒组fraction巨粒类土over coarse-grained soil粗粒类土coarse-grained soil 细粒类土fine-grained soil漂石（块石）boulder（stone block）卵石（碎石）cobble砾类土gravelly soil砂类土sandy soil粉粒土silt soil黏粒土clay soil细粒土fines含粗粒的细粒土fines with coarse粉土silt粘性土cohesive soil无粘性土cohesionless soil不均匀系数coefficient of uniformity 曲率系数coefficient of curvature级配gradation良好级配土well-grade soil不良级配土poorly-grade soil不连续级配土gap-grade soil土试样soil specimen室内试验laboratory test含水率water content密度density重度unit weight土粒比重specific gravity of soil particle三相图three phase diagram孔隙率porosity孔隙比void ratio临界孔隙比critical void ratio饱和度degree of saturation饱和土saturated soil非饱和土unsaturated soil颗粒分析试验particle size analysis稠度界限consistency limit液限liquid limit塑限plastic limit缩限shrinkage limit塑性指数plasticity index液性指数liquidity index缩性指数shrinkage index活动性指数activity index塑性图plasticity chart膨胀力swelling force膨胀率swelling ratio自由膨胀率free swelling ratio线缩率linear shrinkage ratio体缩率volume shrinkage ratio冻胀frost heave冻胀力frost-heaving pressure冻胀量frost-heave capacity融陷性thaw collapsibility相对密度relative density压实性compactibility击实试验compaction test最大干密度maximum dry density最优含水率optimum moisture content压实度degree of compaction加州承载比California Bearing Ratio（CBR）土体渗透性permeability of soil渗透系数coefficient of permeability渗透试验permeability test 达西定律Darcy’s law水力梯度hydraulic gradient临界水力梯度critical hydraulic gradient渗流seepage渗透力seepage force压缩性compressibility固结consolidation单向固结unidirectional consolidation主固结primary consolidation次固结secondary consolidationK0 固结K0-consolidation固结试验consolidation test压缩系数coefficient of compressibility体积压缩系数coefficient of volume compressibility压缩指数compression index压缩模量constrained modulus回弹指数swelling index回弹模量rebound modulus固结度degree of consolidation固结系数coefficient of consolidation次固结系数coefficient of secondary consolidation固结压力consolidation pressure先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure超固结比overconsolidation ratio（OCR）正常固结土normally consolidated soil超固结土over consolidated soil欠固结土underconsolidated soil湿陷性collapsibility湿陷变形collapse deformation黄土湿陷试验collapsibility test of loess湿陷系数coefficient of collapsibility湿陷起始压力initial collapse pressure抗剪强度shear strength灵敏度sensitivity剪切试验shear test直剪试验direct shear test快剪试验quick shear test固结快剪试验consolidated quick shear test慢剪试验slow shear test无侧限抗压强度unconfined compressive strength无侧限抗压强度试验unconfined compressive strength test三轴压缩试验triaxial compression test不固结不排水三轴试验unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test 固结不排水三轴试验consolidated-undrained triaxial test固结排水三轴试验consolidated-drained triaxial test三轴伸长试验triaxial extension test强度包线strength envelope粘聚力cohesion内摩擦角internal friction angle天然休止角natural angle of repose触变性thixotropy剪胀性dilatancy应变软化strain softening应变硬化strain hardening破坏强度failure strength塑性破坏plastic failure脆性破坏brittle failure峰值强度peak strength残余强度residual strength孔隙水压力系数pore pressure parameter应力路径stress path应力路径试验stress path test真三轴试验true triaxial test平面应变试验plane strain test单剪试验simple shear test扭剪试验torsional shear test动三轴试验dynamic triaxial test动单剪试验dynamic simple shear test共振柱试验resonant column test土工离心模型试验geotechnical centrifugal model test岩体结构structure of rock mass岩块block岩石分类rock classification工程岩体engineering rock mass岩体结构面（不连续面）structural plane（discontinuity）结构面迹长trace of structural plane结构面密度density of structural plane原生结构面primary structure plane构造结构面constructive structure plane次生结构面secondary structure plane结构面分级classification of structure plane不连续岩体discontinuous rock mass延续性continuity粗糙度roughness张开度（开度）aperture充填物filling substance岩石物理性质physical properties of rock岩石力学性质mechanical properties of rock 岩石颗粒密度particle density of rock岩石块体密度block density of rock岩石含水率water content of rock岩石吸水率water-absorption of rock岩石饱和吸水率saturated water-absorption of rock节理连通率joint persistence ratio岩体体积节理数volumetric joint count of rock mass抗压强度compressive strength单轴抗压强度single axis compressive strength单轴抗压强度试验single axis compressive strength test单轴压缩变形试验single axis compression deformation test三轴抗压强度triaxial compressive strength三轴压缩强度试验triaxial compressive strength test压剪试验compressive shear test岩体直剪试验direct shear test of rock mass岩体结构面直剪试验direct shear test of structural plane抗剪断强度shearing strength抗剪试验anti-shear test抗切强度anti-cut strength抗切试验anti-cut test摩擦强度friction strength结构面的面摩擦强度surface friction strength of structure plane抗拉强度tensile strength岩石抗拉强度试验tensile strength test of rock抗弯试验bending test劈裂试验（巴西试验）split test点荷载强度试验point load strength test岩石膨胀压力swelling pressure of rock岩石自由膨胀率free swelling ratio of rock岩石侧向约束膨胀率lateral restraint swelling ratio of rock岩石膨胀性试验swelling test of rock岩石耐崩解性试验disintegration-resistance test of rock长期模量long-term modulus长期强度long-term strength抗冻性系数软化系数softening coefficient疲劳强度fatigue strength弹性后效delayed elasticity应力松弛stress relaxation松弛时间relaxation time流动特性flow behavior蠕变creep剪胀shear dilatation风化weathering泥化mudding泥化夹层siltized intercalation/muddy intercalation卸荷变形unloading deformation粘滞系数coefficient of viscosity微裂纹micro crack岩爆rock burst岩体初始应力（原岩应力）initial rock stress（geostress）初始应力场initial stress field尺度效应scale effect岩石扩容dilatancy of rock岩石声发射acoustic emission of rock 应力解除法stress-relief method应力恢复法stress restoration method高压压水试验high pressure water test岩体原位应力测试in-situ rock stress test承压板法试验bearing plate test钻孔变形试验borehole deformation test狭缝法试验slit method test岩体声波速度测试acoustic speed test of rock mass岩石坚硬程度hardness degree of rock岩石质量指标rock quality designation （RQD）岩体基本质量rock mass basic quality（BQ）岩体基本质量分级classification of rock mass basic quality三基本理论与计算分析半无限弹性体semi-infinite elastic body中心荷载（轴心荷载）central load偏心荷载eccentric load集中荷载（点荷载）concentrated load均布荷载uniformly distributed load条形荷载strip load线荷载line load交变荷载alternating load周期荷载cyclic load瞬时荷载transient load动荷载dynamic load体积力body force表面力surface force覆盖压力overburden pressure超载surcharge应力分布stress distribution应力集中stress concentration自重应力geostatic stress，self-weight stress基底压力（接触压力）contact pressure附加应力additional stress，superimposed stress 基底附加压力additional stress on the base剪应变shear strain体应变volumetric strain弹性应变elastic strain塑性应变plastic strain弹性模量（杨氏模量）modulus of elasticity变形模量modulus of deformation剪切模量shear modulus泊松比Poisson’s ratio 体积模量bulk modulus文克勒假定Winkler’s assumption沉降settlement沉降计算深度settlement calculation depth最终沉降final settlement初始沉降（瞬时沉降）immediate settlement主固结沉降primary consolidation settlement次固结沉降secondary consolidation settlement 固结沉降consolidation settlement不均匀沉降non-uniform settlement容许沉降allowable settlement工后沉降settlement after construction沉降速率rate of settlement太沙基固结理论Terzaghi’s consolidation theory 比奥固结理论Biot’s consolidation theory地基回弹rebound of foundation基坑底隆胀heaving of the bottom塑流plastic flow屈服yield屈服面yield surface应力空间stress space应变空间strain space应力历史stress history临塑荷载critical edge pressure塑性平衡状态state of plastic equilibrium塑性区plastic zone整体剪切破坏general shear failure局部剪切破坏local shear failure冲剪破坏punching shear failure容许承载力allowable bearing capacity承载力因数bearing capacity factors极限承载力ultimate bearing capacity块体理论block theory岩石的强度理论strength theory of rock摩尔-库仑定律Mohr-Coulomb Law极限平衡状态limit equilibrium极限平衡条件limit equilibrium condition有效应力原理principle of effective stress总应力total stress有效应力effective stress孔隙压力pore pressure孔隙水压力pore water pressure孔隙气压力pore air pressure孔隙压力比pore pressure ratio静水压力hydrostatic pressure超静水压力excess pore water pressure扬压力uplift pressure浮托力buoyancy稳定渗流steady seepage流网flow net流线flow line等势线equipotential line浸润线phreatic line渗透稳定性seepage stability长期稳定性long-term stability临界高度critical height（of slope）土的液化soil liquefaction液化势liquefaction potential液化破坏理论liquefaction failure theory渐近破坏progressive failure渐进破坏理论progressive failure theory凯塞效应Kaiser effect布辛涅斯克理论Boussinesq theory明德林解Mindlin’s solution角点法corner-point method分层总和法layerwise summation method沉降曲线settlement curve固结曲线consolidation curve摩尔-库仑破坏准则Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 屈服准则yield criteria屈列斯卡屈服准则Tresca yield criteria米塞斯屈服准则Mises yield criteria格里菲斯强度准则Griffith’s strength criterion 应力水平stress level极限平衡法limit equilibrium method库尔曼图解法Kuhlman Graphic安全系数factor of safety稳定分析stability analysis总应力法total stress analysis有效应力法effective stress analysis主动土压力active earth pressure静止土压力earth pressure at rest被动土压力passive earth pressure库仑土压力理论Coulomb’s earth pressure theory朗肯土压力理论Rankine’s earth pressure theory条分法method of slice瑞典圆弧法Swedish circle method毕肖普简化条分法Bishop’s simplified method of slice稳定数stability number邓肯-张模型Duncan-Chang Model剑桥模型（临界状态模型）Cam-Clay model有限元法Finite Element Method（FEM）有限差分法Finite Difference Method（FDM）边界元法Boundary Element Method（BEM）离散元法Distinct Element Method（DEM）地基处理ground treatment，soil improvement置换法replacement振密、挤密法vibro-densification，compacting排水固结法consolidation，preloading灌入固化物法grouting curing material method加筋法reinforced method托换法underpinning复合地基composite ground，composite subgrade，composite foundation土工合成材料geosynthetics岩土锚固ground anchors, anchorage垫层cushion强夯置换法dynamic replacement褥垫法pillow抛石挤淤法rock filling replacement爆破挤淤法blasting replacement爆夯法blasting compaction轻量填土法light weight filling碾压法compaction by rolling强夯法dynamic consolidation，dynamic compaction振冲法vibro-flotation挤密砂（碎石）桩法densification by sand pile爆炸加密法densification by explosion振动压实法vibro-compaction排水砂井sand drain袋装砂井packed drain,fabric-enclosed drain塑料排水板（带）prefabricated strip drain，geodrain堆载预压法preloading真空预压法vacuum preloading真空堆载联合预压法vacuum combined surcharge preloading 电渗法electro-osmosis method砂垫层sand cushion水泥（稳定）土cement stabilization灰土lime treated soil高压喷射注浆法jet groutin挤密注浆法compaction grouting method深层搅拌法deep mixing method灌浆grouting固结灌浆consolidation grouting帷幕灌浆curtain grouting化学灌浆chemical grouting劈裂灌浆hydrofracture grouting土钉soil nailing铺网法fabric sheet reinforced earth加筋土reinforced earth纤维土textsoil，fiber soil纠倾托换rectification underpinning坑式托换pit underpinning桩基托换piles underpinning灌浆托换grouting underpinning锚杆静压桩托换pressed pile underpinning顶升纠倾jack-up leaning rectification堆载加压纠倾surcharge learning rectification掏土纠倾digging-out soil leaning rectification柔性桩复合地基flexible piles composite foundation刚性桩复合地基rigid piles composite foundationgranular material piles composite foundation长短桩复合地基long-short piles composite foundation大直径现浇混凝土管桩复合地基composite foundation of cast-in-place concrete large-diameter pipe pile桩网地基pile supported subgrade灰土挤密桩法compacted lime-soil pile石灰桩法lime pile砂石桩法sand-gravel pile水泥土桩法cement soil pile水泥粉煤灰碎石桩法cement-flyash-gravel pile (CFG pile) 桩土应力比stress ratio荷载分担比bearing ratio复合地基置换率replacement ratio土工合成材料土工织物geotextile织造土工织物woven geotextile非织造土工织物nonwoven geotextile土工膜geomenbrane土工格栅geogrid土工格室geocell土工模袋geofabriform土工复合材料geocomposite聚苯乙烯发泡材料expanded polystyrene (EPS）反滤filtration隔离separation防护protection等效孔径equivalent opening size (EOS)老化aging锚杆（索）anchor，anchorag tendon土层锚杆anchored bar in soil岩石锚杆rock anchor系统锚杆system of anchor bars预应力锚杆prestressed anchor非预应力锚杆non-prestressed anchor拉力型锚杆tensioned anchor压力型锚杆pressured anchor拉力分散型锚杆tensioned multiple-head anchor压力分散型锚杆pressured multiple-head anchor自由段unbonded tendon锚固段bonded tendon四、基础工程柔性基础flexible foundation弹性基础elastic foundation无筋扩展基础non-reinforced spread foundation 刚性基础（rigidity foundation）。

岩土工程专业英语可删减

岩土工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译1. 综合类大地工程geotechnical engineering临界状态土力学critical state soil mechanics数值岩土力学numerical geomechanics 岩土工程geotechnical engineering应力路径stress path2. 工程地质及勘察变质岩metamorphic rock标准冻深standard frost penetration残积土eluvial soil, residual soil层理beding长石feldspar沉积岩sedimentary rock次生矿物secondary mineral地质图geological map断裂构造fracture structure工程地质勘察engineering geological exploration花岗岩granite化学沉积岩chemical sedimentary rock 解理cleavage矿物硬度hardness of minerals流滑flow slide泥石流mud flow, debris flow粘土矿物clay minerals潜水ground water侵入岩intrusive rock砂岩sandstone深成岩plutionic rock石灰岩limestone 岩层产状attitude of rock岩浆岩magmatic rock, igneous rock岩石风化程度degree of rock weathering 岩石构造structure of rock岩石结构texture of rock页岩shale原生矿物primary mineral造岩矿物rock-forming mineral褶皱fold, folding3. 土的分类饱和土saturated soil超固结土overconsolidated soil冲填土dredger fill冻土frozen soil非饱和土unsaturated soil分散性土dispersive soil粉土silt粉质粘土silty clay红粘土red clay, adamic earth黄土loess粘性土cohesive soil, clayey soil膨胀土expansive soil, swelling soil欠固结粘土underconsolidated soil区域性土zonal soil人工填土fill, artificial soil软粘土soft clay, mildclay, mickle湿陷性黄土collapsible loess, slumping loess素填土plain fill塑性图plasticity chart碎石土stone, break stone, broken stone, channery, chat, crushed stone, deritus未压密土（台）underconsolidated clay 无粘性土cohesionless soil, frictional soil,non-cohesive soil淤泥muck, gyttja, mire, slush淤泥质土mucky soil原状土undisturbed soil正常固结土normally consolidated soil正常压密土（台）normally consolidated soil 自重湿陷性黄土self weight collapse loess4. 土的物理性质饱和度degree of saturation饱和密度saturated density饱和重度saturated unit weight比重specific gravity稠度consistency触变thixotropy干重度dry unit weight干密度dry density塑性指数plasticity index含水量water content, moisture content级配gradation, grading结合水bound water, combined water, held water界限含水量Atterberg limits颗粒级配particle size distribution of soils, mechanical composition of soil可塑性plasticity孔隙比void ratio孔隙率porosity毛细管水capillary water密实度compactionness年粘性土的灵敏度sensitivity of cohesive soil曲率系数coefficient of curvature三相土tri-phase soil湿陷起始应力initial collapse pressure湿陷系数coefficient of collapsibility缩限shrinkage limit 土粒相对密度specific density of solid particles相对密度relative density, density index 相对压密度relative compaction, compacting factor, percent compa ction, coefficient of compaction压密系数coefficient of consolidation压缩性compressibility液限liquid limit液性指数liquidity index游离水（台）free water重力密度unit weight自由水free water, gravitational water, groundwater, phreatic water组构fabric最大干密度maximum dry density最优含水量optimum water content5. 渗透性和渗流浸润线phreatic line临界水力梯度critical hydraulic gradient 流函数flow function渗流seepage渗流量seepage discharge渗透破坏seepage failure渗透系数coefficient of permeability渗透性permeability势函数potential function水力梯度hydraulic gradient6. 地基应力和变形变形deformation变形模量modulus of deformation残余变形residual deformation超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure沉降settlement次固结沉降secondary consolidation settlement次固结系数coefficient of secondary consolidation切线模量tangent modulus蠕变creep三向变形条件下的固结沉降three-dimensional consolidation settl ement弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium 体积变形模量volumetric deformation modulus先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure压缩模量modulus of compressibility压缩系数coefficient of compressibility有效应力effective stress自重应力self-weight stress总应力total stress approach of shear strength7. 固结超固结比over-consolidation ratio超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure固结度degree of consolidation固结理论theory of consolidation固结曲线consolidation curve固结速率rate of consolidation固结系数coefficient of consolidation固结压力consolidation pressure回弹曲线rebound curve砂井sand drain砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground时间对数拟合法logrithm of time fitting method太沙基固结理论Terzaghi s consolidation theory先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure压密度（台）degree of consolidation压缩曲线cpmpression curve一维固结one dimensional consolidation 有效应力原理principle of effective stress 预压密压力（台）preconsolidation pressure 原始压缩曲线virgin compression curve再压缩曲线recompression curve主固结primary consolidation主压密（台）primary consolidationK0固结consolidation under K0 condition8. 抗剪强度单轴抗拉强度uniaxial tension test动强度dynamic strength of soils峰值强度peak strength伏斯列夫参数Hvorslev parameter剪切应变速率shear strain rate抗剪强度shear strength抗剪强度参数shear strength parameter抗剪强度有效应力法effective stress approach of shear strength抗剪强度总应力法total stress approach of shear strength摩尔－库仑理论Mohr-Coulomb theory内摩擦角angle of internal friction粘聚力cohesion破裂角angle of rupture破坏准则failure criterion有效内摩擦角effective angle of internal friction有效粘聚力effective cohesion intercept有效应力破坏包线effective stress failure envelope有效应力强度参数effective stress strength parameter有效应力原理principle of effective stress 真内摩擦角true angle internal friction真粘聚力true cohesion总应力破坏包线total stress failure envelope总应力强度参数total stress strength parameter9. 本构模型本构模型constitutive model边界面模型boundary surface model层向各向同性体模型cross anisotropic model摩尔－库仑屈服准则Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion切线模量tangent modulus屈服面yield surface弹塑性模量矩阵elastoplastic modulus matrix弹塑性模型elastoplastic modulus10. 地基承载力冲剪破坏punching shear failure次层（台）substratum地基subgrade, ground, foundation soil地基承载力bearing capacity of foundation soil地基极限承载力ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil地基允许承载力allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil地基稳定性stability of foundation soil整体剪切破坏general shear failure11. 土压力被动土压力passive earth pressure被动土压力系数coefficient of passive earth pressure极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium静止土压力earth pressue at rest静止土压力系数coefficient of earth pressur at rest库仑土压力理论Coulomb s earth pressure theory库尔曼图解法Culmannn construction朗肯土压力理论Rankine s earth pressure theory朗肯状态Rankine state弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium 土压力earth pressure 主动土压力active earth pressure主动土压力系数coefficient of active earth pressure12. 土坡稳定分析边坡稳定安全系数safety factor of slope土坡slope土坡稳定分析slope stability analysis分析土坡稳定极限分析法limit analysis method of slope stability分析土坡稳定极限平衡法limit equilibrium method of slope stability16. 基坑开挖与降水板桩围护sheet pile-braced cuts电渗法electro-osmotic drainage管涌piping基底隆起heave of base基坑降水dewatering基坑失稳instability (failure) of foundation pit基坑围护bracing of foundation pit减压井relief well降低地下水位法dewatering method井点系统well point system喷射井点eductor well point铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope砂沸sand boiling深井点deep well point真空井点vacuum well point支撑围护braced cuts19. 地基处理表层压密法surface compaction超载预压surcharge preloading袋装砂井sand wick地工织物geofabric, geotextile地基处理ground treatment, foundation treatment电动化学灌浆electrochemical grouting 电渗法electro-osmotic drainage顶升纠偏法定喷directional jet grouting冻土地基处理frozen foundation improvement短桩处理treatment with short pile堆载预压法preloading粉体喷射深层搅拌法powder deep mixing method复合地基composite foundation干振成孔灌注桩vibratory bored pile高压喷射注浆法jet grounting灌浆材料injection material灌浆法grouting硅化法silicification夯实桩compacting pile化学灌浆chemical grouting换填法cushion灰土桩lime soil pile挤密灌浆compaction grouting锚固技术anchoring锚杆静压桩托换anchor pile underpinning 排水固结法consolidation膨胀土地基处理expansive foundation treatment劈裂灌浆fracture grouting浅层处理shallow treatment强夯法dynamic compaction人工地基artificial foundation软土地基soft clay ground砂井sand drain砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground 22. 室内土工试验常水头渗透试验constant head permeability test单剪仪simple shear apparatus单轴拉伸试验uniaxial tensile test 固结排水试验consolidated drained triaxial test固结试验consolidation test含水量试验water content test黄土湿陷试验loess collapsibility test快剪试验quick direct shear test快速固结试验fast consolidation test离心模型试验centrifugal model test连续加荷固结试验continual loading test 慢剪试验consolidated drained direct shear test毛细管上升高度试验capillary rise test密度试验density test扭剪仪torsion shear apparatus膨胀率试验swelling rate test平面应变仪plane strain apparatus三轴伸长试验triaxial extension test三轴压缩试验triaxial compression test砂的相对密实度试验sand relative density test渗透试验permeability test湿化试验slaking test收缩试验shrinkage test塑限试验plastic limit test缩限试验shrinkage limit test土工模型试验geotechnical model test土工织物试验geotextile test无侧限抗压强度试验unconfined compression strength test真三轴仪true triaxial apparatus振动单剪试验dynamic simple shear test 直剪仪direct shear apparatus直接剪切试验direct shear test直接单剪试验direct simple shear test自振柱试验free vibration column testK0固结不排水试验K0 consolidated undrained testK0固结排水试验K0 consolidated drained test23. 原位测试标准贯入试验standard penetration test表面波试验surface wave test超声波试验ultrasonic wave test承载比试验Califonia Bearing Ratio Test 单桩横向载荷试验lateral load test of pile 单桩竖向静载荷试验static load test of pile 动力触探试验dynamic penetration test静力触探试验static cone penetration test 静力载荷试验plate loading test跨孔试验cross-hole test轻便触探试验light sounding test深层沉降观测deep settlement measurement十字板剪切试验vane shear test无损检测nondestructive testing下孔法试验down-hole test现场渗透试验field permeability test原位孔隙水压力量测in situ pore water pressure measurement原位试验in-situ soil test最后贯入度final setgabbro 辉长岩geographical mapping 地理勘察；地理测绘geological condition 地质状况geological map 地质图geological mapping 地质勘察；地质测绘geological profile 地质剖面geological survey 地质调查Geology Society of Hong Kong 香港地质学会geophysical exploration 地球物理勘探geostatic stress 地应力geotechnical 岩土；土力geotechnical appraisal 岩土评估；土力评估Geotechnical Area Study Programme 地区岩土研究计划geotechnical assessment 岩土评估；土力评估geotechnical assessment study 岩土评估研究；土力评估研究geotechnical consultant 岩土工程顾问；土力工程顾问geotechnical control 岩土工程管制geotechnical design assumption 岩土设计假定geotechnical investigation 岩土工程勘察；岩土工程勘探ground feature 地物；地貌ground investigation 土地勘测；土地勘探；探土ground profile 地形；地形剖面；地形切面ground settlement 土地沉降；地陷ground surface 地面ground survey 地面测量grounding electrode 接地电极groundwater catchment 地下水流域groundwater connectivity test 地下水连通实验groundwater discharge 地下水流量；地下水溢流groundwater drainage works 地下水排水工程groundwater flow direction 地下水流向groundwater level 地下水位groundwater monitoring 地下水监测groundwater pressure measurement 地下水水压测试groundwater regime 地下水体系groundwater table fluctuation 地下水位变动karst cave 岩溶洞karst topography 岩溶地形。

土木工程外文文献及翻译

1 IntroductionThe corrosion of steel reinforcement is a major cause of the deterioration of reinforced concrete structures throughout the world. In uncorroded structures the bond between the steel reinforcement and the concrete ensures that reinforced concrete acts in a composite manner. However, when corrosion of the steel occurs this composite performance is adversely affected. This is due to the formation of corrosion products on the steel surface, which affect the bond between the steel and the concrete.The deterioration of reinforced concrete is characterized by a general or localized loss of section on the reinforcing bars and the formation of expansive corrosion products. This deterioration can affect structures in a number of ways; the production of expansive products creates tensile stresses within the concrete, which can result in cracking and spalling of the concrete cover. This cracking can lead to accelerated ingress of the aggressive agents causing further corrosion. It can also result in a loss of strength and stiffness of the concrete cover. The corrosion products can also affect the bond strength between the concrete and the reinforcing steel. Finally the corrosion reduces the cross section of the reinforcing steel, which can affect the ductility of the steel and the load bearing capacity, which can ultimately impact upon the serviceability of the structure and the structural capacity [12, 25].Previous research has investigated the impact of corrosion on bond [2–5, 7, 12, 20, 23–25, 27, 29], with a number of models being proposed [4, 6, 9, 10, 18, 19, 24, 29]. The majority of this research has focused on the relationship between the level of corrosion (mass loss of steel) or the current density degree(corrosion current applied in accelerated testing) and crack width, or on the relationship between bond strength and level of corrosion. Other research has investigated the mechanical behaviour of corroded steel [1, 11] and the friction characteristics [13]. However, little research has focused on the relationship between crack width and bond [23, 26, 28], a parameter that can be measured with relative ease on actual structures.The corrosion of the reinforcing steel results in the formation of iron oxides which occupy a larger volume than that of the parent metal. This expansion creates tensile stresses within the surrounding concrete, eventually leading to cracking of the cover concrete. Once cracking occurs there is a loss of confining force from the concrete. This suggests that the loss of bond capacity could be related to the longitudinal crack width [12]. However, the use of confinement within the concrete can counteract this loss of bond capacity to a certain degree. Research to date has primarily involved specimens with confinement. This paper reports a study comparing the loss of bond of specimens with and without confinement.2 Experimental investigation2.1 SpecimensBeam end specimens [28] were selected for this study. This type of eccentr ic pullout or ‘beam end’ type specimen uses a bonded length representative of the anchorage zone of a typical simply supported beam. Specimens of rectangular cross section were cast with a longitudinal reinforcing bar in each corner, Fig. 1. An 80 mm plastic tube was provided at the bar underneath the transverse reaction to ensure that the bond strength was not enhanced due to a (transverse) compressive force acting on the bar over this length.Fig. 1 Beam end specimenDeformed rebar of 12 and 16 mm diameter with cover of three times bar diameter were investigated. Duplicate sets of confined and unconfined specimens were tested. The confined specimens had three sets of 6 mm stainless steel stirrups equally spaced from the plastic tube, at 75 mm centres.This represents four groups of specimens with a combination of different bar diameter and with/without confinement. The specimens were selected in order to investigate the influence of bar size, confinement and crack width on bond strength.2.2 MaterialsThe mix design is shown, Table 1. The cement was Type I Portland cement, the aggregate was basalt with specific gravity 2.99. The coarse and fine aggregate were prepared in accordance with AS 1141-2000. Mixing was undertaken in accordance with AS 1012.2-1994. Specimens were cured for28 days under wet hessian before testing.Table 1 Concrete mix designMateri al Cement w/c Sand10 mmwashedaggregate7 mmwashedaggregateSalt SlumpQuantit y 381 kg/m30.49517 kg/m3463 kg/m3463 kg/m318.84 kg/m3140 ± 25 mmIn order to compare bond strength for the different concrete compressive strengths, Eq. 1 is used to normalize bond strength for non-corroded specimens as has been used by other researcher [8].(1)where is the bond strength for grade 40 concrete, τ exptl is the experimental bond strength and f c is the experimental compressive strength.The tensile strength of the Φ12 and Φ16 mm steel bars was nominally500 MPa, which equates to a failure load of 56.5 and 100.5 kN, respectively. 2.3 Experiment methodologyAccelerated corrosion has been used by a number of authors to replicate the corrosion of the reinforcing steel happening in the natural environment [2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 18, 20, 24, 27, 28, 30]. These have involved experiments using impressed currents or artificial weathering with wet/dry cycles and elevated temperatures to reduce the time until corrosion, while maintaining deterioration mechanisms representative of natural exposure. Studies using impressed currents have used current densities between 100 μA/cm2 and 500 mA/cm2 [20]. Research has suggested that current densities up to 200 μA/cm2 result in similar stresses during the early stages of corrosion when compared to 100 μA/cm2 [21]. As such an applied current density of 200 μA/cm2 was selected for this study—representative of the lower end of the spectrum of such current densities adopted in previous research. However, caution should be applied when accelerating the corrosion using impressed current as the acceleration process does not exactly replicate the mechanisms involved in actual structures. In accelerated tests the pits are not allowed to progress naturally, and there may be a more uniform corrosion on the surface. Also the rate of corrosion may impact on the corrosion products, such that different oxidation state products may be formed, which could impact on bond.The steel bars served as the anode and four mild steel metal plates were fixed on the surface to serve as cathodes. Sponges (sprayed with salt water)were placed between the metal plates and concrete to provide an adequate contact, Fig. 2.Fig. 2 Accelerated corrosion systemWhen the required crack width was achieved for a particular bar, the impressed current was discontinued for that bar. The specimen was removed for pullout testing when all four locations exhibited the target crack width. Average surface crack widths of 0.05, 0.5, 1 and 1.5 mm were adopted as the target crack widths. The surface crack width was measured at 20 mm intervals along the length of the bar, beginning 20 mm from the end of the (plastic tube) bond breaker using an optical microscope. The level of accuracy in the measurements was ±0.02 mm. Measurements of crack width were taken on the surface normal to the bar direction regardless of the actual crack orientation at that location.Bond strength tests were conducted by means of a hand operated hydraulic jack and a custom-built test rig as shown in Fig. 3. The loading scheme is illustrated in Fig. 4. A plastic tube of length 80 mm was provided at the end of the concrete section underneath the transverse reaction to ensure that the bond strength was not enhanced by the reactive (compressive) force (acting normal to the bar). The specimen was positioned so that an axial force was applied to thebar being tested. The restraints were sufficiently rigid to ensure minimal rotation or twisting of the specimen during loading.Fig. 3 Pull-out test, 16 mm bar unconfinedFig. 4 Schematic of loading. Note: only test bar shown for clarity3 Experimental results and discussion3.1 Visual inspectionFollowing the accelerated corrosion phase each specimen was visually inspected for the location of cracks, mean crack width and maximum crack width (Sect. 2.3).While each specimen had a mean target crack width for each bar, variations in this crack width were observed prior to pull out testing. This is due to corrosion and cracking being a dynamic process with cracks propagating at different rates. Thus, while individual bars were disconnected, once the target crack width had been achieved, corrosion and crack propagation continued (to some extent) until all bars had achieved the target crack width and pull out tests conducted. This resulted in a range of data for the maximum and mean crack widths for the pull out tests.The visual inspection of the specimens showed three stages to the cracking process. The initial cracks occurred in a very short period, usually generated within a few days. After that, most cracks grew at a constant rate until they reached 1 mm, 3–4 weeks after first cracking. After cracks had reached 1 mm they then grew very slowly, with some cracks not increasing at all. For the confined and unconfined specimens the surface cracks tended to occur on the side of the specimens (as opposed to the top or bottom) and to follow the line of the bars. In the case of the unconfined specimens in general these were the only crack while it was common in the cases of confined specimens to observe cracks that were aligned vertically down the side—adjacent to one of the links, Fig. 5.Fig. 5 Typical crack patternsDuring the pull-out testing the most common failure mode for both confined and unconfined was splitting failure—with the initial (pre-test) cracks caused by the corrosion enlarging under load and ultimately leading to the section failing exhibiting spalling of the top corner/edge, Fig. 6. However for several of the confined specimens, a second mode of failure also occurred with diagonal (shear like) cracks appearing in the side walls, Fig. 7. The appearance of these cracks did not appear to be related to the presence of vertical cracks observed (in specimens with stirrups) during the corrosion phase as reported above.Fig. 6 Longitudinal cracking after pull-outFig. 7 Diagonal cracking after pull-outThe bars were initially (precasting) cleaned with a 12% hydrochloric acid solution, then washed in distilled water and neutralized by a calcium hydroxide solution before being washed in distilled water again. Following the pull-out tests, the corroded bars were cleaned in the same way and weighed again.The corrosion degree was determined using the following equationwhere G 0 is the initial weight of the steel bar before corrosion, G is the final weight of the steel bar after removal of the post-test corrosion products, g 0 is the weight per unit length of the steel bar (0.888 and 1.58 g/mm for Φ12 and Φ16 mm bars, respectively), l is the embedded bond length.Figures 8 and 9 show steel bars with varying degree of corrosion. The majority exhibited visible pitting, similar to that observed on reinforcement in actual structures, Fig. 9. However, a small number of others exhibitedsignificant overall section loss, with a more uniform level of corrosion, Fig. 8, which may be a function of the acceleration methodology.Fig. 8 Corroded 12 mm bar with approximately 30% mass lossFig. 9 Corroded 16 mm bar with approximately 15% mass loss3.2 Bond stress and crack widthFigure 10 shows the variation of bond stress with mean crack width for16 mm bars and Fig. 11 for the 12 mm bars. Figures 12 and 13 show the data for the maximum crack width.Fig. 10 Mean crack width versus bond stress for 16 mm barsFig. 11 Mean crack width versus bond stress for 12 mm bars Fig. 12 Maximum crack width versus bond stress for 16 mm bars Fig. 13 Maximum crack width versus bond stress for 12 mm barsThe data show an initial increase in bond strength for the 12 mm specimens with stirrups, followed by a significant decrease in bond, which is in agreement with other authors [12, 15]. For the 16 mm specimens an increase on the control bond stress was observed for specimens with 0.28 and 0.35 mm mean crack widths, however, a decrease in bond stress was observed for at the mean crack width of 0.05 mm.The 12 mm bars with stirrups displayed an increase in bond stress of approximately 25% from the control values to the maximum bond stress. An increase of approximately 14% was observed for the 16 mm specimens. Other researchers [17, 24, 25] have reported enhancements of bond stress of between 10 and 60% due to confinement, slightly higher to that observed in these experiment. However the loading techniques and cover depths have not all been the same. Variations in experimental techniques include a shorter embedded length and a lower cover. The variation on the proposed empirical relationship between bond strength, degree of corrosion, bar size, cover, link details and tensile strength predicted by Rodriguez [24] has been discussed in detail in Tang et al. [28]. The analysis demonstrates that there would be an expected enhancement of bond strength due to confinement of approximately 25%—corresponding to a change of bond strength of approximately 0.75 MPa for the 16 mm bars (assessed at a 2% section loss). For the 12 mm bars the corresponding effect of confinement is found to be approximately 35% corresponding to a 1.0 MPa difference in bond stress. The experimental results (14 and 25%, above) are 60–70% of these values.Both sets of data indicate a relationship showing decreasing bond strength with (visible surface) crack width. A regression analysis of the bond strengthdata reveals a better linear relationship with the maximum crack width as opposed to the mean crack width (excluding the uncracked confined specimens), Table 2.Table 2 Best fit parameters, crack width versus bond strengthThere was also a significantly better fit for the unconfined specimens than the confined specimens. This is consistent with the observation that in the unconfined specimens the bond strength will be related to the bond between the bars and the concrete, which will be affected by the level of corrosion present, which itself will influence the crack width. In confined specimens the confining steel will impact upon both the bond and the cracking.3.3 Corrosion degree and bond stressIt is apparent that (Fig. 14) for corrosion degrees less than 5% the bond stress correlated well. However, as the degree of corrosion increased there was no observable correlation at all. This contrasts with the relationship between the observed crack width and bond stress, which gives a reasonable correlation, even as crack widths increase to 2 and 2.5 mm. A possible explanation for this variation is that in the initial stages of corrosion virtually all the dissolved iron ions react to form expansive corrosion products. This reaction impacts on both the bond stress and the formation of cracks. However, once cracks have been formed it is possible for the iron ions to be transported along the crack and out of the concrete. As the bond has already been effectively lost at the crack any iron ions dissolving at the crack and being directly transported out of the concrete will cause an increase in the degree of corrosion, but not affect the surface crack width. The location, orientation and chemistry within the crack will control the relationship between bond stress and degree of corrosion, which will vary from specimen to specimen. Hence the large variations in corrosion degree and bond stress for high levels of corrosion.Fig. 14 Bond stress versus corrosion degree, 12 mm bars, unconfined specimenSignificantly larger crack widths were observed for the unconfined specimens, compared to the confined specimens with similar levels of corrosion and mass lost. The largest observed crack for unconfined specimens was2.5 mm compared to 1.4 mm for the confined specimens. This is as expected and is a direct result of the confinement which limits the degree of cracking.3.4 Effect of confinementThe unconfined specimens for both 16 and 12 mm bars did not display the initial increase in bond strength observed for the confined bars. Indeed the unconfined specimens with cracks all displayed a reduced bond stress compared to the control specimens. This is in agreement with other authors [16, 24] findings for cracked specimens. In cracked corroded specimens Fang observed a substantial reduction in bond strength for deformed bars without stirrups, while Rodriguez observed bond strengths of highly corroded cracked specimens without stirrups were close to zero, while highly corroded cracked specimens with stirrups retained bond strengths of between 3 and 4 MPa. In uncorroded specimens Chana noted an increase in bond strength due to stirrups of between 10 and 20% [14]. However Rodriguez and Fang observed no variation due to the presence of confinement in uncorroded bars.The data is perhaps unexpected as it could be anticipated that the corrosion products would lead to an increase in bond due to the increase in internal pressures, caused by the corrosion products increasing the confinement and mechanical interlocking around the bar, coupled with increased roughness of the bar resulting in a greater friction between the bar and the surrounding concrete. However, these pressures would then relieved by the subsequent cracking of the concrete, which would contribute to the decrease in the bond strength as crackwidths increase. A possible hypothesis is that due to the level of cover, three times bar diameter, the effect of confinement by the stirrups is reduced, such that it has little impact on the bond stress in uncracked concrete. However, once cracking has taken place the confinement does have a beneficial effect on the bond.It may also be that the compressive strength of the concrete combined with the cover will have an effect on the bond stresses for uncorroded specimens. The data presented here has a cover of three times bar diameter and a strength of 40 MPa, other research ranges from 1.5 to four times cover with compressive strengths from 40 to 77 MPa.3.5 Comparison of 12 and 16 mm rebarThe maximum bond stress for 16 mm unconfined bars was measured at 8.06 MPa and for the 12 mm bars it was 8.43 MPa. These both corresponded to the control specimens with no corrosion. The unconfined specimens for both the 12 and 16 mm bars showed no increase in bond stress due to corrosion. For the confined specimens the maximum bond stress for the control specimens were 7.29 MPa for the 12 mm bars and 6.34 MPa for the 16 mm bars. The maximum bond stress for both sets of confined specimens corresponded to point of the initial cracking. The maximum bond stresses were observed at a mean crack width of 0.01 mm for the 12 mm bars and 0.28 mm for the 16 mm bars. The corresponding bond stresses were, 8.45 and 7.20 MPa. Overall the 12 mm bars displayed higher bond stresses compared to the 16 mm bars at all crack widths. This is attributed to a different failure mode. The 16 mm specimens demonstrate splitting failure while the 12 mm bars bond failure.3.6 Effect of casting positionThere was no significant difference of bond strength due to the position of the bar (top or bottom cast) once cracking was observed, Fig. 15. For control specimens, with no corrosion, however, the bottom cast bars had a slightly higher bond stress than the top cast bars. These observations are in agreement with other authors [4, 11, 15, 22]. It is generally accepted that uncorroded bottom cast bars have significantly improved bond compared to top cast bars due to the corrosion products filling the voids that are often present under top cast bars as the corrosion progresses [14]. The corrosion also act s as an ‘anchor’, similar to the ribs on deformed bars, to increase the bond. Overall, the mean value of bond stress for all bars (corroded and uncorroded) located in the top were within 1% of the mean bond stress of all bars located in the bottom of the section—for both unconfined and confined bars. This is probably due to the level of cover. The results reported previously are on specimens with one times cover [14]. However, at three times cover it would be anticipated that greater compaction would be achieved around the top cast bars. Thus the area of voids would be reduced and thus the effect of the corrosion product filling these voids and increasing the bond strength would be reduced.Fig. 15 Bond stress versus mean crack width for 12 mm bars, top and bottom cast positions,confined specimen4 ConclusionsA relationship was observed between crack width and bond stress. The correlation was better for maximum crack width and bond stress than for mean crack width and bond stress.Confined bars displayed a higher bond stress at the point of initial cracking than where no corrosion had occurred. As crack width increase the bond stress reduced significantly.Unconfined bars displayed a decrease in bond stress at initial cracking, followed by a further decrease as cracking increased.Top cast bars displayed a higher bond stress in specimens with no corrosion. Once cracking had occurred no variation between top and bottom cast bars was observed.The 12 mm bars displayed higher bond stress values than 16 mm with no corrosion, control specimens, and at similar crack widths.A good correlation was observed between bond stress and degree of corrosion was observed at low levels of corrosion (less than 5%). However, at higher levels of corrosion no correlation was discerned.Overall the results indicated a potential relationship between the maximum crack width and the bond. Results shown herein should be interpreted with caution as this variation may be not only due to variations between accelerated corrosion and natural corrosion but also due to the complexity of the cracking mechanism in reality.中文译文：约束和无约束的钢筋对裂缝宽度的影响收稿日期：2010年1月14 纳稿日期：2010年12月14日线上发表时间：2010年1月23日摘要本报告公布了局限约束和自由的变形对粘结强度12、16毫米钢筋的表面腐蚀程度和裂纹影响的比较结果。

土木工程外文文献翻译(含中英文)

Experimental research on seismic behavior of abnormal jointin reinforced concrete frameAbstract :Based on nine plane abnormal joint s , one space abnormal joint experiment and a p seudo dynamic test of a powerplant model , the work mechanism and the hysteretic characteristic of abnormal joint are put to analysis in this paper. A conception of minor core determined by the small beam and small column , and a conclusion that the shear capacity of ab2normal joint depends on minor core are put forward in this paper. This paper also analyzes the effect s of axial compres2 sion , horizontal stirrup s and section variation of beam and column on the shear behavior of abnormal joint . Finally , the formula of shear capacity for abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame is provided.Key words : abnormal j oint ; minor core ; seismic behavior ; shear ca paci t yCLC number :TU375. 4 ; TU317. 1 Document code :A Article ID :100627930 (2006) 022*******1 Int roductionFor reinforced concrete f rame st ructure , t he joint is a key component . It is subjected to axialcomp ression , bending moment and shear force. The key is whet her the joint has enough shear capaci2ty. The Chinese Code f or S eismic Desi gn of B ui l di ngs ( GB5001122001) adopt s the following formulato calculate t he shear capacity of the reinforced concrete f rame joint .V j = 1. 1ηj f t b j h j + 0. 05ηj Nb jb c+ f yv A svjh b0 - a′ss(1)Where V j = design value of t he seismic shear capacity of the joint core section ;ηj = influential coefficient of t he orthogonal beam to the column ;f t = design value of concrete tensile st rength ;b j = effective widt h of the joint core section ;h j = dept h of the joint core section , Which can be adopted as t he depth of the column section int he verification direction ;N = design value of axial compression at t he bot tom of upper column wit h considering the combi2 nation of the eart hquake action , When N > 015 f c b c h c , let N = 0. 5 f c b c h c ;b c = widt h of t he column section ;f yv = design value of t he stirrup tensile st rengt h ;A svj = total stirrup area in a set making up one layer ;h b0 = effective dept h of t he beam.If t he dept h of two beams at the side of t he joint is unequal , h b0 = t he average depth of two beams.a′s = distance f rom the cent roid of the compression beam steel bar to the ext reme concrete fiber . s = distance of t he stirrup .Eq. 1 is based on t he formula in t he previous seismiccode[1 ] and some modifications made eavlicr and it is suit2able to the normal joint of reinforced concrete f rame , butnot to t he abnormal one which has large different in t hesection of t he upper column and lower one (3 600 mm and1 200 mm) , lef t beam and right beam (1 800 mm and 1200 mm) . The shear capacity of abnormal joint s calculat2ed by Eq. 1 may cause some unsafe result s. A type of ab2normal joint which of ten exist s in t he power plant st ruc2t ure is discussed ( see Fig. 1) , and it s behavior was st ud2ied based on t he experiment in t his paper2 Experimental workAccording to the above problem , and t he experiment of plane abnormal joint s and space abnormal joint , a p seudo dynamic test of space model of power plant st ruct ure was carried out . The aim of t hisst udy is to set up a shear force formula and to discuss seismic behavior s of t he joint s.According to the characteristic of t he power plant st ruct ure , nine abnormal joint s and one space abnormal joint were designed in t he experiment . The scale of the model s is one2fif t h. Tab. 1 and Tab.2 show t he dimensions and reinforcement detail s of t he specimens.Fig. 2 shows the typical const ruction drawing of t he specimen. Fig. 3 shows the loading set up . These specimens are subjected to low2cyclic loading , the loading process of which is cont rolled by force and displacement , t he preceding yield loading by force and subsequent yield by t he displacement .The shear deformation of the joint core , t he st rain of the longit udinal steel and t he stirrup are main measuring items.3 Analysis of test result s3. 1 Main resultsTab. 3 shows t he main result s of t he experiment .3. 2 Failure process of specimenBased on t he experiment , t he process of t he specimens’failure includes four stages , namely , t he initial cracking , t he t horough cracking , the ultimate stage and t he failure stage.(1) Initial cracking stageWhen t he first diagonal crack appears along t he diagonal direction in t he core af ter loading , it s widt h is about 0. 1mm , which is named initial cracking stage of joint core. Before t he initial cracking stage , t he joint remains elastic performance , and the variety of stiff ness is not very obvious on t hep2Δcurve. At t his stage concrete bear s most of the core shear force while stirrup bears few. At t he timewhen t he initial crack occur s , t he st ress of t he stirrup at t he crack increase sharply and t he st rain is a2bout 200 ×10 - 6 —300 ×10 - 6 . The shear deformation of t he core at t his stage is very small (less than 1×10 - 3 radian ,generally between 0. 4 ×10 - 3 and 0. 8 ×10 - 3 radian) .(2) Thorough cracking stageWit h the load increasing following t he initial cracking stage , the second and t hird crossing diago2 nal cracks will appear at t he core. The core is cut into some small rhombus pieces which will become at least one main inclined crack across t he core diagonal . The widt h of cracks enlarges obviously , andt he wider ones are generally about 0. 5mm , which is named core t horough cracking stage. The st ress of stirrup increases obviously , and the stirrup in t he middle of t he core is near to yielding or has yiel2 ded. The joint core shows nonlinear property on t he p2Δcurve , and it enter s elastic2plastic stage. Theload at t horough cracking stage is about 80 % —90 % load.(3) Ultimate stageAt t his stage , t he widt h of t he cracks is about 1mm or more and some new cracks continue to oc2 cur . The shear deformation at t he core is much larger and concrete begins to collap se. Af ter several cyclic loading , the force reaches the maximum value , which is called ultimate stage. The load increase is due to t he enhancing of the concrete aggregate mechanical f riction between cracks. At t he same timet he st ress of stirrup increases gradually. On t he one hand stirrup resist s t he horizontal shear , and on t he ot her hand the confinement effect to t he expanding compression concrete st rengthens continuous2ly , which can also improve t he shear capacity of diagonal compression bar mechanism.(4) Failure stageAs the load circulated , concrete in t he core began to collap se , and t he deformation increased sharply , while the capacity began to drop . It was found t hat t he slip of reinforcement in t he beam wasvery serious in t he experiment . Wit h t he load and it s circulation time increasing , t he zoon wit houtbond gradually permeated towards t he internal core , enhancing t he burden of t he diagonal compressionbar mechanism and accelerates the compression failure of concrete. Fig. 4 shows t he p hotos of typical damaged joint s.A p seudo dynamic test of space model ofpower plant st ruct ure was carried out to researcht he working behavior of t he abnormal joint s in re2al st ructure and the seismic behavior of st ructure.Fig. 5 shows the p hoto of model .The test includes two step s. The fir st is thep seudo dynamic test . At t his step , El2Cent rowave is inp ut and the peak acceleration variesf rom 50 gal to 1 200 gal . The seismic response is measured. The second is t he p seudo static test . Theloading can’t stop until t he model fail s.Fig. 7 Minor coreThe experiment shows t hat t he dist ribution and development of t hecrack is influenced by t he rest rictive effect of the ort hogonal beam , andt he crack of joint core mainly dist ributes under t he orthogonal beam( see Fig. 6) , which is different f rom t he result of t he plane joint test ,but similar to J 4210.3. 3 Analysis of test results3. 3. 1 Mechanical analysisIn t he experiment , t he location of the initial crack of t he exteriorjoint and the crushed position of concrete both appear in the middle oft he joint core , and t he position is near t he centerline of t he upper col2umn. The initial crack and crushed position of t he concrete of the interior joint both appear in t he mi2 nor core ( see Fig. 4 ,Fig. 7) . For interior abnormal joint t he crack doesn’t appear or develop in t he ma2j or core out side of the mi nor core until t horough cracking takes place , while t he crack seldom appearsin t he shadow region ( see Fig. 7) as the joint fail s. Therefore , for abnormal joint , t he shear capacity oft he joint core depends on t he properties of t he mi nor core , namely , on t he st rengt h grades of concrete ,t he size and the reinforcement of t he mi nor core , get t he effect of t he maj or core dimension can’t be neglected.Mechanical effect s are t he same will that of t he normal joint , when t he forces t ransfer to t he mi2 nor core t hrough column and beam and reinforcement bar . Therefore , t he working mechanisms of nor2mal joint , including t russ mechanism , diagonal compression bar mechanism and rest rictive mechanismof stirrup , are also suitable for mi nor core of t he abnormal joint , but their working characteristic is not symmet rical when the load rever ses. Fig. 8 illust rates t he working mechanism of t he abnormal joint .When t he load t ransfer to mi nor core , t he diagonal compression bar area of mi nor core is biggert han normal joint core2composed by small column and small beam of abnormal joint , which is due to t he compressive st ress diff usion of concrete compressive region of the beam and column , while at t hesame time t he compression carried by the diagonal compression bar becomes large. Because t he main part of bond force of column and beam is added to t he diagonal comp ression bar but cont rasting wit h t he increased area of diagonal compression bar , t he increased action is small . The region in the maj orcore but out of the mi nor core has less st ress dist ribution and fewer cracks. The region can confine t heexpansion of t he concrete of t he mi nor core diagonal compression bar concrete , which enhances t he concrete compressive st rengt h of mi nor core diagonal compression bar .Making t he mi nor core as st udy element , the area increment of concrete diagonal compression barin mi nor core is related to t he st ress diff usion of t he beam and column compressive region. The magni2t ude of diff usion area is related to height difference of t he beam sections and column sections. Name2ly , it is related to t he size of mi nor core section and maj or core section. Thus , the increased shearst rengt h magnit ude caused by mi nor core rest rictive effect on maj or core can be measured quantitative2ly by t he ratio of maj or core area to mi nor core area. And it al so can be expressed that t he rest rictive effect is quantitatively related to t he ratio. Obviously , t he bigger t he ratio is and t he st ronger t he con2finement is , t he st ronger t he bearing capacity is.The region in the maj or core but under the mi nor core still need stirrup bar because of t he hori2 zontal force t ransferred by bigger beam bar . But force is small .3. 3. 2 load2displacement curves analysisFig. 9 shows t he typical load2displacement curves at t he beam end of t he exterior and interiorjoint . The figure showing t hat t he rigidity of t he specimens almo st doesn’t degenerate when t he initialcrack appear s in t he core , and a turning point can be found at t he curve but it isn’t very obvious. Wit ht he crack developing , an obvious t urning point can be found at t he curve , and at t his time , t he speci2men yields. Then t he load can increase f urt her , but it can’t increase too much f rom yielding load to ultimate load. When t he concrete at t he core collap ses and the plastic hinge occured at t he beamend ,t he load begins to decrease rat her t han increase.The ductility coefficient of two kinds of joint s is basically more than 3 (except for J 3 - 9) . But it should be noted t hat the design of specimens is based on the principle of joint core failure. The ratio of reinforcement of beam and column tends to be lower t han practical project s. If t he ratio is larger , t he failure of joint is probably prior to t hat of beam and column , so t he hysteretic curve reflect s t he ductil ity property of joint core.Joint experiment should be a subst ruct ure test (or a test of composite body of beams and col2 umns) . So t he load2displacement curves at t he beam end should be a general reflection of t he joint be2havior work as a subst ruct ure. Providing t hat the joint core fails af ter t he yield of beam and column (especially for beam) , t he load2displacement curves at t he beam end is plump , so the principle of “st rong col umn and weak beam , st ron ger j oi nt" should be ensured which conforms to t he seismic re2sistant principle.The experiment shows t hat t he stiff ness of joint core is large. Before the joint reaches ultimatestage , t he stiff ness of joint core decreases a little and the irrecoverable residual deformation is very small under alternate loading. When joint core enter s failure stage , t he shear deformation increases sharply , and t he stiff ness of joint core decreases obviously , and t he hysteretic curve appears shrink2 age , which is because of t he cohesive slip of beam reinforcement .3. 4 Influential Factors of Abnormal Joint Shear CapacityThe fir st factor is axial compression. Axial compression can enlarge t he compression area of col2 umn , and increase t he concrete compression area of joint core[124 ] . At t he same time , more shearst ransferred f rom beam steel to t he edge of joint core concrete will add to t he diagonal compression bar ,which decreases t he edge shear t hat leads to the crack of joint core concrete. So t he existence of axial comp ression cont ributes to imp roving t he capacity of initial cracks at joint core.The effect of axial compression on t horough cracking load and ultimate load isn’t very obvious[1 ] . The reason is t hat cont rasting wit h no axial compression , the accumulated damage effect of joint coreunder rever sed loading wit h axial compression is larger . Alt hough axial compression can improve t heshear st rengt h of concrete , it increases accumulated damage effect which leads to a decrease of the ad2vantage of axial compression. Therefore t he effect of axial compression on t horough cracking loadandultimate load is not very obvious.Hence , considering the lack of test data of abnormal joint , t he shear capacity formula of abnormal joint adopt 0. 05 nf c b j h j to calculate the effect of axial compression , which is based on the result s of t his experiment and referenced to t he experimental st udy and statistical analysis of Meinheit and J irsa ,et [5 ] .The second factor is horizontal stirrup . Horizontal stirrup has no effect on t he initial crackingshear of abnormal joint , while greatly improves t he t horough cracking shear . Af ter crack appeared , t he stirrup begins to resist t he shear and confines t he expansion of concrete[ 6 ] . This experiment showst hat t he st ress of stirrup s in each layer is not equal . When the joint fail s , t he stirrup s don’t yield simultaneous. Fig. 10 shows t he change of st ress dist ribution of stirrup s along core height wit h t he loadincreasing. Through analyzing test result s , it can be known t hat 80 percent of the height at the joint core can yield.The last factor is the change of sec2tion size of t he beam and column. Thesection change decreases t he initial crack2ing load about 30 p resent of abnormaljoint and makes t he initial crack appear att he position of joint mi nor core. The rea2son for t his p henomenon is t hat small up2per column section makes t he confinementof mi nor core concrete decrease and t heedge shear increase. But t he section change has lit tle effect on thorough cracking load. Af ter t horoughcracking , the joint enter s ultimate state while the external load can’t increase too much , which is dif2 ferent f rom t he behavior of abnormal joint t hat can carry much shear af ter thorough cracking.3. 5 Shear force formula of abnormal jointAs a part of f rame , t he design of joint shall meet t he requirement s of the f rame st ruct ure design , namely , t he joint design should not damage t he basic performance of t he st ruct ure.According to the principle of st ronger j oi nt , it is necessary for joint to have some safety reserva2 tion. The raised cost for conservational estimation of t he joint bearing capacity is small . But t he con2 servational estimation is very important to t he safety of the f rame st ruct ure. At t horough cracking stage , t he widt h of most cracks is more t han 0. 2 mm , which is bigger than t he suggested limit value in t he concrete design code. Big cracks will influence t he durability of st ruct ure. Hence , the bearing capacity at t horough cracking stage is applied to calculating t he bearing capacity of joint . According to t he analysis of t he working mechanisms of abnormal joint , it could be concludedt hat t he bearing capacity of joint core mainly depends on mi nor core when t he force t ransferred f rommaj or core to mi nor core. All kinds of working mechanisms are suitable to mi nor core element . Thus , a formula for calculating t he shear capacity of abnormal joint can be obtained based on Eq. 1. According to the above analysis of influential factor s of shear capacity of abnormal joint , and ref2 erence to Eq. 1 , a formula for calculating t he shear capacity of reinforced concrete f rame abnormal jointis suggested as followsV j = 0. 1ηjξ1 f c b j h j + 0. 1ηj nξ2 f c b j h j +ξ3 f yv A svj h0 - a′s s(2)Where h0 = effective dept h of small beam section in abnormal joint ;ξ1 = influential coefficient consider2ing mi nor core on working as cont rol element for calculating ;ξ2 = influential coefficient considering effect of axial compression ratio , it s value is 0. 5 , andξ3 = influential coefficient considering t hestir2rup doesn’t yield simultaneous , it s value is 0. 8 , n = N/ f c b c h j .From Fig. 8 , the shear capacity of abnormal joint depends on mi nor core , while maj or core has re2st rictive effect on mi nor core. The effect is related to t he ratio of maj or core area to mi nor core area , so assumingξ1 =αA d A x (3)Where A d = area of abnormal joint maj or core , choosing it as t he value of t he dept h of big beam multiplying t he height of lower column ; A x = area of abnormal joint mi nor core , choosing it as t he value oft he depth of small beam multiplying the height of upper column ; andα= parameter to be defined , it s value is 0. 8 derived f rom t he result s of t he experiment ( see Tab. 4)Then Eq. 2 can be replaced byV j = 0. 1ηjαA d A x f c b j h j + 0. 05ηj n f c b j h j + 0. 8 f yv h0 - a′s s(4)4 ConclusionsThe following conclusions can be drawn f rom t his study.(1) The seismic behavior of abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame st ruct ure is poor . Af tert horough cracking , t he joint enter s ultimate state while the external load can’t increase too much , andt he safety reservation of joint isn’t sufficient .(2) The characteristic of bearing load of minor core is similar to that of normal joint , but t he area bearing load is different . The shear capacity depend on t he size , t he st rengt h of concrete and the rein2forcement of mi nor core in abnormal joint . The maj or core has rest rictive effect on mi nor core. (3) Joint experiment should be a subst ruct ure test or a test of composite body of beams and col2 umns. Therefore t he load2displacement curves of t he beam end should be a general reflection of t he joint behavior working as a subst ruct ure. Studies of t he hysteretic curve of subst ruct ure should be based on t he whole st ructure. It is critical to guarantee t he stiff ness and st rengt h of joint core in prac2tice.(4) The formula of shear capacity for abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame is provided.References[1 ] TAN GJ iu2ru . The seismic behavior of steel reinforced concrete f rame [M] . Nanjing :Dongnan University Press ,1989 :1572163.[2 ] The research group of reinforcement concrete f rame joint . Shear capacity research of reinforced concrete f rame jointon reversed2cyclic loading[J ] . Journal of Building St ructures , 1983 , (6) :9215.[3 ] PAULA Y T ,PARK R. Joint s reinforced concrete f rames designed for earthquake resistance[ R] . New Zealand :De2partment of civil Engineering , University of Canterbury , Christchurch , 1984.[4 ] FU Jian2ping. Seismic behavior research of reinforced concrete f rame joint with the consideration of axialforce[J ] .Journal of Chongqing Univ , 2000 , (5) :23227.[5 ] MEINHEIT D F ,J IRSA J O. Shear st rength of R/ C beam2column connections [J ] . ACI St ructural Journal , 1993 ,(3) :61271.[6 ] KITA YAMA K, OTANI S ,AO YAMA H. Development of design criteria for RC interior beam2column joints ,de2sign of beam2column joint s for seismic resistance[ R] . SP123 ,ACI ,Det roit , 1991 :61272.[7 ] GB5001122001 ,Code for seismic design of buildings [ S] . Beijing : China Architectural and BuildingPress ,2001.钢筋混凝土框架异型节点抗震性能试验研究摘要：基于8个钢筋混凝土框架异型节点的试验研究，分析了异型框架节点的受力与常规框架节点的异同。

土木工程专业外文文献及翻译

Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processing ForewordConcrete's is 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone， cement， water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material。

Because the concrete construction transform with oneself，control etc。

a series problem， harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole， spirit cave and tiny crack， is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality。

岩土工程锚杆中英文对照外文翻译文献

岩土工程锚杆中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Effect of grout properties on the pull-out load capacity of fullygrouted rock boltAbstractThis paper represents the result of a project conducted with developing a safe, practical and economical support system for engineering workings. In rock engineering, untensioned, fully cement-grouted rock bolts have been used for many years. However, there is only limited information about the action and the pull-out load capacity of rock bolts, and the relationship between bolt–grout or grout–rock and the influence of the grout properties on the pull-out load capacity of a rock bolt. The effect of grout properties on the ultimate bolt load capacity in a pull-out test has been investigated in order to evaluate the support effect of rock bolts. Approximately 80 laboratory rock bolt pull-out tests in basalt blocks have been carried out in order to explain and develop the relations between the grouting materials and untensioned, fully grouted rock bolts. The effects of the mechanical properties of grouting materials on the pull-out loadcapacity of a fully grouted bolt have been qualified and a number of empirical formulae have been developed for the calculating of the pull-out load capacity of the fully cement-grouted bolts on the basis of the shear strength, the uniaxial compressive strength of the grouting material, the bolt length, the bolt diameter, the bonding area and the curing time of the grouting material.Keywords: Rock bolt; Grouting materials; Bolt pull-out load capacity; Bolt geometry; Mortar1. IntroductionIn rock engineering, rock bolts have been used to stabilise openings for many years. The rock bolting system may improve the competence of disturbed rock masses by preventing joint movements, forcing the rock mass to support itself (Kaiser et al., 1992). The support effect of rock bolt has been discussed by many researchers(e.g. Hyett et al., 1992; Ito et al., 2001; Reichert et al., 1991 and Stillborg, 1984). Rock bolt binds together a laminated, discontinued, fractured and jointed rock mass. Rock bolting not only strengthens or stabilizes a jointed rock mass, but also has a marked effect on the rock mass stiffness (Chappell, 1989). Rock bolts perform their task by one or a combination of several mechanisms. Bolts often act to increase the stress and the frictional strength across joints, encouraging loose blocks or thinly stratified beds to bind together and act as a composite beam (Franklin and Dusseault, 1989). Rock bolts reinforce rock through a friction effect, through a suspension effect, or a combination of two. For this reason, rock bolt technique is acceptable for strengthening of mine roadway and tunnelling in all type of rock ( Panek and McCormick, 1973).Generally rock bolts can be used to increase the support of low forces due to the diameter and the strength of the bolt materials. They enable high anchoring velocity to be used at closer spacing between bolts.Their design provides either mechanical clamping or cement grouting against the rock (Aldorfand Exner,1986).Anchorage system of rock bolt is normally made of solid or tube formed steel installed untensioned or tensioned in the rock mass (Stillborg, 1986). Rock bolts can be divided into three main groups according to their anchorage systems (Franklin and Dusseault, 1989;Aldorfand Exner, 1986; Hoek and Wood, 1989; Cybulski and Mazzoni, 1989). First group is the mechanically anchored rock bolts that can be divided into two groups: slit and wedge type rock bolt, expansion shell anchor. They can be fixed in the anchoring part either by a wedge-shaped clamping part or by a threaded clamping part. Second group is the friction-anchored rock bolts that can be simply divided into two groups: split-set and swellex. Friction-anchored rock bolts stabilise the rock mass by friction of the outer covering of bolt against the drill hole side. The last group is the fully grouted rock bolts that can also be divided into twogroups: cement-grouted rock bolts, resin grouted rock bolts.A grouted rock bolt (dowel) is a fully grouted rock bolt without mechanical anchor, usually consisting of a ribbed reinforcing bar, installed in a drill hole and bonded to the rock over its full length (Franklin and Dusseault, 1989). Special attention should be paid to cement-grouted bolts and bolts bonded (glued, resined) by synthetics resins for bolt adjustment. Grouted bolts fix the using of the coherence of the sealing cement with the bolt rod and the rock for fastening the bolts. Synthetic resin (resined bolt) and cement mortar (reinforced-concrete bolt) can be used for this type rock bolt. These bolts may be anchored in all type of rock. Anchoring rods may be manufactured of several materials such as ribbed steel rods, smooth steel bars, cable bolts and other special finish (Aldorfand Exner, 1986).Grouted bolts are widely used in mining for the stabilisation of tunnelling, mining roadway, drifts and shafts for the reinforcing of its peripheries. Simplicity of installation, versatility and relatively low cost of rebars are further benefits of grouted bolts is comparison to their alternative counterparts (Indraratna and Kaiser,1990).Bolts are self-tensioning when the rock starts to move and dilate. They should therefore be installed as soon as possible after excavation, before the rock has started to deform, and before it has lost its interlocking and shear strength.Although several grout types are available, in many applications where the rock has a measure of short term stability, simple Portland cement-grouted reinforcing dowels are sufficient. They can be installed by filling the drill hole with lean, quickly set mortar into which the bar is driven. The dowel is retained in up holes either by a cheap form of end anchor, or by packing the drill hole collar with cotton waste, steel wool, or wooden wedges (Franklin and Dusseault, 1989).Concrete grouted bolts use cement mortar as a bonding medium. In drill holes at minimum of15 8 below the horizontal plane, the mortar can simply poured in, whereas in raising drill holes various design of bolts or other equipment is used to prevent the pumped mortar from flowing out (Aldorfand Exner,1986).The load bearing capacity off ully cement-grouted rock bolts depends on the bolt shape, the bolt diameter, the bolt length, rock and grout strength. The bond strength off ully cement-grouted rock bolts is primarily frictional and depends on the shear strength at the bolt–grout or grout–rock interface. Thus any changes in this interfaces shear strength must affect the bolt bond strength and bolt load capacity.This laboratory testing program was executed to evaluate the shear strength effect on the bond strength of the bolt–grout interface of a threaded bar and the laboratory test results confirm the theory.2. Previous solutionsThe effectiveness of a grouted bolt depends on its length relative to the extent ofthe zone of overstressed rock or yield zone. The shear and axial stress distributions of a grouted bolt are also related to the bolt length because equilibrium must be achieved between the bolt and the surrounding ground (Indraratna and Kaiser,1990).Bearing capacities of cement-grouted rock bolts (P b) and their anchoring forces are a function of the cohesion of the bonding agent and surrounding rock, and the bolting bar. The ultimate bearing capacity of the bolt (P m) is expressed as follows (Aldorf and Exner, 1986):(1)where k b, safety coefficient (usually k b=1.5); C1, cohesion of the bonding material on bolting bar, l d, anchored length of the bolt, d s, bolt diameter.(2)where d v, drill hole diameter；C2,cohesion of the bonding material with surrounding rock(carboniferousrocks and polyester resins C2 =3 MPa).(3)where C3, shearing strength of the bonding material.The maximum (ultimate) bearing capacity of the bolt (P m) will be the lowest value from P1to P111.Bearing capacities of all type bolts must also be evaluated from the view point of the tensile strength of the bolt material (P ms), which must not be lower than the ultimate bearing capacity resulting from the anchoring forces of bolts in drill holes (P m). It holds that(4)where P ms, the ultimate bearing capacity of the bolt with respect of the tensile strength of the bolt material;P m, the ultimate bearing capacity of the bolt.3. Laboratory study3.1. ExperimentsThe pull-out tests were conducted on rebars, grouted into basalt blocks with cement mortar in laboratory. The relations between bolt diameter (d b) and pull-out load of bolt (P b) (Fig. 2), bolt area (A b) and pull-out load of bolt (P b) (Fig. 3), bolt length (L b) and pull-out load of bolt (P b) (Fig. 5), water to cement ratio (w/c) and bolt bond strength (τb) (Fig. 7), mechanical properties of grout material and bolt bond strength (τb) (Fig. 9,Figs. 10 and 11), and curing time (days) and bolt strength (Figs.12 and 13) were evaluated by simple pull-out test programme.The samples consisted of rebars (ranging 10–18 mm diameters two by two) bonded into the basalt blocks. These basalt blocks used have a Youn g’s modulus of27.6 GPa and a uniaxial compressive strength (UCS g) of 133 MPa. Drilling holes which were 10 mm larger than the bolt diameter, having a diameter of 20 –28 mm for installation of bolts, were drilled up to 15–32 cm in depth. The bolt was grouted with cement mortar. The grout was a mixture of Portland cement with a water to cement ratio of 0.34, 0.36, 0.38 and 0.40 cured for 28 days. In order to obtain different grout types that have different mechanical properties, siliceous sand <100μm; 500 μm> and fly ash <10μm; 200μm> were added in a proportion of 10% of cement weight and white cement with a water to cement ratio of 0.40. The sand should be well graded, with a maximum grain size of v2 mm (Schack et al., 1979). The Young’s modulus of the grouts was measured during unconfined compression tests and shear strength was calculated by means of ring shear tests.The test set-up is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1 and the procedure is explained below:1. After filling prepared grout mortar into the hole, bolt is inserted to the centre of drilling hole.2. After curing time, the rebars in the rock were axially loaded and the load was gradually increased until the bolt failed.3. The bond strength (τb)was then calculated by dividing the load (P b)by surface area (A b)of the bolt bar in contact with the grout.4. Pull-out tests were repeated for various grout types, bolt dimensions and curing times.The influence of the bolt diameter and the bond area on the bond strength of a rock bolt can be formulated as follows (Littlejohn and Bruce, 1975):(5)where τb, ultimate bolt bond strength (MPa); P b, maximum pull-out load of bolt (kN); d b, bolt diameter (mm); l b, bolt length (cm); πd b l b , bonded area (cm2).3.2. Analysis of laboratory test results3.2.1. Infl uence of the bolt materialBolt diameters of 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18 mm were used in pull-out tests. Typical results are represented in Table 1, Figs. 2 and 3. The most important observationswere:(1)The maximum pull-out load (P b) increases linearly with the section of the bolt while embedment length was constant.(2) Bolt section depends upon bolt diameter. The relation between bolt diameter and bolt bearing capacity can be explained as follow empiric formulae (Fig. 2).(6)(3) The values of bolt bond strength were calculated between 5.68 and 5.96 MPa(Table 1).Bolt lengths of 15.0, 24.7, 27.0, 30.0 and 32.0 cm were used in pull-out tests as seen in Fig. 4. Typical results are represented in Table 2, and Figs. 5 and 6.The most important observations were:(1) The pull-out force of a bolt increases linearly with the embedded length of the bolt.(7)(2) Maximum pull-out strength of a bolt is limited to the ultimate strength of the bolt shank.3.2.2. Influence of grouting materialThe water to cement ratio should be no greater than 0.40 by weight; too much water greatly reduces the long-term strength. Because, part of the mixing water is consumed by the hydration of cement used. Rest of the mixing water evaporates and then capillary porosities exist which results in unhomogenities internal structure of mortar. Thus, this structure reduces the long-term strength by irregular stress distribution (Neville, 1963;Atis, 1997). To obtain a plastic grout, bentonit clay can be added in a proportion of up to 2% of the cement weight. Other additives can accelerate the setting-time, improve the grout fluidity allowing injection at lower water to cement ratios, and make the grout expand and pressurize the drill hole. Additives, if used at all, should be used with caution and in the correct quantities to avoid harmful side effect such as weakening and corrosion (Franklin and Dusseault, 1989).The water to cement ratio (w/c) in grouting materials considerably affects pull-out strength of bolt. As seen in Table 3, UCS g and shear strength (t g) of grout in high w/c ratio show lower values whereas in low w/c ratio higher values. The ratio between 0.34 and 0.40 presents quite good results. Although the w/c ratio of 0.34 gives the best bond strength, groutibility (pumpability) decreases and a number of difficulties in application appear. In high w/c ratio, the pumpability of grouting materials into the drilling hole is easy but the bond strength of bolt decreases (Figs. 7 and 8).The bond strength off ully cement-grouted rock bolts is primarily frictional and depends on the shear strength at the bolt–grout or grout–rock interface. Thus any change in this shear strength of interfaces affects the bolt bond strength and load capacity. The influences of mechanical properties of grouting materials on the bearing capacity of bolt can be described as follows:(1) The uniaxial compressive and shear strength of the grouting materials has an important role on the behaviour of rock bolts. It was observed that increasing shear strength of the grouting material logarithmically increases bolt bond strength as shown in Table 4 and Fig. 9. The relation between grout shear strength and bolt bond strength was formulated as follows:(8)(2) Table 4 and Fig. 10 show that increasing grout compressive strength considerable increases the bond strength of the grouted bolts.(9)(3) In Fig. 11 and Table 4 show that there is another relationship between Young’s modulus of grout and bolt bond strength. Increasing the Young’s modulus increases bolt bond strength.(10)3.2.3. Influence of the curing timeAn important problem in the application of cementgrouted bolts is the setting time of the mortar, which strongly affects the stabilizing ability of bolt. Cementgrouted dowels cannot be used for immediate support because of the timeneeded for the cement to set and harden (Franklin and Dusseault, 1989).In the pull-out tests, eight group ofbolts having same length and mortar with a water to cement ratio of0.4 were used for determining the effects of curing time on the bolt bond strength. Each group ofr ock bolt testing was performed after different setting times (Table 5). As can be seen in Figs. 12 and 13, the strength of bolt bond increases rapidly in 7 days due to curing time. However, the bond strength of bolt continues to increase rather slowly after 7 days.Rock bolts may lose their supporting ability because of yielding of bolt material, failure at the bolt–grout or grout–rock interface, and unravelling of rock between bolts. However, laboratory tests and field observations suggest that the most dominant failure mode is shear at the bolt–grout interface (Hoek and Wood, 1989). So, this laboratory study focussed on the interface between rock bolt and rock and the mechanical properties of grouting materials.4. ConclusionsThe laboratory investigation showed that the bolt capacity depends basically on the mechanical properties of grouting materials which can be changed by water to cement ratio, mixing time, additives, and curing time.Increasing the bolt diameter and length increases the bolt bearing capacity. However, this increase is limited to the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt materials.Mechanical properties of grouting materials have an important role on the boltbearing capacity. It is offered that the optimum water to cement ratio must be 0.34~0.4 and the mortar have to be well mixed before poured into drill hole. Improving the mechanical properties of the grouting material increases the bolt bearing capacity logarithmically. The best relationship was observed between grout shear strength and bolt bond strength.Increasing the curing time increases the bolt bond strength. Bolt bond strength of 19 kg/cm2 in first day,77 kg/cm2in 7 days and 86 kg/cm2in 35 days was determined respectively. The results show that bolt bond strength increases quickly in first 7 days and then the increase goes up slowly.Bond failure in the pull-out test occurred between the bolt and cement grout, of which the mechanical behaviour is observed by shear spring.This explains the development of bolt bond strength and the failure at the bolt–grout interface considering that the bond strength is created as a result of shear strength between bolt and grout. This means that any change at the grout strength causes to the changing of bolt capacity. The failure mechanism in a pull-out test was studied in order to clarify the bond effect of rock bolt. Thus one main bond effect was explained from bond strength of rock bolts.中文翻译水泥浆性能对充分注浆锚杆拉拔承载力的影响A. Kılıc, E. Yasar*, A.G. Celik摘要：本文代表了一项在安全、实用、经济的支持系统指导下的工程结果。

土木工程岩土外文翻译(SoilMechanics)

1 Basic mechanics of soilsLoads from foundations and walls apply stresses in the ground. Settlements are caused by strains in the ground. To analyze the conditions within a material under loading, we must consider the stress-strain behavior. The relationship between a and is termed stiffness. The maximum value of stress that may be sustained is termed strength.Analysis of stress and strain1）2）3）Stresses and strains occur in all directions and to do settlement and stability analyses it is often necessary to relate the stresses in a particular direction to those in other directions.normal stress σ = F n / Ashear stressτ = F s / A normal strain ε = δz / z oshear strainγ = δh / z oNote that compressive stresses and strains are positive, counter-clockwise shear stress and strain are positive, and that these are total stresses (see ).1.1.1 Special stress and strain statesIn general, the stresses and strains in thethree dimensions will all be different.There are three special cases which areimportant in ground engineering:General case princpal stressesAxially symmetric or triaxial statesStresses and strains in two dorections are equal.σ'x = σ'y and εx = εyRelevant to conditions near relatively small foundations,piles, anchors and other concentrated load s.P lane strain:Strain in one direction = 0εy = 0Relevant to conditions near long foundations, embankments, retaining walls and other long structures.One-dimensional compression:Strain in two directions = 0εx = εy = 0Relevant to conditions below wide foundations orrelatively thin compressible soil layers.Uniaxial compressionσ'x = σ'y = 0This is an artifical case which is only possible for soil isthere are negative pore water pressures.1.1.2 Mohr circle constructionValues of normal stress and shear stress mustrelate to a particular plane within an element of soil. In general, the stresses on another plane will be different.To visualise the stresses on all the possible planes,a graph called the Mohr circle is drawn by plotting a(normal stress, shear stress) point for a plane at every possible angle.There are special planes on which the shearstress is zero . the circle crosses the normal stressaxis), and the state of stress . the circle) can bedescribed by the normal stresses acting on theseplanes; these are called the principal stresses '1 and '3 .1.1.3 Parameters for stress and strainIn common soil tests, cylindrical samples are used in which the axial and radial stresses and strains are principal stresses and strains. For analysis of test data, and to develop soil mechanics theories, it is usual to combine these into mean (or normal) components which influence volume changes, and deviator (or shearing) components which influence shape changes.stress strainmean p' = (σ'a+ 2σ'r) / 3s' = σ'a+ σ'r) / 2ev= ∆V/V = (εa+ 2εr)εn = (εa + εr)deviator q' = (σ'a- σ'r)t' = (σ'a- σ'r) / 2es= 2 (εa- εr) / 3εγ = (εa - εr)In the Mohr circle construction t' is the radius of the circle and s' defines its centre. Note: Total and effective stresses are related to pore pressure u:p' = p - us' = s - uq' = qt' = tStrengthThe shear strength of a material is most simply described as the maximum shear stress it can sustain: When the shear stress is increased, the shear strain increases; there will be a limiting condition at which the shear strain becomes very large and the material fails; the shear stress f is then the shear strength of the material. The simple type of failure shown here is associatedwith ductile or plastic materials. If the material is brittle (like a piece of chalk), the failure may be sudden and catastrophic with loss of strength after failure.1.2.1 Types of failureMaterials can fail under different loading conditions. In each case, however, failure is associated with the limiting radius of the Mohr circle, . the maximum shear stress. The following common examples are shown in terms of total stresses:ShearingShear strength = τfσnf = normal stress at failureUniaxial extensionTensile strength σtf = 2τfUniaxial compressionCompressive strength σcf = 2τfNote:Water has no strength f = 0.Hence vertical and horizontal stresses are equal and the Mohr circle becomes a point.1.2.2 Strength criteriaA strength criterion is a formula which relates the strength of a material to some other parameters: these are material parameters and may include other stresses.For soils there are three important strength criteria: the correct criterion depends on the nature of the soil and on whether the loading is drained or undrained.In General, course grained soils will "drain" very quickly (in engineering terms) following loading. Thefore development of excess pore pressure will not occur; volume change associated with increments of effective stress will control the behaviour and the Mohr-Coulomb criteria will be valid.Fine grained saturated soils will respond to loading initially by generating e xcess pore water pressures and remaining at constant volume. At this stage the Tresca criteria, which uses total stress to represent undrained behaviour, should be used. This is the short term or immediateloading response. Once the pore pressure has dissapated, after a certain time, the effective stresses have incresed and the Mohr-Coulomb criterion will describe the strength mobilised. This is the long term loading response.1.2.2.1 Tresca criterionThe strength is independent of the normal stress since the response to loading simple increases the pore water pressure and not theeffective stress.The shear strength f is a materialparameter which is known as the undrained shearstrength su.τf = (σa - σr) = constant1.2.2.2 Mohr-Coulomb (c'=0) criterionThe strength increases linearly with increasingnormal stress and is zero when the normal stress is zero.'f = 'n tan'' is the angle of frictionIn the Mohr-Coulomb criterion the material parameter is the angle of friction and materials which meet this criterion are known as frictional. In soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies when the normal stress is an effective normal stress.1.2.2.3 Mohr-Coulomb (c'>0) criterionThe strength increases linearly with increasingnormal stress and is positive when the normal stress iszero.'f = c' + 'n tan'' is the angle of frictionc' is the 'cohesion' interceptIn soils, the Mohr-Coulomb criterion applies when the normal stress is an effective normal stress. In soils, the cohesion in the effective stress Mohr-Coulomb criterion is not the same as the cohesion (or undrained strength su) in the Tresca criterion.1.2.3Typical values of shear strengthUndrained shear strength s u (kPa)Hard soil s u > 150 kPaStiff soil s u = 75 ~ 150 kPaFirm soil s u = 40 ~ 75 kPaSoft soil s u = 20 ~ 40kPaVery soft soil s u < 20 kPaDrained shear strengthc?/B>(kPa)?/B> (deg)Compact sands 0 35?- 45? Loose sands 0 30?- 35? Unweathered overconsolidated claycritical state 0 18?~ 25?peak state10 ~ 25kPa20?~ 28?residual 0 ~ 5 kPa 8?~ 15?/TD>Often the value of c' deduced from laboratory test results (in the shear testing apperatus) may appear to indicate some shar strength at ' = 0. . the particles 'cohereing' together or are 'cemented' in some way. Often this is due to fitting a c', ' line to the experimental data and an 'apparent' cohesion may be deduced due to or1 土的基本性质来自地基和墙壁的荷载会在土地上产生应力。

岩土工程专业翻译英文原文和译文

According to the yield design (or limit analysis) reasoning, the above structure will remain safe under a given vertical load Q(force per unit length along the Oz axis), if one can exhibit throughout the rock mass a stress distribution which satisﬁes the equilibrium equations along with the stress boundary conditions,while complying with the strength requirement expressed at any point of the structure. This problem amounts to evaluating the ultimate load Q﹢ beyond which failure will occur, or equivalently within which its stability is ensured. Due to the strong heterogeneity of the jointed rock mass, insurmountable difﬁculties are likely to arise when trying to implement the above reasoning directly. As regards, for instance, the case where the strength properties of the joints are considerably lower than those of the rock matrix, the implementation of a kinematic approach would require the use of failure mechanisms involving velocity jumps

岩土工程外文翻译

成都理工大学学生毕业设计（论文）外文译文在市场上可买到的极限平衡的计算机代码在近几年已经有了很大的进步。

这包括：有限元法和地下水应力分析(如GEO-SLOPE’s SIGMA/W, SEEP/W 和 SLOPE/W(6))的二维极限平衡法编码的集成。

三维极限平衡法的发展(例如 CLARA (7); 3D-SLOPE(8))。

概率极限平衡技术的发展。

允许多样的支持和加固的能力。

非饱和土抗剪强度标准的混合。

可视化的高度发展和前处理及后处理的制图学。

这些编码在土坡和高度蚀变岩斜坡的分析中起着至关重要的作用。

而在这些斜坡中，离散明确的表面容易发生滑动。

图2阐明了高岭土化的花岗岩斜坡崩塌的反分析法中的二维极限平衡程序的运用。

包括岩块内部的应力状态和复杂变形及脆性断裂影响是极其重要的。

数值模拟技术也应用其中。

(如图2所示).图 1. SWEDGE 分析(右)建立在DIPS立体图输入的基础上(LEFT).图 2. 用极限平衡法对瓷土边坡进行分析来寻求滑动平面（左）和有线差分来模拟剪应变发展（右）石雨模拟器是另一分析法的传统模式，其中包括用来评估单个坠落方块的危害的工具。

像ROCFALL (2) 的程序用来分析从给定坡面几何上滚动或弹动的岩块在速率发生变水特征; 原位应力状态料、间断运行和液压机械及动态分析)；能够评估不稳定性参数变化的影响样；需要注意缩放效果；需要模拟典型间断几何(间距, 持久性等等)；节理特性可使用的的数据有限(例如jkn, jks).混合物/耦合模拟列出独立模型的输入参数的组合耦合有限元/离散单元模型能够模拟节理和层状媒介上的完整的裂缝延伸和断裂复杂问题需要高端内存容量；在实践中相对来说有较少的经验；需要持续校准和限制连续统建模连续统建模最适合应用于由大量完整岩石、软弱岩石、类土或严重断裂的岩块构成的斜坡。

大多数连续统代码有含离散断裂的设备，如断层和层面。

但是不适用于不均介质的分析。

石坡稳定性中的连续统方法包括有线差分法和有限元素法。

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中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Safety Assurance for Challenging Geotechnical Civil Engineering Constructions in Urban AreasAbstractSafety is the most important aspect during design, construction and service time of any structure, especially for challenging projects like high-rise buildings and tunnels in urban areas. A high level design considering the soil-structure interaction, based on a qualified soil investigation is required for a safe and optimised design. Dueto the complexity of geotechnical constructions the safety assurance guaranteed by the 4-eye-principle is essential. The 4-eye-principle consists of an independent peer review by publicly certified experts combined with the observational method. The paper presents the fundamental aspects of safety assurance by the 4-eye-principle. The application is explained on several examples, as deep excavations, complex foundation systems for high-rise buildings and tunnel constructions in urban areas. The experiences made in the planning, design and construction phases are explained and for new inner urban projects recommendations are given.Key words: Natural Asset; Financial Value; Neural Network1.IntroductionA safety design and construction of challenging projects in urban areas is based on the following main aspects:Qualified experts for planning, design and construction;Interaction between architects, structural engineers and geotechnical engineers;Adequate soil investigation;Design of deep foundation systems using the FiniteElement-Method (FEM) in combination with enhanced in-situ load tests for calibrating the soil parameters used in the numerical simulations;Quality assurance by an independent peer review process and the observational method (4-eye-principle).These facts will be explained by large construction projects which are located in difficult soil and groundwater conditions.2.The 4-Eye-PrincipleThe basis for safety assurance is the 4-eye-principle. This 4-eye-principle is a process of an independent peer review as shown in Figure 1. It consists of 3 parts. The investor, the experts for planning and design and the construction company belong to the first division. Planning and design are done accordingto the requirements of the investor and all relevant documents to obtain the building permission are prepared. The building authorities are the second part and are responsible for the buildingpermission which is given to the investor. The thirddivision consists of the publicly certified experts.They are appointed by the building authorities but work as independent experts. They are responsible for the technical supervision of the planning, design and the construction.In order to achieve the license as a publicly certified expert for geotechnical engineering by the building authorities intensive studies of geotechnical engineering in university and large experiences in geotechnical engineering with special knowledge about the soil-structure interaction have to be proven.The independent peer review by publicly certified experts for geotechnical engineering makes sure that all information including the results of the soil investigation consisting of labor field tests and the boundary conditions defined for the geotechnical design are complete and correct.In the case of a defect or collapse the publicly certified expert for geotechnical engineering can be involved as an independent expert to find out the reasons for the defect or damage and to develop a concept for stabilization and reconstruction [1].For all difficult projects an independent peer review is essential for the successful realization of the project.3.Observational MethodThe observational method is practical to projects with difficult boundary conditions for verification of the design during the construction time and, if necessary, during service time. For example in the European Standard Eurocode 7 (EC 7) the effect and the boundary conditions of the observational method are defined.The application of the observational method is recommended for the following types of construction projects [2]:very complicated/complex projects;projects with a distinctive soil-structure-interaction,e.g. mixed shallow and deep foundations, retaining walls for deep excavations, Combined Pile-Raft Foundations (CPRFs);projects with a high and variable water pressure;complex interaction situations consisting of ground,excavation and neighbouring buildings and structures;projects with pore-water pressures reducing the stability;projects on slopes.The observational method is always a combination of the common geotechnical investigations before and during the construction phase together with the theoretical modeling and a plan of contingency actions(Figure 2). Only monitoring to ensure the stability and the service ability of the structure is not sufficient and,according to the standardization, not permitted for this purpose. Overall the observational method is an institutionalized controlling instrument to verify the soil and rock mechanical modeling [3,4].The identification of all potential failure mechanismsis essential for defining the measure concept. The concept has to be designed in that way that all these mechanisms can be observed. The measurements need to beof an adequate accuracy to allow the identification ocritical tendencies. The required accuracy as well as the boundary values need to be identified within the design phase of the observational method . Contingency actions needs to be planned in the design phase of the observational method and depend on the ductility of the systems.The observational method must not be seen as a potential alternative for a comprehensive soil investigation campaign. A comprehensive soil investigation campaignis in any way of essential importance. Additionally the observational method is a tool of quality assurance and allows the verification of the parameters and calculations applied in the design phase. The observational method helps to achieve an economic and save construction [5].4.In-Situ Load TestOn project and site related soil investigations with coredrillings and laboratory tests the soil parameters are determined. Laboratory tests are important and essential for the initial definition of soil mechanical properties of the soil layer, but usually not sufficient for an entire and realistic capture of the complex conditions, caused by theinteraction of subsoil and construction [6].In order to reliably determine the ultimate bearing capacity of piles, load tests need to be carried out [7]. Forpile load tests often very high counter weights or strong anchor systems are necessary. By using the Osterberg method high loads can be reached without install inganchors or counter weights. Hydraulic jacks induce the load in the pile using the pile itself partly as abutment.The results of the field tests allow a calibration of the numerical simulations.The principle scheme of pile load tests is shown in Figure 3.5.Examples for Engineering Practice5.1. Classic Pile Foundation for a High-Rise Building in Frankfurt Clay and LimestoneIn the downtown of Frankfurt am Main, Germany, on aconstruction site of 17,400 m2 the high-rise buildingproject “PalaisQuartier” has been realized (Figure 4). The construction was finished in 2010.The complex consists of several structures with a total of 180,000 m2 floor space, there of 60,000 m2 underground (Figure 5). The project includes the historic building “Thurn-und Taxis-Palais” whose facade has been preserved (Unit A). The office building (Unit B),which is the highest building of the project with a height of 136 m has 34 floors each with a floor space of 1340 m2. The hotel building (Unit C) has a height of 99 m with 24 upper floors. The retail area (Unit D)runs along the total length of the eastern part of the site and consists of eight upper floors with a total height of 43 m.The underground parking garage with five floors spans across the complete project area. With an 8 m high first sublevel, partially with mezzanine floor, and four more sub-levels the foundation depth results to 22 m below ground level. There by excavation bottom is at 80m above sea level (msl). A total of 302 foundation piles(diameter up to 1.86 m, length up to 27 m) reach down to depths of 53.2 m to 70.1 m. above sea level depending on the structural requirements.The pile head of the 543 retaining wall piles (diameter1.5 m, length up to 38 m)were located between 94.1 m and 99.6 m above sea level, the pile base was between 59.8 m and 73.4 m above sea level depending on the structural requirements. As shown in the sectional view(Figure 6), the upper part of the piles is in the Frankfurt Clay and the base of the piles is set in the rocky Frankfurt Limestone.Regarding the large number of piles and the high pile loads a pile load test has been carried out for optimization of the classic pile foundation. Osterberg-Cells(O-Cells) have been installed in two levels in order to assess the influence of pile shaft grouting on the limit skin friction of the piles in the Frankfurt Limestone(Figure 6). The test pile with a total length of 12.9 m and a diameter of 1.68 m consist of three segments and has been installed in the Frankfurt Limestone layer 31.7 m below ground level. The upper pile segment above the upper cell level and the middle pile segment between the two cell levels can be tested independently. In the first phase of the test the upper part was loaded by using the middle and the lower part as abutment. A limit of 24 MN could be reached (Figure 7). The upper segment was lifted about 1.5 cm, the settlement of the middle and lower part was 1.0 cm. The mobilized shaft friction was about 830 kN/m2.Subsequently the upper pile segment was uncoupled by discharging the upper cell level. In the second test phase the middle pile segment was loaded by using the lower segment as abutment. The limit load of the middle segment with shaft grouting was 27.5 MN (Figure 7).The skin friction was 1040 kN/m2, this means 24% higher than without shaft grouting. Based on the results of the pile load test using O-Cells the majority of the 290 foundation piles were made by applying shaft grouting. Due to pile load test the total length of was reduced significantly.5.2. CPRF for a High-Rise Building in Clay MarlIn the scope of the project Mirax Plaza in Kiev, Ukraine,2 high-rise buildings, each of them 192 m (46 storeys)high, a shopping and entertainment mall and an underground parking are under construction (Figure 8). The area of the project is about 294,000 m2 and cuts a 30 m high natural slope.The geotechnical investigations have been executed 70m deep. The soil conditions at the construction site are as follows: fill to a depth of 2 m to 3mquaternary silty sand and sandy silt with a thickness of 5 m to 10 m tertiary silt and sand (Charkow and Poltaw formation) with a thickness of 0 m to 24 m tertiary clayey silt and clay marl of the Kiev and But schak formation with a thickness of about 20 m tertiary fine sand of the But schak formation up to the investigation depthThe ground water level is in a depth of about 2 m below the ground surface. The soil conditions and a cross section of the project are shown in Figure 9.For verification of the shaft and base resistance of the deep foundation elements and for calibration of the numerical simulations pile load tests have been carried out on the construction yard. The piles had a diameter of 0.82 m and a length of about 10 m to 44 m. Using the results of the load tests the back analysis for verification of the FEM simulations was done. The soil properties in accordance with the results of the back analysis were partly 3 times higher than indicated in the geotechnical report. Figure 10 shows the results of the load test No. 2 and the numerical back analysis. Measurement and calculation show a good accordance.The obtained results of the pile load tests and of the executed back analysis were applied in 3-dimensionalFEM-simulations of the foundation for Tower A, taking advantage of the symmetry of the footprint of the building. The overall load of the Tower A is about 2200 MN and the area of the foundation about 2000 m2 (Figure11).The foundation design considers a CPRF with 64 barrettes with 33 m length and a cross section of 2.8 m × 0.8m. The raft of 3 m thickness is located in Kiev Clay Marl at about 10 m depth below the ground surface. The barrettes are penetrating the layer of Kiev Clay Marl reaching the Butschak Sands.The calculated loads on the barrettes were in the range of 22.1 MN to 44.5 MN. The load on the outer barrettes was about 41.2 MN to 44.5 MN which significantly exceeds the loads on the inner barrettes with the maximum value of 30.7 MN. This behavior is typical for a CPRF.The outer deep foundation elements take more loads because of their higher stiffness due to the higher volume of the activated soil. The CPRF coefficient is 0.88 =CPRF . Maximum settlements of about 12 cm werecalculated due to the settlement-relevant load of 85% of the total design load. The pressure under the foundation raft is calculated in the most areas not exceeding 200 kN/m2, at the raft edge the pressure reaches 400 kN/m2.The calculated base pressure of the outer barrettes has anaverage of 5100 kN/m2 and for inner barrettes an average of 4130 kN/m2. The mobilized shaft resistance increases with the depth reaching 180 kN/m2 for outer barrettes and 150 kN/m2 for inner barrettes.During the construction of Mirax Plaza the observational method according to EC 7 is applied. Especially the distribution of the loads between the barrettes and the raft is monitored. For this reason 3 earth pressure devices were installed under the raft and 2 barrettes (most loaded outer barrette and average loaded inner barrette) were instrumented over the length.In the scope of the project Mirax Plaza the new allowable shaft resistance and base resistance were defined for typical soil layers in Kiev. This unique experience will be used for the skyscrapers of new generation in Ukraine.The CPRF of the high-rise building project MiraxPlaza represents the first authorized CPRF in the Ukraine. Using the advanced optimization approaches and taking advantage of the positive effect of CPRF the number of barrettes could be reduced from 120 barrettes with 40 mlength to 64 barrettes with 33 m length. The foundation optimization leads to considerable decrease of the utilized resources (cement, aggregates, water, energy etc.)and cost savings of about 3.3 Million US$.译文:安全保证岩土公民发起挑战工程建设在城市地区摘要安全是最重要的方面在设计、施工和服务时间的任何结构,特别是对具有挑战性的项目,如高层建筑和隧道在城市地区。

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