语言学中的五个designfeatures
语言学 术语翻译及术语解释
术语翻译及术语解释汇总术语翻译1.Design features of language（语言的甄别特征）Arbitrariness（任意性），Duality（二层性/二重性），Creativity（创造性/原创性），Displacement（移位性），Cultural transmission（文化传播），Interchangeability（可互换性）2. Functions of languagereferential 指称功能poetic 诗学功能emotive情感功能conative 劝慰功能phatic寒暄功能metalingual function 元语言功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇/文本功能Informative（信息/告知功能），Performative Function（施为功能），Emotive Function（情感功能），Phatic communion（寒暄交谈），Recreational Function（娱乐功能），3. Phonetics(语音学)，Phonology（音系/音位学）; Morphology（形态学），Syntax（句法学）;Semantics（语义学），Pragmatics（语用学）Articulatory phonetics发音语音学Acoustic phonetics声学语音学Auditory phonetics听觉语音学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学4. Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式和规定式Synchronic vs. diachronic共时和历时Langue vs. parole语言和言语Competence vs. performance语言能力和语言行为5. V ocal tract 声道(resonating cavities共鸣腔)，pharynx咽腔, oral cavity口腔and nasal cavity鼻腔.其它的一些发音器官：lungs肺, windpipe（trachea）气管, vocal folds声带, larynx喉, epiglottis会厌，次声门, pharynx咽, uvula小舌, hard palate硬腭,soft palate软腭, alveolar ridge齿龈6.Consonants and vowels（辅音和元音）A. Manners of articulation发音方式B. Places of articulation发音位置7. Stop (or plosive)爆破音Fricative摩擦音Approximant近似音Lateral (approximant)边音Affricates塞擦音, trill颤音and tap 闪音Bilabial双唇音Labiodental唇齿音Dental齿音Alveolar齿龈音Postal veolar后齿龈音Retroflex卷舌音Palatal硬腭音Velar软腭音Uvular小舌音, pharyngeal咽音glottal声门音monophthong vowel: 单元音diphthongs双元音triphthongs三元音Lax vowels短元音Tensed vowels长元音8.Coarticulation and phonetic transcription协同发音和标音anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音. broad transcription宽式标音narrow transcription严式标音9. minimal pairs最小对立体Phoneme音位phonemic transcriptions音位转写phonetic transcriptions语音转写phones音子allophones音位变体complementary distribution互补分布phonetic similarity发音近似性Free variation自由变体assimilation同化regressive assimilation逆同化progressive assimilation顺同化phonological rule 音系规则Epenthesis增音binary 二分的Distinctive features区别特征Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions向心结构和离心结构subordinate and coordinate从属和并列Conceptual meaning概念意义Associative meaning:联想意义Connotative meaning内涵意义Social meaning社会意义Affective meaning情感意义Reflected meaning反射意义Collocative meaning搭配意义Thematic meaning主位意义denotation: 外延意义connotation: 内涵The referential theory:指称理论Semantic triangle语义三角Sense and reference：涵义和指称Synonymy同义关系Antonymy反义关系Hyponymy上下义关系Polysemy一词多义关系Homonymy 同音/形异意关系Dialectal synonyms 地域同义词Stylistic synonyms风格同义词Collocational synonyms搭配同义词gradable antonymy 等级反义关系cover term覆盖项Marked vs. unmarked terms标记项和非标记项complementary antonymy 互补反义关系converse antonymy 逆向反义关系homophones: 同音异义词homographs : 同形异义词complete homonyms semantic components语义部分术语解释1.Design feature的定义：the defining（最典型的，起决定作用的）properties ofhuman language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Synchronic共时：It refers to the description of a language at some point of timein history.3.Diachronic历时：It studies the development or history of language. In otherwords, it refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .4.prescriptive规定式：A kind of linguistic s tudy aims to lay down rules for “correctand standard” behavior in using language.5.descriptive描写式: A kind of linguistic study aims to describe and analyze thelanguage people actually use.6.Arbitrariness（任意性）:By saying that “language is arbitrary”, we mean thatthere is no logical connection between meaning and sound.7.Duality（二层性/二重性）:it means that language is a system, which consists oftwo levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of meaning.8.Displacement（移位性）: it means that language can be used to communicateabout things that are not present in our immediate communicational context.petence语言能力:it refers to an ideal speaker’s knowledge of the underlyingsystem of rules in a language.10.Performance语言行为: it refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker ina real communicational context.ngue语言: it refers to the speaker’s understanding and knowledge of thelanguage that he speaks.12.Parole言语: it is the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.13.Cultural transmission（文化传播）:It refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned anew（重新，再）by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.14.Phatic communion（寒暄交谈）:it refers to ritual exchanges, exchanges that havelittle meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.15.Phonetics(语音学): it is the study of the characteristics of speech sounds andprovides methods for their description, classification and transcription.16.V owels元音：the sounds in the production of which no articulators come veryclose together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.17.Consonants辅音：The sounds in the production of which there is an obstructionof the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract.18.Phonology: it is the study of the sound systems of languages and it is concernedwith the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages. And it studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.19.Phoneme音位: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish twowords.20.Allophone音位变体: it refers to the different forms of a phoneme.21.Assimilation: it is a process by which one sound takes on some or all thecharacteristics of a neighboring sound.22.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlappingarticulations are involved.plementary distribution互补分布:when two sounds never occur in thesame environment, they are in complementary distribution.24.Free variation自由变体: if two sounds occurring in the same environment do notcontrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.25.Distinctive features区别特征：A phonetic feature which distinguishes onephonological unit, especially one phoneme, from another.26.minimal pairs最小对立体----- which can be defined as pairs of words whichdiffer from each other by only one sound.27.vowel glides滑音: The vowels involving movement from one sound to anotherare called vowel glides.28.Epenthesis增音：it means a process of inserting a sound after another sound.29.Substitution relation: it refers to the relation specifically between an individualunit and others that can replace it in a given sequence.30.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, orapproaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole.31.Exocentric construction: a group of syntactically related words where none ofthem is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the group32.Reference: it is the relationship between words and the objects, actions orproperties that the words stand for. It deals with the extra-linguistic relationships between words and expressions and the world they describe.(具体的物质性的东西)33.Synonymy ：It refers to the sameness sense relations between words.ponential analysis ：Componential analysis defines the meaning of alexical element in terms of semantic components语义部分.35.Sense: it refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguisticelements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.（概念性的东西）36.Semantics：semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words andsentences in particular.37.Homonymy: the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the sameform, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.38.Antonymy：It refers to the oppositeness sense relations between words.39.Hyponymy上下义关系：Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness. The upperterm in this sense relation is called superordinate上义词,and the lower terms, hyponyms下义词, members of the same class are called co-hyponyms.。
专八语言学考点
专八语言学考点语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。
2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。
3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。
5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。
6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。
7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。
三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。
design features名词解释
design features名词解释设计特点名词解释设计特点指的是在产品或事物的设计过程中，突出的、独特的、鲜明的特征或特性。
通过对设计的精心构思和处理，使得产品或事物在外观、功能、性能等方面表现出与众不同的特点，从而凸显其独特性和个性化。
在设计特点的体现中，可以有以下几个方面的解释：1. 外观设计特点：外观设计特点是指产品或事物外观形态上的独特之处。
比如，在产品设计中，通过采用不同的造型、线条和颜色等元素，可以打造出与众不同、具有个性的外观特点。
而在建筑设计中，通过建筑形式、外立面处理以及材料选取等方面，也可以体现出鲜明的外观设计特点。
2. 功能设计特点：功能设计特点着重强调产品或事物在使用过程中所具备的独特功能或者功能组合。
在产品设计中，通过合理的功能分配、操作界面设计和功能创新，可以使产品在功能上更加出色。
例如，智能手机的多种功能集成和操作简便性就是其功能设计特点之一。
3. 材料选择与处理特点：材料选择和处理是设计过程中的重要环节，合理的材料选择和处理能够突出产品或事物的个性与特色。
不同的材料在外观、质感、耐久性等方面都有着独特的表现。
通过选用创新性的材料以及独特的处理方式，可以使产品或事物呈现出与众不同的材料特点。
4. 用户体验设计特点：用户体验设计特点强调的是产品或事物在用户使用过程中所产生的感受和体验。
通过注重用户研究、用户需求分析和用户互动等方面的设计，可以创造出更好的用户体验。
比如，在网页设计中，注重页面的易用性和交互性，可以提升用户对网页的满意度和使用体验。
总之，在设计过程中，设计特点的准确刻画和突出体现，能够为产品或事物增添独特魅力，提升其竞争力和市场价值。
设计师应该根据具体需求和市场定位，通过合理的设计手法，精心塑造产品或事物的设计特点，使之与众不同，获得更好的用户体验和市场认可。
design features名词解释
design features名词解释
设计特点是指在产品或系统的创造过程中所考虑和确定的重要特征或属性。
它们是设计过程中的关键组成部分，用于确定产品或系统在设计中的独特和有价值的方面。
设计特点可以包括外观、功能、性能、用户体验等方面的特征。
外观设计特点涉及产品或系统的外部视觉表现，包括形状、颜色、纹理等。
功能设计特点涉及产品或系统所能完成的任务或解决的问题，包括功能模块、操作方式、响应速度等。
性能设计特点涉及产品或系统的性能指标，如速度、精确度、稳定性等。
用户体验设计特点则关注用户与产品或系统的交互和感受，包括易用性、可访问性、舒适度等。
设计特点的选择和确定要根据设计目标、目标用户、市场需求和技术限制等因素进行权衡。
设计特点应该满足用户的需求和期望，为用户提供便利和价值，同时也需要在技术和经济可行范围内实现。
设计特点的重要性在于它们可以使产品或系统与竞争对手产生差异化，为企业带来竞争优势。
通过独特的设计特点，产品或系统可以吸引用户的注意并建立起品牌形象，提升市场地位。
总之，设计特点是设计过程中的重要考虑因素，它们决定了产品或系统的独特性和价值。
通过合理选择和确定设计特点，可以使产品或系统具备吸引力、功能性和用户友好性，进而取得市场竞争优势。
Design features of language
Arbitrariness 任意性
任意性（arbitrariness）：指语言符号的形式和意义之间没有自然
的联系。（Arbitrariness means that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.) 例如：我们无法解 释为什么一只猫被读作 a /cat/；一支钢笔读作 a / pen /。然而，任 意性的任意程度似乎有所不同，主要体现在以下三个方面：
1. 语素的音和义之间的任意性（任意与象声可以同时发生）。
2. 句法层次的任意性（语言最严格意义上的任意性只存在于对立中区别 性语音单位里，如：pin 和 bin ，fish 和 dish ）。
3. 任意性与约定性（任意性最终还是相对程度的任意，它仍然受制于人 们约定俗成的惯常用法，即约定性）。
Duality 二重性
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二重性（duality) :指有两个结构层次这个特质，
上层结构的单位是由底层结构的元素组成的，每 层结构又有各自的构成原则。
一． 具有二重性的语言系统是元素和单位的统一结合。 二． 具有二重性的语言系统为人类所唯一特有. 三． 二重性与层次性密切相连。 四. 二重性的语言优势使得人类语言二重性具有巨大
I.
语言的创造性使其总能创造出新的意义。
II. 语言的创造性以语言的递归性为理论依托，使其拥有潜力产生出无 限长的句子。
Displacement 移位性
• 移位性（displacement) :指语言使用者可以用语言来表达不在交际
现场（时间和空间上)的物体、事件及概念（Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication . ) A. 人类语言和动物交际不同，不受直接刺激控制。 B. 人类语言可使我们谈论不存在或尚未出现的事物。
专八语言学考点
语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。
2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。
3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。
5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。
6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。
7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。
三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。
语言学名词解释
1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pi ke’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s und erlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlappingarticulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23． Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24． Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30． Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33． Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34． Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural mo rpheme in ―dog’s‖.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.‖contact‖or‖contiguous‖assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words interm of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words ina syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experie nce of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a ―recognition lexicon‖in which each word is represented by a full and independent‖recognistion element‖.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is‖genden difference‖116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship betweenspeakers’social starts and phonolog ical variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle. 128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.‖Mary is running‖entails,among other things,‖Mary is not standing still‖.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less‖effortful‖)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even morebackgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141. narrator‖srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147. narrator‖s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to directstudents into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered. 159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information. 161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167. syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both。
语言学名词解释
语言学名词解释胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1.Design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity,displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2.Function: the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions include informativefunction, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.4.Diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.5.Prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. layingdown rules for language use.6.Descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.7.Arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.8.Duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels ofare composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.9.Displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable theirusers to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.10.Phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.11.Metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particularstudies./doc/1716061846.html,petence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.13.Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation./doc/1716061846.html,ngue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.15.Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).16.Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. (The study ofsounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.)17.Phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover theprinciples that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.18.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds.19.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.20.Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actualrelationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.21.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refers to where in thevocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air./doc/1716061846.html,plementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the sameenvironment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.23.Suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than singlesound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. 24.Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, aunit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering themeaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.25.Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.26.Affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme (the root or stem).27.Derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.28.Root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.29.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.30.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.31.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.32.Lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided withsemantic interpretation.33.Grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articlesand pronouns.34.Lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is, those which refer to substance, action andquality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.35.Blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.36.Loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, insome cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.37.Loan blend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning isfully borrowed.38.Loan shift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.39.Acronym: is made up of the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modifiedheadword.40.Loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.41.Back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting animagined affix from a long form already in the language.42.Assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called. ”contact” or”contiguous” assimilation.43.Linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determinesthought.44.Linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.45.Performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as opposed to aconstative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.46.Constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.47.Locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying l iteral meaning by means ofsyntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.48.Illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’sintention.49.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.50.Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.。
语言学知识总结
TEM-8 语言学知识复习总结重要概念梳理CNU 张旭ZX第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds andmeaning）3.多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4.移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3. 3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions5. 5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6. 6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguisticl 语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
英语专八人文知识之语言学部分
复习专八的同志们注意啦，个人潜心整理--人文知识之语言学部分，希望能帮上点儿忙，一起加油！作者：張旭BEYONDTEM-8 语言学知识复习总结重要概念梳理CNU 张旭ZX第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning）3多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）6 1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function7 2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity8 3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses9 4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions10 5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等11 6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguisticl 语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
语言学名词解释
名词解释1. Design features of language1.) Arbitrariness 任意性2.) Duality 二元性3.) Productivity 创造性4.) Interchangeability 可交替性5.) Displacement 置换性6.) Specialization 特殊性7.) Cultural transmission 文化传播性2. Minimal pairsTwo words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment（节）that occurs in the same place in the stringa.Chunk junkb.Ban binc.Bet batd.Fan van3.Free variationWhen two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning.Example: economic，either，neither4.Bound morphemesSome morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g. –s, -er, -ed, -ing. Such morphemes are called bound morphemes. Bound morphemes are actually affixes.Classification of bound morphemes：1）Derivational morphemes: which are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.-ness kindness-ful -less careful careless-y cloudy-ish foolish-ment establishment2）Inflectional morphemes: which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word. Inflectional morphemes are used to indicate whether a word is singular or plural. Whether it is in the past tense or present tense, and whether it is possessive or comparative form.English has only 8 inflectional morphemes.5.SyntaxIt is the study of the rules governing the ways words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationship between elements in sentence structures.6. Immediate constituent analysislinguistic units can be parts of larger constructions and may themselves also beconstructions composed of smaller parts.Two way of IC analyze:1.Brackets2.Tree diagram7. Blending:a single new word can be formed by combining two separate forms.8. Entailment:concerned with the meaning of the sentence itself. It does not depend on the context in which a sentence is used.9. Definition of Register：in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation. The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.10. Definition of standard language:The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary （司法）system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.填空Definition of linguistics: Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language.It is always guided by the three canons of science: exhaustiveness, consistency , economy. Definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.•Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract•Vowels: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction•V oiceless sound: [p], [t], [t], [k], and [s]•V oiced sound: [b], [d], [g], [z]•Oral sounds: [p], [b]•Nasal sounds: [m], [n]•Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract•Vowels: the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstructionSense and referenceDefinition: relationship which hold between the linguistic elements themselves, it is concerned with intralinguistic relationships.bachelor marriedBachelor=never marriedred=brown, orange, yellowReference: deal with the relationship between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience. e.g. tree book。
语言学概论名词解释
1。
Design features of language：（1）Arbitrariness (任意性)：there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with。
(声音和意思无直接联系） eg: why English should use the sounds /dog/ to refer to the animal dog， the relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental。
（2）Duality(双重性）：the way meaningless elements of language at one level(sounds and letters）combine to form meaningful units at another level. That is, sounds such as d, g， f, o, mean nothing separately。
They normally take on meaning only when they are combined in certain ways, as in dog，fog， and god.2．Descriptive grammars(描写性语法)： attempt to tell what is in the language(语言第一，语法第二，语法是为语言服务)Prescriptive grammars（规定性语法）: tell people what should be in the language.3．Phonetics（语音学): the study of linguistic speech sounds， how they ate produced， how they are perceived, and their physical properties。
语言学重要概念梳理(中英文对照版)
一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure ofsounds and meaning）3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number withsentences）4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。
语言学重点概念总结
Design features（定义特征）:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishablefrom languages of animals.Synchronic（共时的）:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.Diachronic（历时的）:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.Prescriptive（规定式）:to make an authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.Descriptive（描写式）:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.Competence（语言能力）:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。
Performance（语言运用）:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。
Langue（语言）:the language system shared by a “speech community”．一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。
大学英语语言学词语解释
语言学理论词语解释：（英语专业1-5）Chapter1、Design feature（结构特点）、Displacement（移位性）、Competence（权限性）、Synchronic linguistics（共时语言学）31. Design feature: It refers to the definingproperties of human language that tell thedifference between human language andany system of animal communication. 32. Displacement: It means that humanlanguages enable their users to symbolizeobjects, events and concepts, which arenot present (in time and space) at themoment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part ofperformance. It is the speaker’sknowledge of his or her language; that is,of its sound structure, its words, and itsgrammatical rules. Competence is, in away, an encyclopedia of language.Moreover, the knowledge involved incompetence is generally unconscious. Atransformational-generative grammar is amodel of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to thestudy of a language at a given point intime. The time studied may be either thepresent or a particular point in the past;synchronic analyses can also be made ofdead languages, such as Latin.Synchronic linguistics is contrasted withdiachronic linguistics, the study of alanguage over a period of time.Chapter2、Sound assimilation（语音同化）、Suprasegmental feature（超音段特征）、Complementary distribution（互补分布）、Distinctive features（区别成分）31. Sound assimilation: Speech soundsseldom occur in isolation. In connectedspeech, under the influence of theirneighbors, are replaced by other sounds.Sometimes two neighboring soundsinfluence each other and are replaced bya third sound which is different from bothoriginal sounds. This process is calledsound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phoneticfeatures that occur above the level of thesegments are called suprasegmentalfeatures; these are the phonologicalproperties of such units as the syllable,the word, and the sentence. The mainsuprasegmental ones includes stress,intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: Thedifferent allophones of the samephoneme never occur in the samephonetic context. When two or moreallophones of one phoneme never occurin the same linguistic environment theyare said to be in complementarydistribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to thefeatures that can distinguish onephoneme from another. If we can groupthe phonemes into two categories: onewith this feature and the other without,this feature is called a distinctive feature.Chapter3、Blending（调配）、Allomorph（同位语素）、Close-class word（闭音节）、Morphological rule（构词规律）31. Blending: It is a process ofword-formation in which a new word isformed by combining the meanings andsounds of two words, one of which is notin its full form or both of which are not intheir full forms, like newscast(news +broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch) 32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant formsof a morpheme as conditioned byposition or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whosemembership is fixed or limited. Pronouns,prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule thatgoverns which affix can be added to whattype of base to form a new word, e.g. –lycan be added to a noun to form anadjective.Chapter4、Syntax（句法）、IC analysis（直接成分分析法）、Hierarchical structure（层级结构）、Trace theory（痕迹理论）、31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rulesgoverning the way words are combinedto form sentences in a language, orsimply, the study of the formation ofsentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituentanalysis, IC analysis for short, refers tothe analysis of a sentence in terms of itsimmediate constituents –word groups(phrases), which are in turn analyzed intothe immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimatesake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentencestructure that groups words into structuralconstituents and shows the syntacticcategory of each structural constituent,such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of anelement in a sentence there will be a traceleft in the original position. This is thenotion trace in T-G grammar. It’ssuggested that if we have the notion trace,all the necessary information forsemantic interpretation may come fromthe surface structure. E.g. The passiveDams are built by beavers. differs fromthe active Beavers built dams. inimplying that all dams are built bybeavers. If we add a trace elementrepresented by the letter t after built inthe passive as Dams are built t by beavers,then the deep structure information thatthe word dams was originally the objectof built is also captured by the surfacestructure. Trace theory proves to be notonly theoretically significant but alsoempirically valid.Chapter5、Entailment（蕴含）、Proposition （命题）、Compositional analysis（成分分析）、Reference（指称）31. : It is basically a semantic relation (orlogical implication), and it can beclarified with the following sentences:a. Tom divorced Jane.b. Jane was Tom’s wife.In terms of truth value, the followingrelationships exist between these twosentences: when A is true, B must be alsotrue; when B is false, A must also be false.When B is true, A may be true or false.Therefore we can say A entails B.32. Proposition: It is the result of theabstraction of sentences, which aredescriptions of states of affairs and whichsome writers see as a basic element ofsentence meaning. For example, the twosentences “Caesar invaded Gaul”and“Gaul was invaded by Caesar”hold thesame proposition.33. Compositional analysis: It defines themeaning of a lexical element in terms ofsemantic components, or semanticfeatures. For example, the meaning of theword boy may be analyzed into threecomponents: HUMAN, YOUNG andMALE. Similarly girl may be analyzedinto HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE. 34. Reference: It is what a linguistic formrefers to in the real world; it is a matter ofthe relationship between the form and thereality.。
英语语言学-语言学知识点
东支 罗马尼亚语
West Slavic group 斯拉夫语西支 波兰语，捷克语
东支 俄语
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
3). langue（语言） & parole （言语） Theorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of
举例： Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses
3） Creativity/Productivity（创造性）: 定义：Language can be used to create new
modern linguistics langue: abstract linguistic system parole: actual realization of langue
Important Distinctions in Linguistics
举例： 汉语系统 langue 每个中国人在不同具体场景
MicroLinguistics
sound
word
sentence
meaning
Phonetics (语音学)
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
（形态学） （句法学） （语义学）
Phonology （音系学）
Pragmatics (语用学)
语言学分类-按研究内容分
MicroLinguistics
语音学分类
articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speaker’s production
《语言学》术语及英文解释
《语言学》术语及英文解释Define the following terms:1.design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which o riginates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenui th or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge abou t the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22． V oicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords. 23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription. 24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. 26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/. 27． V owl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation. 34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.术语251. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth perio d of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his ownconsciousness.73.interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. The shorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone hassaid,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.ina specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.术语3101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng. 114. communicative competence: a speaker’s know ledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of know ledge of a grammar. 115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying s omething;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. 125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily f ollows from the other:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unma rkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of p assage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the c ategories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s repr esentation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of theircharacters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.术语4puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s。
语言学中的五个design features
今天我们来谈一谈语言学中的五个design features. Chinese meaning 设计特点。
在讲五个设计特点之前我们先讲下我们为什么要说它是语言设计特点而不是简单的特点，书上给出了答案就是因为设计特点明显地区分人类语言和动物交流系统。
这里我们要强调下不仅人类语言language是一个系统，动物的交流communication（我们不说是language）也是一个系统。
这个很好理解，比如我们知道蜜蜂的8字舞，总不能今天我跳这个舞表示食物的信息，明天所有蜜蜂跳街舞吧，再说它也跳不出难度那么大的。
再比如说孔雀开屏吸引异性，他也不会为了吸引异性像人类一样采点花花草草的送过去表个白什么的，这它做不出来，当然我们许多男生也做不出来。
好了闲话少扯，书上提到的一个叫查理斯霍克特的美国人在1960年将语言的设计特点细分成了13个，书上讲五个，所以我今天讲的内容也是围绕这其中五个来讲的。
第一个叫Arbitrariness任意性首先我们来看一下什么叫任意性。
所谓的任意性就是我们所创造出来的发音和这个事物的本身并没有任何内在的联系。
比如我们说的树，这是中文，英文叫做tree一样不同的语言对它的发音是不同的，但树这类物种又是相同的，我们不能因为中文叫它树英文或者别的语言称呼它为别的就认为我们表达的不是同一个东西。
所以由此可见，语言是具有任意性的。
但是我在读到这里的时候我也在想，是不是所有的语言中对事物的命名都是任意而无规律的，而且马克思主义认为万事万物都有规律，既然是有规律的怎么又具有任意性呢？我上网搜索的时候发现，这里所讲的任意性指的是那些最开始的词，或者我们可以理解为词素，就是分割地不能再分割的词，比如树（tree）或者鱼（fish），太阳（sun），月亮（moon），海（sea），水（water），等等。
当然说语言具有任意性它也不是完全地随意的，一些合成词（compound words）例如以photo为单位而创造的photocopy（影印）和一些拟声词（onomatopoeic）就例如rumble（隆隆声），crash（轰隆声）或者中文里面的猫叫牛的叫声哞都是non-arbitrary(非任意性的)。
design feature语言学定义
design feature语言学定义
设计特征（design feature）是语言学中用来描述语言结构和功能的术语。
设计特征理论最早由语言学家Roman Jakobson提出，后来被进一步发展和应用。
设计特征可以帮助我们理解语言的基本特征和组成部分，从而更好地研究语言现象和语言发展。
设计特征可以分为语音设计特征和语法设计特征两种类型。
语音设计特征涉及语音的特征和规律，如辅音和元音的区分、语音的音长和音调等。
语音设计特征是语言的基本构成要素，对语言的音系学研究至关重要。
语法设计特征则涉及语言的句法和语法规则，如语言的句子结构、动词时态和语态等。
语法设计特征是语言的语法学研究的重要内容，能够帮助我们理解语言的句法结构和语法规则。
设计特征的理论可以应用于语言学的各个领域，如语言研究、语言教学和语言工程等。
在语言研究方面，设计特征可以帮助语言学家更好地理解语言的结构和功能，从而推动语言学理论的发展和完善。
在语言教学方面，设计特征可以帮助语言教师更好地教授语言知识和语言技能，提高学生的语言水平和语言能力。
在语言工程方面，设计特征可以帮助语言工程师设计和开发语言技术和语言工具，促进语言技术的发展和应用。
总的来说，设计特征是语言学中的重要概念和理论，对语言的研究和应用具有重要的意义和价值。
通过深入研究设计特征，我们可以更好地理解语言的结构和功能，促进语言学理论的发展和应用，推动语言学科的繁荣和进步。
设计特征的研究和应用将为语言学领域的发展和语言技术的进步做出贡献。
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今天我们来谈一谈语言学中的五个design features. Chinese meaning 设计特点。
在讲五个设计特点之前我们先讲下我们为什么要说它是语言设计特点而不是简单的特点，书上给出了答案就是因为设计特点明显地区分人类语言和动物交流系统。
这里我们要强调下不仅人类语言language是一个系统，动物的交流communication（我们不说是language）也是一个系统。
这个很好理解，比如我们知道蜜蜂的8字舞，总不能今天我跳这个舞表示食物的信息，明天所有蜜蜂跳街舞吧，再说它也跳不出难度那么大的。
再比如说孔雀开屏吸引异性，他也不会为了吸引异性像人类一样采点花花草草的送过去表个白什么的，这它做不出来，当然我们许多男生也做不出来。
好了闲话少扯，书上提到的一个叫查理斯霍克特的美国人在1960年将语言的设计特点细分成了13个，书上讲五个，所以我今天讲的内容也是围绕这其中五个来讲的。
第一个叫Arbitrariness任意性
首先我们来看一下什么叫任意性。
所谓的任意性就是我们所创造出来的发音和这个事物的本身并没有任何内在的联系。
比如我们说的树，这是中文，英文叫做tree一样不同的语言对它的发音是不同的，但树这类物种又是相同的，我们不能因为中文叫它树英文或者别的语言称呼它为别的就认为我们表达的不是同一个东西。
所以由此可见，语言是具有任意性的。
但是我在读到这里的时候我也在想，是不是所有的语言中对事物的命名都是任意而无规律的，而且马克思主义认为万事万物都有规律，既然是有规律的怎么又具有任意性呢？我上网搜索的时候发现，这里所讲的任意性指的是那些最开始的词，或者我们可以理解为词素，就是分割地不能再分割的词，比如树（tree）或者鱼（fish），太阳（sun），月亮（moon），海（sea），水（water），等等。
当然说语言具有任意性它也不是完全地随意的，一些合成词（compound words）例如以photo为单位而创造的photocopy（影印）和一些拟声词（onomatopoeic）就例如rumble（隆隆声），crash（轰隆声）或者中文里面的猫叫牛的叫声哞都是non-arbitrary(非任意性的)。
所以它既是有任意的也是有规律的。
但有一点我不赞同书上说的，书上说这些词only make up a small percentage of the vocabulary ,这一点英语中也许使用，但是我们研究的是语言学，上网查明后我发现汉语中的合成词是由两个或两个以上的语素(也有称作词素)组成的词叫合成词。
现代汉语词汇中，合成词占了绝大多数。
合成词中，多数由两个语素构成，两个以上的语素构成的是少数。
正是由于这种任意性，才能构成我们语言无穷种表达的可行性。
介绍完任意性之后，我们再来谈一谈语言的生成性，即productivity
语言的生成性我觉得它是语言发展过程中所体现出来的特性。
第一个符号被创制出来之后，它不可能被用来表示万物。
为了区别客观事物，人类会继续创造与之不同的符号以与之辨别。
于是在人类学习、记忆能力承受的范围之内，相互区别的符号多了起来。
然而随着表示客观事物的有所区别的语言符号的出现，先前“区别性”的空间越来越小了，于是任意性发挥的空间也越来越小了并且世界上的事物都是相互联系的，而且人类也在很早就注意到了这种联系性再加上人类的思维记忆能力总是有一定限度的，这也就决定了语言符号的数量不可能无限地多。
人们可以利用已有的符号来表示新的事物而不必增加语言符号的数目当相互区别的符号达到了一定程度，并且人类的思维、认识能力得到提高，人类认识到客观事物之间的联系，意识到能用同一个符号来表示相互联系的不同事物之后，人类便利用已有的符号来表示新出现或发现的客观事物。
如“有高的学历、丰富的专业知识、较强的动手操作能力，有独立的智能结构、职业特征的人才类型”这一新的事物出现时，人们要用某一语言符号将之固定。
那选什么音与之搭配呢? 而联系到这一新事物与“白领、蓝领、金领”这些事物有许多的共性。
于是就用“一个颜色词+[liη] 这样的音来与之结合。
又如，当“飞机上的男服务员”这一新事物出现时，人们立即就会联系到词汇系统中已经存在的“空姐”一词来给这一新事物创制
语言符号，于是就出现了“空哥”一词。
当然，随着旧有事物地消失，与之相应的一些词也会消逝。
于是后代的人就有可能会将这个消逝了的词的音，与另一个概念搭配，从而构成新的语言符号。
比如我们说的博士，在古代和现代就是不同的。
于是尽管某一民族所利用的音是有限的，但它却足以保证某一时期的人的交际使用。
当然动物是无论如何也创造不了新词的。
比如蜜蜂他就是把舞跳出花来他也不能表达手机这个词。
接下来的双层性（duality）很简单，我们又称为语言的二层性。
这样理解就是两个层次，一个低层，一个高层。
简单地说，就是以少驭多，以少数结构单位有规则地组成多数；下层与上层，下级与上级，都是以少数有规则地组成多数，即上一层（或上一级）的结构单位由下一层（或下一级）的结构单位按照一定的规则组合构成。
三、四十个音位可以组成五、六千个语素的语音形式，五、六千个语素可以组成几十万个词（大型英语词典大致收词四十余万条），而这几十万条词则可以组成无穷无尽的句子。
句子虽然无穷，但句子里所用的材料却不会超出这几千个语素的范围，就是说，新句子无非是现成旧材料的新组合，而新组合又有一定的规则可以遵循，这就是说话的人可以纵横驰骋，放手造出符合表达需要的句子来，而在听者的感觉中，新句子都似曾相识，不会发生理解的困难。
就像我们搭积木把最小的各种木块能打出许多不同的房子造型一样。
这些小的木块就下层，而通过不同组合搭出来的各种房子就是上层。
语言为什么能够成为人们得心应手的交际工具？语言系统的这种灵活的层级装置是一个重要的原因，因为它为人们以少数驾驭多数奠定了结构的基础。
接下来的一个特性我们又叫做跨越时空性，又叫语言的移位，displacement。
移位指的是语言是可以用来谈论过去发生的事情现在发生的事情或者是将来会发生的事情。
语言也可以谈论真实的经验世界或者我们想象中的经验世界。
换句话说语言也可以根据说话者眼前的情景来删除上下文。
当然我们平常生活中也常常会因此闹出不少笑话。
比如我们去餐厅吃完菜会有服务员问，先生请问您要饭吗？等等，许多此类笑话可以帮助我们理解这一特性。
最后一特性我们叫做cultural transmission，即文化的传递性。
这是指人类与生俱来一种可以拥有语言习得的价值，这是由人类的先天生理结构决定的。
但这种语言习得的本领还是要通过教与学，以及外界环境习得的。
而动物是通过遗传（genetic）先天获得的交流的本领始终instinct，一种本能。
但人类是要通过学习才能掌握的，比如我们在座的各位就是通过学习来掌握英语的。
有个笑话就是说有的人说学习应该多听多看多练，但有的人就讽刺，你天天听狗叫你能弄懂它在说什么吗？这是一个笑话，但也决定了动物的语言不具有文化传递性，他要有，我们也能学，所以这也是人类语言设计特征的一点。