应收账款风险管理外文文献翻译2014年译文3530字
财务风险管理外文文献翻译
文献出处: Sharifi, Omid. International Journal of Information, Business and Management6.2 (May 2014): 82-94.原文Financial Risk Management for Small and Medium Sized Enterprises(SMES)Omid SharifiMBA, Department of Commerce and Business Management,Kakatiya University, House No. 2-1-664, Sarawathi negar,1．ABSTRACTmedium sized Enterprises (SME) do also face business risks, Similar to large companies, Small and Mwhich in worst case can cause financial distress and lead to bankruptcy. However, although SME are a major part of the India and also international - economy, research mainly focused on risk management in large corporations. Therefore the aim of this paper is to suggest a possible mean for the risk identification, analysis and monitoring, which can be applied by SME to manage their internal financial risks. For this purpose the financial analysis, which has been used in research to identify indicators for firm bankruptcy, was chosen. The data required for the study was collected from Annual report of the Intec Capital Limited. For the period of five years, from 2008 to 2012.the findings showed the data and the overview can be used in SME risk management.Keywords: Annual report, Small and Medium sized Enterprises, Financial Risks, Risk Management.2．INTRUDUCTIONSmall and medium sized enterprises (SME) differ from large corporations among other aspects first of all in their size. Their importance in the economy however is large . SME sector of India is considered as the backbone of economy contributing to 45% of the industrial output, 40% of India’s exports, employing 60 million people,create 1.3 million jobs every year and produce more than 8000 quality products for the Indian and international markets. With approximately 30 million SMEs in India, 12 million people expected to join the workforce in next 3 years and the sector growing at a rate of 8% per year, Government of India is taking different measures so as to increase their competitiveness in the international market. There are several factors that have contributed towards the growth of Indian SMEs.Few of these include; funding of SMEs by local and foreign investors, the new technology that is used in the market is assisting SMEs add considerable value to their business, various trade directories and trade portals help facilitate trade between buyer and supplier and thus reducing the barrier to trade With this huge potential, backed up by strong government support; Indian SMEs continue to post their growth stories. Despite of this strong growth, there is huge potential amongst Indian SMEs that still remains untapped. Once this untapped potential becomes the source for growth of these units, there would be no stopping to India posting a GDP higher than that of US and China and becoming the world’s economic powerhouse.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONRisk and economic activity are inseparable. Every business decision and entrepreneurial act is connected with risk. This applies also to business of small andmedium sized enterprises as they are also facing several and often the same risks as bigger companies. In a real business environment with market imperfections they need to manage those risks in order to secure their business continuity and add additional value by avoiding or reducing transaction costs and cost of financial distress or bankruptcy. However, risk management is a challenge for most SME. In contrast to larger companies they often lack the necessary resources, with regard to manpower, databases and specialty of knowledge to perform a standardized and structured risk management. The result is that many smaller companies do not perform sufficient analysis to identify their risk. This aspect is exacerbated due to a lack in literature about methods for risk management in SME, as stated by Henschel: The two challenging aspects with regard to risk management in SME are therefore:1. SME differ from large corporations in many characteristics2. The existing research lacks a focus on risk management in SMEThe following research question will be central to this work:1.how can SME manage their internal financial risk?2.Which aspects, based on their characteristics, have to be taken into account for this?3.Which mean fulfils the requirements and can be applied to SME?4. LITERATURE REVIEWIn contrast to larger corporations, in SME one of the owners is often part of the management team. His intuition and experience are important for managing the company.Therefore, in small companies, the (owner-) manager is often responsible for many different tasks and important decisions. Most SME do not have the necessary resources to employ specialists on every position in the company. They focus on their core business and have generalists for the administrative functions. Behr and Guttler find that SME on average have equity ratios lower than 20%. The different characteristics of management, position on procurement and capital markets and the legal framework need to be taken into account when applying management instruments like risk management. Therefore the risk management techniques of larger corporations cannot easily be applied to SME.In practice it can therefore be observed that although SME are not facing less risks and uncertainties than largecompanies, their risk management differs from the practices in larger companies. The latter have the resources to employ a risk manager and a professional, structured and standardized risk management system. In contrast to that, risk management in SME differs in the degree of implementation and the techniques applied. Jonen & Simgen-Weber With regard to firm size and the use of risk management. Beyer, Hachmeister & Lampenius observe in a study from 2010 that increasing firm size among SME enhances the use of risk management. This observation matches with the opinion of nearly 10% of SME, which are of the opinion, that risk management is only reasonable in larger corporations. Beyer, Hachmeister & Lampenius find that most of the surveyed SME identify risks with help of statistics, checklists, creativity and scenario analyses. reveals similar findings and state that most companies rely on key figure systems for identifying and evaluating the urgency of business risks. That small firms face higher costs of hedging than larger corporations. This fact is reducing the benefits from hedging and therefore he advises to evaluate the usage of hedging for each firm individually. The lacking expertise to decide about hedges in SME is also identified by Eckbo, According to his findings, smaller companies often lack the understanding and management capacities needed to use those instruments.5. METHODOLOGY5.1. USE OF FINANCIAL ANALYSIS IN SME RISK MANAGEMENTHow financial analysis can be used in SME risk management?5.1.1 Development of financial risk overview for SMEThe following sections show the development of the financial risk overview. After presenting the framework, the different ratios will be discussed to finally presenta selection of suitable ratios and choose appropriate comparison data.5.1.2. Framework for financial risk overviewThe idea is to use a set of ratios in an overview as the basis for the financial risk management.This provides even more information than the analysis of historical data and allows reacting fast on critical developments and managing the identified risks. However not only the internal data can be used for the risk management. In additionto that also the information available in the papers can be used.Some of them state average values for the defaulted or bankrupt companies one year prior bankruptcy -and few papers also for a longer time horizon. Those values can be used as a comparison value to evaluate the risk situation of the company. For this an appropriate set of ratios has to be chosen.The ratios, which will be included in the overview and analysis sheet, should fulfill two main requirements. First of all they should match the main financial risks of the company in order to deliver significant information and not miss an important risk factor. Secondly the ratios need to be relevant in two different ways. On the one hand they should be applicable independently of other ratios. This means that they also deliver useful information when not used in a regression, as it is applied in many of the papers. On the other hand to be appropriate to use them, the ratios need to show a different development for healthy companies than for those under financial distress. The difference between the values of the two groups should be large enough to see into which the observed company belongs.5.1.3. Evaluation of ratios for financial risk overviewWhen choosing ratios from the different categories, it needs to be evaluated which ones are the most appropriate ones. For this some comparison values are needed in order to see whether the ratios show different values and developments for the two groups of companies. The most convenient source for the comparison values are the research papers as their values are based on large samples of annual reports and by providing average values outweigh outliers in the data. Altman shows a table with the values for 8 different ratios for the five years prior bankruptcy of which he uses 5, while Porporato & Sandin use 13 ratios in their model and Ohlson bases his evaluation on 9 figures and ratios [10]. Khong, Ong & Yap and Cerovac & Ivicic also show the difference in ratios between the two groups, however only directly before bankruptcy and not as a development over time [9]. Therefore this information is not as valuable as the others ([4][15]).In summary, the main internal financial risks in a SME should be covered by financial structure, liquidity and profitability ratios, which are the main categories ofratios applied in the research papers.Financial structureA ratio used in many of the papers is the total debt to total assets ratio, analyzing the financial structure of the company. Next to the papers of Altman, Ohlson and Porporato & Sandin also Khong, Ong & Yap and Cerovac & Ivicic show comparison values for this ratio. Those demonstrate a huge difference in size between the bankrupt and non-bankrupt groups.Figure 1: Development of total debt/ total assets ratioData source: Altman (1968), Porporato & Sandin (2007) and Ohlson (1980), author’s illustrationTherefore the information of total debt/total assets is more reliable and should rather be used for the overview. The other ratios analyzing the financial structure are only used in one of the papers and except for one the reference data only covers the last year before bankruptcy. Therefore a time trend cannot be detected and their relevance cannot be approved.Cost of debtThe costs of debt are another aspect of the financing risk. Porporato & Sandin use the variable interest payments/EBIT for measuring the debt costs. The variable shows how much of the income before tax and interest is spend to finance the debt. This variable also shows a clear trend when firms approach bankruptcy.LiquidityThe ratio used in all five papers to measure liquidity is the current ratio, showingthe relation between current liabilities and current assets (with slight differences in the definition). Instead of the current ratio, a liquidity ratio setting the difference between current assets and current liabilities, also defined as working capital, into relation with total assets could be used.Figure 2: Development of working capital / total assets ratioData source: Altman (1968) and Ohlson (1980); author’s illustratioBasically the ratio says whether the firm would be able to pay back all its’ current liabilities by using its’ current assets. In case it is not able to, which is wh en the liabilities exceed the assets, there is an insolvency risk.6. CRITICAL REVIEW AND CONCLUSIONWhen doing business, constantly decisions have to be made, whose outcome is not certain and thus connected with risk. In order to successfully cope with this uncertainty, corporate risk management is necessary in a business environment, which is influenced by market frictions. Different approaches and methods can be found for applying such a risk management. However, those mainly focus on large corporations, though they are the minority of all companies[13].Furthermore the approaches often require the use of statistical software and expert knowledge, which is most often not available in SME. They and their requirements for risk management have mainly been neglected [17][13].This also includes the internal financial risk management, which was in the focus of this paper. Due to the existing risks in SME and their differences to larger corporations as well as the lack of suitable risk management suggestions in theory, there is a need for a suggestion for a financial risk management in SME. Theaim was to find a possible mean for the risk identification, analysis and monitoring, which can be applied by SME to manage their internal financial risks. For this purpose the financial analysis, which has been used in research to identify indicators for firm bankruptcy, was chosen. Based on an examination and analysis of different papers, despite of their different models, many similarities in the applied ratios could be identified. In general the papers focus on three categories of risk, namely liquidity, profitability and solvency, which are in accordance to the main internal financial risks of SME. From the ratios the most appropriate ones with regard to their effectiveness in identifying risks.译文中小企业的财务风险管理奥米德沙利菲1、摘要中小型企业(SME)和大型企业一样，也面临着业务风险，在最糟糕的情况下，可能会导致金融危机，甚至破产。
关于应收账款外文文献和文献中文翻译
上海财经大学浙江学院毕业设计(论文)外文翻译译文：会计帐户应收账款(AR)侯赛因·Pashang瑞典延雪平大学文摘:治理工商管理财务报表的质量是一个关键问题。
经过痛苦的经验与实践的表外会计、应收账款(AR)的概念越来越多地得到了管理层的注意。
这种关注的原因之一是,可以使用基于“增大化现实”的技术,高度灵活的方式,来影响底线和债务/股本比例。
本研究的目的是,通过必要的信息披露和其他一些会计原则和客观性等思想, 重要性、匹配和公允价值批判分析中使用的技术评估和测量的基于“增大化现实”技术。
关键词:会计确认、会计应收账款、会计披露。
1.介绍账户操作的概念,包括“收益管理”,主要是附加的损益表的项目。
例如,科普兰(1968)集中在收入报表和观察到管理影响净利润的大小有目的地。
按照构建三个“否则”不利于收入的概念,“收益极大化者”和“收入smoothers”他把收入作为管理中心的研究重点。
值得注意的是,盈余管理的概念,表示一个特定类型的会计实践,把注意力只在损益表。
然而,账户操作可能分类上的实践,这些相关的平衡负债表和损益表分类。
这些类型的操作不是文学中描述。
也许,这个缺点的原因应该与复杂的会计技术有关,应用于促进盈余管理。
一项研究由理查森et al .(2002)表明,盈余管理主要是根据收入确认,包括基于“增大化现实”技术。
他没有表明,使用基于“增大化现实”技术的方式来操纵帐户。
观察的会计违规和会计错误当局要求重述或修正的年度报告。
AR-related重述的原因应该与所需的“盈余管理”,包括操作的资产负债表和损益表。
看起来,“收益管理”是在路上被安放“管理帐户”的概念。
新概念建构的旧概念收入管理和沟通管理更中性时尚的观点影响会计(见,例如。
金融时报》6月8日,2009年)。
根据定义,收益管理一组通信方式管理人为管理以满足一些预先设定的预期收益水平,如,分析师预期。
跟上一些收入趋势,据分析师估计,它是先验假定可以影响投资者对风险的看法(Riahi-Belkaoui 2005;马修斯和佩雷拉1996)。
毕业论文---应收账款管理的研究(含外文翻译)
福建日泰茶叶有限公司应收账款管理的研究摘要应收账款是指企业在正常的经营过程中，因销售商品、产品或提供劳务等业务而形成的债权，它是商业信用的产物，对企业扩大经营规模、提高销售量和市场占有率有很大的促进作用。
应收账款是伴随着赊销而发生的，虽然赊销在扩大销售量、减少库存和增强市场竞争力方面比其他结算方式有更大的优势，但赊销必然会导致企业产生大量的应收账款，它已经成为企业流动资金中的重要组成部分，其风险大小直接影响着企业的赢利能力和损益状况。
同时，应收账款又是许多企业财务管理的薄弱环节，企业资产在这方面的流失量和沉淀量很大，对其管理的好坏决定着企业生产经营能否顺利进行，能否提高资产使用效率。
因此，对应收账款的管理已成为企业财务管理的一项重要任务。
本文通过分析应收账款的现状，影响及存在的问题，结合福建日泰茶业有限公司应收账款的案例，了解目前企业应收账款管理存在的不足，分析其存在的原因，并通过这些原因提出合理的建议，对应收账款进行更有效的管理，提高企业的管理水平和经营业绩。
关键词应收账款；赊销；坏账核销；销售折扣Research on Accounts Receivable Management ofFujian RiTai tea co,.LTDAbstractAccounts receivable is to show in the normal course of business,、due to the sale of goods , products or services, and there business form of debt, it is the product of commercial credit, to the enterprise expands the scale of operation, improve sales and market share have great to promote role. Accounts receivable along with the credit occurred, although selling on credit to expand sales, reduce inventory in expanding sales and increase the market competitive power than the other method of settlement has greater advantages, but sell on credit is bound to lead the enterprise have a lot of accounts receivable, it has already become an important part of enterprises liquidity, the risk size directly affect the enterprise profitability and profit and loss situation. At the same time, accounts receivable is the weak link in many enterprises financial management, the enterprise assets in this area have loss and precipitation amout, the quality of management determines the production and operation can proceed smoothly, and improve the efficiency of use of asset. Therefore, the accounts receivable management has become an important task of enterprise financial management.This article through the analysis of the present situation of accounts receivable, effects and problems, combined with the case of account receivable management of Fujian Ri Tai Tea Co., LTD, understand the shortcomings of the enterprise accounts receivable management, analyzes its existing reasons, and through these reasons put forward reasonable suggestions for more effective management of accounts receivable, and improve the management level of enterprises and business performanceKeywords Accounts receivable；sell on credit；bad debt cancel after verification；Sales discount目录摘要 (I)Abstract (II)第1章绪论 (5)1.1 选题背景 (5)1.2研究的目的和意义 (5)1.2.1研究的目的 (5)1.2.2研究的意义 (5)1.3论文的主要研究内容 (6)第2章应收账款管理存在的问题 (7)2.1 企业应收账款的影响因素 (7)2.1.1 信用标准 (7)2.1.2信用条件 (7)2.1.3收款政策 (7)2.2 应收账款管理上存在的问题 (8)2.2.1 计提坏账存在的随意性 (8)2.2.2 缺乏对往来客户的信用评估 (8)2.2.3 应收账款管理制度不够完善 (8)2.3 应收账款管理不善对企业的影响 (9)2.3.1 企业效益下降 (9)2.3.2 夸大了企业经营成果 (9)2.3.3 加速了企业现金流出 (9)2.3.4 对企业营业周期有影响 (10)2.3.5 增加出错概率 (10)第3章应收账款管理的改进措施 (11)3.1 加强应收账款的日常管理 (11)3.1.1 科学确定应收账款的最高额度 (11)3.1.2 认真建立客户信用等级评定制度 (11)3.1.3 设置专门的赊销和征信部门 (11)3.1.4 实行严格的坏账核销制度 (12)3.2 实行严格的内审和内部控制制度 (12)3.2.1 有明确的责任并建立岗位替换 (12)3.2.2 对坏账核销有完整的程序 (13)3.2.3 加强赊销的管理制度 (13)3.3 采取有效手段提高企业效益 (14)3.3.1 合理的使用销售折扣 (14)3.3.2 充分利用应收账款进行融资 (14)3.3.3 准确的使用法律武器 (14)第4章日泰茶业公司应收账款管理的案例分析 (15)4.1 案例背景 (15)III / 244.1.1 日泰茶业概况 (15)4.1.2 应收账款问题 (15)4.2 案例材料 (15)4.2.1 应收账款规模和账龄 (15)4.2.2 应收账款内部管理制度 (16)4.2.3 应收账款回收情况 (17)4.2.4 应收账款周转率 (17)4.3 案例分析 (18)结论 (19)致谢 (20)参考文献 (21)附录A (22)附录B (23)第1章绪论1.1选题背景现代企业经营中，应收账款是伴随企业的经营行为发生而形成的一项债权。
企业应收账款管理毕业论文(含外文翻译)[管理资料]
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摘要应收账款是企业因对外赊销货物、提供劳务等业务时而向购货或提供劳务单位收取的款项。
赊销在快速发展的市场经济环境中是不可避免的，这就要求企业建立科学规范的管理制度，对应收账款进行强有力的管理措施，做到应收账款事前控制、事中监督、事后追款的全程管理。
本课题首先引出企业应收账款管理的意义和目的、国内外研究现状以及应收账款管理的一些基本理论，随后对应收账款的核算和坏账进行介绍，紧接着以具体公司的有关应收账款管理方面存在的一些问题进行分析，然后针对国内应收账款管理存在的问题提出加强应收账款管理的对策以及建议。
关键词：应收账款管理赊销坏账AbstractAccounts receivable is the enterprise for foreign goods and services to credit business to purchase or providing labor services and collect money. Credit sales in the rapidly developing market economy environment is inevitable, this requires enterprises to establish a scientific and standardized management system of receivables, makes powerful management measures, do accounts receivable beforehand control, during supervision, the whole event after money management.This topic first drawn enterprise receivables management meaning and purpose, research status and the management of accounts receivable, then some basic theory of accounting and accounts receivable are introduced, followed by bad with specific company's related accounts receivable management aspects analyzes some existing problems, and then for domestic accounts receivable management are proposed to strengthen the management of accounts receivable countermeasures and Suggestions.Key words: Receivable management Credit Bad debt目录1 引言 (2) (2)国内外研究现状 (3) (3) (3) (4)2 应收账款管理的基本理论 (6)应收账款的概念、功能 (6) (6)应收账款的管理目标 (6) (6)应收账款的日常控制 (7)3东方大厦有限责任公司应收账款管理存在的问题及研究 (9) (9) (10)，造成大量的呆账、坏账 (10)，无专门的应收账款管理部门 (11)，对客户的信用状况掌握不全面 (12)，缺乏动态追踪 (12)4针对该企业对加强应收账款管理提出的对策和建议 (13)，建立有效的催收体制 (13) (15)，全面了解客户的主体情况 (16) (17)参考文献 (19)附录 (22)1 引言根据《企业会计准则第1 号——应收账款》，应收账款是企业因对外赊销货物、提供劳务等业务时而向购货或提供劳务单位收取的款项。
企业应收账款管理外文翻译文献
企业应收账款管理外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Enterprise receivables management analysedFenXi mining chemical company zhaoAiping【abstract 】in order to meet the expanding sales and increase the competitiveness of the enterprises, reduce inventory, reduce inventory risk and management expenses need, the business activities in El often created accounts receivable. Accounts receivable is the enterprise is an important, the risk is bigger liquid assets, its quality is good or bad for a business often has had a significant impact. Because of the important account receivable, according to some accounts receivable management and accounting, points out the existing problems in the disadvantages of account receivable mismanagement, and puts forward some to strengthen the management of accounts receivable practices.【keywords 】receivables; The provision for; Management riskAccounts receivable is the enterprise is an important, the risk is bigger liquid assets, its quality is good or bad for a business often has had a significant impact. These long-term difficult to recover the accounts receivable existence, seriously affected the enterprise. The normal production and business enterprise management costs, increased to different extent some enterprise into a financial crisis.The role of account receivable. Expand sales, increase the competitiveness of the enterprises in the fierce market competition situation, is to promote the sales of credit is an important way. Enterprise credit is actually to provide customers with the two transactions, to customer selling products, and in a limited period introverted customers funds. In credit-tightening, market weakness, lack of money, the promotion with obvious credit for enterprise sales role. New products and explore new market is more important significance.Reduce inventory, reduce inventory risk and management costs. To the enterprise to hold finished goods inventory additional fee, warehousing costs and insurance expenses; Instead, the enterprise to hold accounts receivable, you do not need the spending. Therefore, when the enterprise products inventory more for long time,generally can use more favorable credit conditions, the inventory into pipes receivable and reduce finished goods in stock, save related expenses.Accounts receivable in the management of the existing problemsAccounts receivable is broad, fixed number of year long. AmountsEnterprise to accounts receivable accounting is not standard. According to the provisions of the state financial and accounting systems. Accounts receivable is accounting enterprise for selling goods or services to happen to purchase unit shall be recovered or accept labor unit payments. But the enterprise did not strictly according to the provisions of the accounting enterprise receivables. Cause some should not be in the project accounting money also included in the project, cause accounts receivable accounting has no reality.The account receivable NPLS not timely, to the enterprise confirmed the appearance of virtually increased asset caused. Because enterprise to accounts receivable slackened management, especially some enterprise also to accounts receivable as means of adjusting profit. So on the account receivable SiZhang confirmation on staying there ~ some problems. Is mainly to stay SiZhang has already formed the receivables confirm fast enough, for many years in the accounts receivable formed account long-term, eased some already can't withdraw, this provision for the provision for no provision of virtual enterprise assets, causing thickening.Because some of the managers and operators enterprise financial management consciousness and lack of management concept. To accounts receivable is lack of effective management and collect investigation the author feel. In Shanxi Province in the part of the province tube enterprise still exist serious planned economy of ideas, these people to the market economy can't say don't understand, also cannot say don't understand, the main thing is not starts from oneself, and in practical work is often said the much, do less. Thought is drunk on the production and business operation this center, not how to do well management finance the primacy, failed to do the business management financial management as the center. Financial management to fund management as the center. The management of funds and use only paying attention to how to borrow and spend money, not for existing resources and capital for effective configuration and mobilize. Cause enterprise produced a considerable amount of receivables, also do not actively from the Angle of strengthening management, so lots of money to clean up the long-term retention outside. Affected the enterprise normalproduction and operation activities and the efficient use of the funds.The drawbacks of the receivable mismanagementReduce enterprise funds use efficiency, make enterprise profits down because of enterprise logistics and cash flow not consistent, merchandise shipped, prescribing sales invoices. Payment is not keeping pace recovery, and sales have established, this not up recovery entry sales. Certainly will cause no cash inflow generated sales tax on profits and losses, and sales income paid and years be paid in advance. If involves span more than to sales revenue account receivable. Then can produce enterprise by current assets paid annual shareholders dividend. Enterprise for such pursuit arising from the pad surface benefits and tax payment paid shareholders take up a lot of liquidity, as time passes will influence enterprise capital turnover. Which led to the enterprise actual operation situation veiled. Influence enterprise production plan and sales plan, etc, can't realize the set benefit goal.Exaggerated enterprise operating results. Because our country enterprise executes accounting foundation is the accrual (receivable meet system). The current credit happened all to write down current income. Therefore, the enterprise account profit increase does not mean that can meet the schedule of realizing cash inflows. Accounting system requires the enterprise in accordance with the percentage of account receivable balance to extract the provision for, the provision for a 5% rates generally for 3% (special enterprise except). If the actual loss of bad happened more than extract the provision for, will give enterprise to bring the great loss. Therefore, the enterprise of account receivable existence. On the TAB virtually increased sales income. In oerstate enterprise operation results. Increased risks of an enterprise cost.Speeding up the enterprise's cash outflows. Sell on credit although can make the enterprise produces more profits, but did not make enterprise cash inflows increase, on the contrary make enterprise had to use limited liquidity to various taxes and fees paid, accelerate the enterprise's cash outflows, main performance for:Enterprise tax payments. Accounts receivable bring sales income. Not actually receive cash, turnover is computational basis with sales, the enterprise must on time pay by cash. Enterprise pay tax as value added tax, business tax, consumption tax, resources tax and urban construction tax, inevitable meeting with sales revenue increases.Income tax payments. Accounts receivable generate revenue, but not in cashincome tax, and realizing cash payment must on time.Cash the distribution of the profits. Also exist such problems. In addition, the cost of the management of accounts receivable and accounts receivable recycling costs will accelerate enterprise cash outflows.The business cycle has influence on enterprise. Operating cycle from obtain inventory to the sales that inventory and withdraw cash this time so far. Operating cycle depends on inventory turnover days and accounts receivable turnover days, the business cycle is combined. From that. Unreasonable accounts receivable existence, make business cycle extended, affected the enterprise capital circulation, make a lot of liquidity precipitation in non-productive link. Cause enterprise cash shortage, influence salaries and raw material purchasing, serious impact on the enterprise normal production and operation.Increased receivables management process. Error probability, brings to the enterprise enterprise to face the additional loss accounts receivable account, possibly to the timely discovery, accounting errors can prompt understanding and other receivables accounts receivable dynamic enterprise details. Cause responsibility unclear. Accounts receivable contract, Taiwan about, commitments, the formalities of examination and approval of such material scattered, lost may make the enterprise has happened on the account receivable unable to receive the full recovery of repayment, the only partially withdraw through legal means. Can recover, but due to material not whole and cannot be recovered, until eventually form the enterprise assets loss.To strengthen the management of accounts receivable methodComprehensive comb, and establish material parameter. For enterprise all kinds of receivables launch a comprehensive system of comb, queuing, check the work. Because in past economic activity business minority, inefficient pattern. Hard to adapt to the market economy requirement, the law of development in the increasingly fierce market competition gradually be eliminated, the enterprise is in production, BanTingChan, failed state, has formed a widespread accounts receivable account for a long (most age 3 years), former party leave the state of operation and the debtor changes etc. Phenomenon, to clear a check increase the difficulty. Workers should browse a large number of original documents, traced back to carefully each individual accounts receivable from the nature, time, happened contents, amount. According to zhang age, systems, area and the possibility of recovery of accounts receivable areclassified. Carefully analyzed collection verify each sum of money and amount. And this system, more likely way back near the door check account receivable; Way to outside the system, and is unlikely to far back of receivables through telephone enquiries, enterprise sent a letter, lawyers sent a letter way to undertake checking: some not so clear accounts receivable multilateral bug verification. Please go back to the original sales personnel, agent help check to ensure that the data obtained by the accurate, reliable and accurate data collected in the visiting for the future of written-off receivables smoothly provide effective legal evidence. More importantly, with the debtor written-off receivables personnel and check accounts concerning the debtor family residence, operation sites, property status, income level made a comprehensive and detailed understanding, and according to the command of the debtor to evaluate solvency debt-repaying possibility. Judge, lock key goals for the next great written-off receivables smoothly and lay the foundation.Multi-pronged approach.we great effort, increase. After the preparation work or do. Accounts receivable written-off receivables entered the substantial "punish collect" crucial stage. In actual work, in order to give attention to collect the magnificence of the enterprise with benefit, one of the debtor to classify, different properties analysis of the debtor to adopt targeted collect method, in order to make the whole written-off receivables achieved good effect. The debtor to business clients. To possess management qualification, sound system, assets in good condition of customers, after consultations communication with the other, try to take groovy gathering way, so that both the collect keep good business cooperation relations; But for malicious long-term default behavior, used first lawyer in demand for collection, correspondence is invalid cases, still choose be representative of the debtor to court, apply for a court for compulsory execution. In the majesty of the law, the other group of a deterrent to repay the debtor will repay arrears, self-consciously plays to the whole written-off receivables to point the impetus with. On the system internal worker arrears. For system inside worker due to illness, life difficult, and many other reason formed non-business temporary loan, first of all, issued a document, clearly stipulates that deadline repossessed; Secondly, a large amount of arrears. Indeed, in a difficult to pay off after consultation with staff. Payment agreement signed. Divide second month in salary charged or deduct; Finally, the internal to laid-off employees and have extra-large disease worker, its economy is really difficult to repay embarrassment. In a humane treatment, offer certain debt relief. Such already make whole written-off receivables reach the expected effect, also can let laid-off workersto their real challenges organization care. Adopting property preservation measures. In the actual collect process. Often encountered some have the repayment ability but reimbursement conditions or timing immature the obligor, collect personnel can cooperate actively court on the debtor's property implement preservation, making cdo in court, under the help of the relevant accounting units and individuals to impose preservation of property. For property preservation at the same time. Appoint our wealth pipe center visit regularly the obligor, closely watching the debtor whereabouts, understand their property status. Once found the debtor reimbursement conditions mature, immediately notify the court, suspend the property preservation, reactivated cases. Applied to the court for compulsory execution withdraw arrears.Establish customer credit system. Strict credit business formalities for examination and approval from years of written-off receivables accounts receivable see. A few enterprises in experience increased sales push credit sales policy. Did not establish a complete customer credit system, to the customer assets status, reimbursement ability, financial situation, the credit rating don't know much. Even after receivable formation. Find the debtor to punish frequently occurred. There are a few enterprise to the customer credit conditions are too broad. Credit approval rights too scattered, sometimes a sales personnel can decided to sell on credit business formation. Cause some credit rating is low customers easily get credit, increasing the risk of bad loans.Earnestly implement post responsibility system, strict appraisal, rewards and punishments and trenchantSome enterprise although also established a comparatively perfect accounts receivable credit sales, management, a great responsibility and internal control system, but in actual work but become a mere formality, non-existing. Cause the enterprise internal responsibility unclear, the reward is unknown situation. To a certain extent, encourages the formation of large receivables, increasing the operating risk of an enterprise. So only with a good set of system doesn't solve all the problems in the practical work, the key still need to implement these system will reach the designated position, achieves truly in the bud.Foreign source ：Friends of the accounting, in 2009 (30) 84 85译文:企业应收账款管理存在的问题及对策汾西矿业化工公司赵爱萍【摘要】公司为了满足扩大销售、增加企业的竞争力、减少库存、降低存货风险和管理开支等的需要，在El常的经营活动中产生了应收账款。
企业应收账款风险控制外文翻译文献
企业应收账款风险控制外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)原文：On Risk Control Accounts Receivable Abstract:Accounts receivable credit enterprise by way of sale of goods or services but to the cust o mers received, accounts receivable management directly affect the capital flow and economic operation of the article pointed out that enterprises should combine their actual situation, the establishment of receivables Accounts of the risk prevention mechanism, from the source control and take preventive measures not only the accounts receivable of enterprises face the risk of recovery, but also the existence of operating risks to the enterprise, from the status of receivables management business to start Analyze accounts receivable management business problems. Accounts receivable is the product of credit, credit on the one hand can improve the market competitiveness of enterprises, to expand sales, but on the other hand delayed the cash recovery time and increases the cost of collection of trade receivables, receivables from the paper The causes and management of money in terms of how to prevent the risk of accounts receivable.Key words:accounts receivable,controlIntroductionAccounts receivable is a result of external business credit products,materials, supplies, labor, etc. to purchase or receive services units to receive the funds. Enterprises can sell two basic forms, namely, credit method is way off. Cash sales approach is themost expected a sales settlement. However, in the fierce market economy, totally dependent on marketing approach is often unrealistic. Under the credit method, the enterprise in sales of products, can be provided to the buyer within a certain period of time free use of money the business of credit funds in an amount equal to the price of goods, which for the purchaser in terms of great attractive. For the enterprise is an important promotional tool, the enterprise product sales are sluggish, the market decline, the case of weak competition, or in enterprise sales of new products, new markets, in order to meet the needs of market competition and adopting various effective the credit method, it is wise for businesses. In the current market economic conditions, increased competition, with the continuous development of commercial credit, business credit sales of products means more favor. However, a large number of accounts receivable resulting in sales revenue growth can only book profits to the enterprise, can not bring business to maintain and expand the scale of production necessary for cash flow, and with the continued increase in the amount of accounts receivable, growing an average of aging, accounts receivable aging structure tends to deteriorate, may be more and more bad debt losses, to the huge enterprise production and management of potential risks. Therefore, how to effectively enhance the control and management of accounts receivable is a enterprises financial imperative.First, the business performance of accounts receivable riskAccounts receivable is an enterprise in the normal course of business, from selling goods, products or services or receive services to purchase units of a unit charge or debit the accounts of the transport fees. It is the business generated by the short-term credit product claims to offer the enterprise a commercial credit. Accounts receivable in an expanding market, increase sales revenue while also forming a receivables risk, mainly reflected in:1, accounts receivable possession of large amounts of liquidity, adding to the difficulties of shortage of working capital business. Enterprise credit products, issue stock, but can not recover the money, and enterprise customers on overdue payments can not take appropriate measures, resulting in a large number of corporate working capital was occupied by the long run will affect the flow of liquidity to enable enterprises to monetary shortage of funds, which affect the normal cost and normal production operations.2, exaggerated accounts receivable business results, so that the existence of hidden losses or loss of business. At present, revenue is recognized when the company followed the principle of accrual accounting, the accounting treatment for the occurrence of credit, debit "accounts receivable" account, credited "business income" subject to credit all revenue credited to current income, , the increase in corporate profits and the current period can not be achieved, said the cash income. According to the precautionary principle, the actual situation of enterprises according to their own accounts receivable Provision for bad debts, but in practice, in order to facilitate tax, the tax laws, administrative regulations expressly provides that the proportion of the general provision of 0.3% to 0.5%. If there is a lot of business accounts receivable, there is increased likelihood of bad debts, bad debts that actual extraction of the bad debts far exceeded. This is equal to exaggerate the company's operating results, andthe losses that may occur can not be fully estimated.3, accounts receivable increased by the loss of corporate cash flow. From handling the accounts of credit can be seen that although the company had a credit more revenue, increase profits, but did not make the cash inflow, but the company had to advance funds to pay various taxes and payment of costs and accelerate the enterprise's cash outflows.4, accounts receivable increased the opportunity cost of corporate capital losses. First of all, occupied by accounts receivable financing, which calls for accelerated turnover in the business, be rewarded, but because there are a lot of accounts receivable, in particular, the proportion of overdue accounts receivable on the rise (at present, China's late accounts receivable accounts receivable as high as 60%, while the Western countries, less than 10%), resulting in accounts receivable on the occupied capital lost its time value. Second, because the accounts receivable arising in the collection process, forcing the enterprises have to invest a lot of manpower, material and financial resources, and increased collection costs; the same time, because a lot of money by settling, the borrower time to be extended, increased interest expense. A variety of cost increase, making funds lost profit opportunities and increase the opportunity cost of capital.Third, how to control the risk of accounts receivable1, credit risk prevention policyWith the further development of China's market economy and increasing business competition, commercial credit receivables of the objective to be a competitive necessity of issuing commercial credit companies that do not attract customers to lose the competitiveness of the credit offers; course, the payment of business inevitably bring credit offers credit risk and credit policies on the manage receivables plays an important role. Credit policies include the following:(1) Credit standards. Credit standards are the company to provide commercial credit made the minimum requirements for the development of credit standards is the key to consider the customer to delay payment or refuse to pay money to bring the possibility of loss to the company size. To this end, companies need credit to customers for regular inspection and assessment of the quality of analysis on the credit quality of the testing and evaluation standards, there are three commonly used methods.First, 5C system evaluation. The system is to assess the important factor in customer credit quality, the following five aspects.①Quality: Quality is the customers and reputation, that is, the possibility of obligation, this factor is critical, it is a moral credit of the subjective factor, which is required to have the management of corporate credit experience, the right to judge and keen insight.②capacity: Capacity is the customers ability to pay when the credit expires, it is according to customer financial information, especially under the regular income and expenditure data be analyzed to determine their ability to pay the purchase price.③Capital: capital refers to the customer's financial strength and financial status, indicating that the background of the customer may pay the debt, usually reflect thefinancial position of the ratio of customers include: debt ratio, current ratio, earnings coverage ratio, fixed charges coverage ratio.④collateral: collateral or credit status on the bottom line I do not know the customer and requires a disputed credit guarantee of a variety of assets.⑤economic environment: mainly refers to the economic environment can affect the ability of customers to fulfill financial responsibility of economic development trends, it is beyond the control of the customer. Corporate credit managers in considering this factor, the analysis should focus on regional economic conditions and business products related to the development of industry-specific.Second, the credit analysis. According to customer's credit information, credit screening of several major factors, the number of statistical methods used for processing classified and quantified to calculate the weights, assessment of credit quality, enterprise credit management section based on credit scores to determine the weighted credit rating .Third, credit risk model method. According to the customer's financial business risk and receivables management company's own risk to determine credit risk, the use of the principle of mathematical statistics to establish a credit risk model, which ARC (credit risk) = PR risk customers can not pay the creditors × MR (accounts receivable risk management), MR (accounts receivable risk management) is the company's own accounts receivable management system, measures methods, control and supervision, the quality of personnel and other internal factors, can affect the risk of a few accounts receivable management major factors in assessing the scores of each factor and the weights, the weighted scores obtained MR values; Similarly, PR value is the major risk factors based on ratios of financial position (cash ratio, inventory turnover, quick ratio, etc.) to assess the score of each factor, calculated using the principle of mathematical statistics weight each factor, then the integrated value is calculated PR value. Several standard methods of the above can apply for credit credit offer credit quality of customers to predict, analyze, judge, to determine whether to grant credit offers.(2) credit terms. Corporate credit conditions is the need to pay money on credit conditions, including credit terms, discounts, terms and cash discounts. Credit period is the longest business requirements to the customer time to pay; discount period is required for customers to enjoy the time of payment cash discounts; cash discount to encourage customers in the period of early payment discounts given preferential treatment. Generally provide more favorable credit terms to increase sales, but it can also bring additional burdens, such as accounts receivable will increase the opportunity cost of bad debts, cash discounts and other costs, so companies must be carefully weighed. I think we can grasp the following principles: the principle of prudence, risk principle (the principle of loose-type), the principle of cooperation. Prudence two possibilities: First, companies in the market weakness, deteriorating economic environment, companies should make a negative decision management sales strategy, market risk should be taken to avoid the principle of prudence. Second, the customer, without the ability to pay low credit quality, and poor financial situation, or do not understand the ins and outs and the dispute by the credit quality to theprecautionary principle of justice.The principle of risk can be divided into two situations: First, companies in the economic recovery increased, the product in the industry or the District of merchantability good, corporate decision-making authorities should take active sales policy. Second, the customer, the credit quality is high, financial condition, ability to pay, credit managers should be taken when issuing credit risk principles.The principle of cooperation: For SMEs, the capital less strength is poor, the general financial situation, ability to resist market risk is small, it should be taken in the aggregate principle.2, accounts receivable, risk prevention intervalSince the formation of the company credit accounts receivable, the sales and billing between the two acts of a settlement time, the interval. Interval of the recovered funds back in time to enable enterprises to have more liquidity to carry out production and service activities, and actively take the initiative to debt collection units or individuals. Bad debt losses will be reduced to a minimum, strengthen the recognition that not justify the amount of time being to let the other know and recognize the debt, in practice, can be sent to the business or personal debts confirmation or destroy a single paragraph, so that Check the arrears owed the content of individual units or signature confirmation mail, so that companies understand the availability of debt, repayment intentions each other, urging each other timely repayment, but also easy to check the authenticity of accounts receivables.For the other debts but delays longer recognized or return the book debts owed to strengthen preventive work is to understand the delay in repayment, arrears mail confirmation is not the reason to visit the other units in the field, to identify the existence of the other units or individuals, whether deliberately delayed payments, if unable to pay the debt, is facing bankruptcy, whether the cases escaping with money, etc., will cause a timely manner to the departments concerned to jointly study measures, do everything possible to receivables, reduce bad debts, bad loss account, but also to prevent blindness in future credit. If the payment has been made to identify the other party, shall immediately identify the whereabouts of, would have been diverted, whether the corruption of the unit personnel, wrong billing, etc., to ensure timely detection of errors were corrected.Even for the reputation, business or reputation has always been very high against individuals should not be relaxed, because "the portal does not close tightly, sages from the Pirates of the Heart", the unit if not often to learn about, mission, and it will part of the business or reputation of high prestige individual to ill-gotten gains, regardless of honor towards the idea of development, trust, reputation has been misused, to the unit causing serious economic losses.3, the daily management of accounts receivable risk prevention(1) enterprises in order to accelerate the turnover rate of accounts receivable, factoring risk reduction, you must do the following basic work. We must first place the accounts receivable should be registered in time, the household accounts receivable detailing the time, amount, reason, and the billing period to recover the situation and so on, and collect credit information about customers, such as access to Customerrecent balance sheet and income statement and other statements, analyze liquidity, ability to pay and the rate of business performance; second request to the customer's bank credit certificate of the client to understand the customer's deposit balance, loan conditions and settlement status; the last customer-related exchange of other suppliers of credit information companies to understand the timely payment of the customer and so on. These measures, analysis of customer's credit status in order to detect and propose a solution.(2) To strengthen management and total management of a single customer. (1) make the basis of records, level of understanding of customer payments in a timely manner.(2) Check whether the customers break through credit. (3) grasp the customer's debt credit period has expired, customers have been closely monitoring the dynamic changes in debt maturity. (4) analysis of accounts receivable turnover and average billing period, to see whether at the normal level of liquidity. (5) to strengthen aging analysis of accounts receivable. Aging analysis of accounts receivable accounts receivable ledger should be based on the setting business case may be, the general ledger accounts receivable business sales region and sales by the household setting. (3) to strengthen the management of accounts receivable ledger. Screening of the accounts receivable ledger, aging analysis to determine which needs and which does not require, or purchase a unit occurs only a few pen and the amount outstanding, as a result of product quality, dispute, or disputes resulting from breach of contract Such accounts receivable should be shown separately case by case basis and specify the reasons put forward to resolve issues.4, accounting, risk prevention(1) Select the correct extractionChina's current accounting system to prepare low corporate law provides that only accounted for bad debts, this is an accounts receivable effective risk prevention measures. 2006 "Enterprise Accounting Standards" provides enterprises the ratio of provision for bad debts 0.3% -0.5%, specifically determined by the enterprises themselves, so that different companies to solve practical problems opened up a new way. The company shall state the specific circumstances under the scope of provision for bad debts, extraction method, the division of aging and extraction ratio, in accordance with administrative privileges, general meeting of shareholders or managers (the director) or similar approval, and in accordance with the laws and administrative regulations report to the relevant provisions of the parties to the record, the extraction method for bad debts has been determined shall not be changed, you need to change, based upon the above procedures, and report to the parties approved the record, and be stated in the accounting statements.(2) Select the correct method of settlement. The right of settlement to reduce the risk of accounts receivable is also very important. Settlement between the Bank of China's enterprises are mainly the following: check settlement, foreign exchange settlement, commission collection settlement, settlement and other bank draft, corporate customers operating according to ability, capacity to repay and credit status, select the appropriate settlement of strong profitability and solvency, credit risk of large customers to choose a good way, this will help the two sides establish a relationship ofmutual trust, expand the sales network and improve competitiveness.5, accounts receivable factoring risk preventionIf the enterprise is the work done against accounts receivable in the former, and effective, will be able to grasp the size of the risk of accounts receivable, then the problem will be greatly reduced workload. But a business in the ordinary course of business can be without accounts receivable, and its purpose is simply to do preventive work is to control the line of credit and change the overall aging structure, increasing the recoverability of the existing accounts receivable. Therefore, enterprises must conduct research into prevention of accounts receivable, to establish their own processing methods and principles.First, the analysis of total receivables. Look at the accounts receivable balance is reasonable, whether the enterprise's production and management has become a burden, whether the compression of the needs and possibilities, what basis. Based on the analysis in the total amount, further the balance of accounts receivable aging analysis carried out by detailed subjects. Accounts receivable aging analysis is the quality and value of the total re-evaluation is to determine the recoverability of the account balance and determine what measures to use to resolve basis. Aging in general the smaller the longer the greater the risk the possibility of recovery.Second is to determine the collection process. According to aging analysis to determine needs and special circumstances of the customer billing, the normal billing procedures: submit a letter - Telephone collection - send people to interview - legal action. First, analysis of the causes of default, such as customer due to poor management, inability to pay, the should be further analysis is temporary or has reached bankruptcy. The reason for the temporary relaxation of the repayment period should be appropriate to help clients through difficult times. This is more compatible with the aging short, good reputation, part of the customer accounts receivable. But should also seek to extend the normal part of the total share. In order to recover more money, but the two sides can establish good business relationship.For the already bankrupt state, can not be revitalized, it should be in a timely manner to the court to be liquidated in bankruptcy pay off some debt.Third, the customer has repayment ability, but refuses to pay, the enterprises should adopt appropriate methods of debt collection. Consultation method: with the debt repayment customers, deadlines, payment methods and friendly consultations. 1, the probation law: clarifying the position of creditors or debt collection proud of the hard to move the debtor, moved their compassion. 2, the carrot and stick method: two people with debt collection, hard unwilling to compromise, soft in the stone, complement each other. Make payment by debtors. $ Fatigue War and attempting to rally: the main leaders of business debt pegged to fight a protracted war, it will collapse. Or language stimulation, so as to save face and dignity and had to pay. 3, the storm Law: explicitly tell the debtor to its proceedings. For repayment in any case fail to reach an agreement negotiations have had a lawyer to take legal action.Before taking legal action against the principle of cost-effectiveness should be considered, do not face prosecution following conditions: 1, court costs exceed the amount of the debt claim; 2, the customer value of the collateral can not write off debt,it has a wide range of social relations, prosecution may be hurt the business operation or cause damage, even if successful, the possibility of recovery of receivables is extremely limited.In short, the establishment of sound policies and effective debt collection, collection costs and to reduce the trade-off between bad debt, effective debt collection policies to a large extent by the experience of the management staff, the enterprise should have a professional knowledge is solid, experienced, responsible and accounts receivable management team can do a better job to Collection.本文摘自《黑龙江科技信息》2010年第4期，作者：孙丽译文：论企业应收账款风险的控制摘要：应收账款是企业采用赊销方式销售商品或劳务而应向顾客收取的款项，应收账款管理直接影响企业营运资金的周转和经济效益文章指出，企业要结合自身的实际情况，建立应收账款的风险防范机制，从源头控制，防患于未然企业的应收账款不仅面临着回收的风险，同时其存在也会给企业带来经营风险，从企业应收账款管理的现状入手，分析企业应收账款管理中面临的问题。
应收账款外文文献
应收账款外文文献本科毕业论文外文原文及译文题目 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 系别管理系专业会计学班级学号学生姓名指导老师外文原文外文原文Enterprise receivables management analysedFenXi mining chemical company zhaoAiping【 abstract 】 in order to meet the expanding sales and increase the competitiveness of the enterprises, reduce inventory, reduce inventory risk and management expenses need, the business activities in El often created accounts receivable. Accounts receivable is the enterprise is an important, the risk is bigger liquid assets, its quality is good or bad for a business often has had a significant impact. Because of the important account receivable, according to some accounts receivable management and accounting, points out the existing problems in the disadvantages of account receivable mismanagement, and puts forward some to strengthen the management of accounts receivable practices.【 keywords 】 receivables; The provision for; Management riskAccounts receivable is the enterprise is an important, the risk is bigger liquid assets, its quality is good or bad for a business oftenhas had a significant impact. These long-term difficult to recover the accounts receivable existence, seriously affected the enterprise. The normal production and business enterprise management costs, increased to different extent some enterprise into a financial crisis.The role of account receivable. Expand sales, increase the competitiveness of the enterprises in the fierce market competition situation, is to promote the sales of credit is an important way. Enterprise credit is actually to provide customers with the two transactions, to customer selling products, and in a limited period introverted customers funds. In credit-tightening, market weakness, lack of money, the promotion with obvious credit for enterprise sales role. New products and explore new market is more important significance.Reduce inventory, reduce inventory risk and management costs. To the enterprise to hold finished goods inventory additional fee, warehousing costs and insurance expenses; Instead, the enterprise to hold accounts receivable, you do not need the spending. Therefore, when the enterprise products inventory more for long time, generally can use more favorable credit conditions, the inventory into pipes receivable and reduce finished goods in stock, save related expenses.1Accounts receivable in the management of the existing problemsAccounts receivable is broad, fixed number of year long. Amounts Enterprise to accounts receivable accounting is not standard. According to the provisions of the state financial and accountingsystems. Accounts receivable is accounting enterprise for selling goods or services to happen to purchase unit shall be recovered or acceptlabor unit payments. But the enterprise did not strictly according tothe provisions of the accounting enterprise receivables. Cause some should not be in the project accounting money also included in the project, cause accounts receivable accounting has no reality.The account receivable NPLS not timely, to the enterprise confirmed the appearance of virtually increased asset caused. Because enterpriseto accounts receivable slackened management, especially some enterprise also to accounts receivable as means of adjusting profit. So on the account receivable SiZhang confirmation on staying there ~ some problems. Is mainly to stay SiZhang has already formed the receivables confirmfast enough, for many years in the accounts receivable formed account long-term, eased some already can't withdraw, this provision for the provision for no provision of virtual enterprise assets, causing thickening.Because some of the managers and operators enterprise financial management consciousness and lack of management concept. To accounts receivable is lack of effective management and collect investigation the author feel. In Shanxi Province in the part of the province tube enterprise still exist serious planned economy of ideas, these people to the market economy can't say don't understand, also cannot say don't understand, the main thing is not starts from oneself, and in practical work is often said the much, do less. Thought is drunk on the productionand business operation this center, not how to do well management finance the primacy, failed to do the business management financial management as the center. Financial management to fund management as the center. The management of funds and use only paying attention to how to borrow and spend money, not for existing resources and capital for effective configuration and mobilize. Cause enterprise produced a considerable amount of receivables, also do not actively from the Angle of strengthening management, so lots of money to clean up the long-term retention outside. Affected the enterprise normal production and operation activities and the efficient use of the funds.The drawbacks of the receivable mismanagement2外文原文Reduce enterprise funds use efficiency, make enterprise profits down because of enterprise logistics and cash flow not consistent, merchandise shipped, prescribing sales invoices. Payment is not keeping pace recovery, and sales have established, this not up recovery entry sales. Certainly will cause no cash inflow generated sales tax onprofits and losses, and sales income paid and years be paid in advance. If involves span more than to sales revenue account receivable. Then can produce enterprise by current assets paid annual shareholders dividend. Enterprise for such pursuit arising from the pad surface benefits and tax payment paid shareholders take up a lot of liquidity, as time passes will influence enterprise capital turnover. Which led to the enterpriseactual operation situation veiled. Influence enterprise production plan and sales plan, etc, can't realize the set benefit goal.Exaggerated enterprise operating results. Because our country enterprise executes accounting foundation is the accrual (receivable meet system). The current credit happened all to write down current income. Therefore, the enterprise account profit increase does not mean that can meet the schedule of realizing cash inflows. Accounting system requires the enterprise in accordance with the percentage of account receivable balance to extract the provision for, the provision for a 5% rates generally for 3% (special enterprise except). If the actual loss of bad happened more than extract the provision for, will give enterprise to bring the great loss. Therefore, the enterprise of account receivable existence. On the TAB virtually increased sales income. In oerstate enterprise operation results. Increased risks of an enterprise cost.Speeding up the enterprise's cash outflows. Sell on credit although can make the enterprise produces more profits, but did not make enterprise cash inflows increase, on the contrary make enterprise had to use limited liquidity to various taxes and fees paid, accelerate the enterprise's cash outflows, main performance for:Enterprise tax payments. Accounts receivable bring sales income. Not actually receive cash, turnover is computational basis with sales, the enterprise must on time pay by cash. Enterprise pay tax as value addedtax, business tax, consumption tax, resources tax and urban construction tax, inevitable meeting with sales revenue increases.Income tax payments. Accounts receivable generate revenue, but notin cash income tax, and realizing cash payment must on time.Cash the distribution of the profits. Also exist such problems. In addition, the3cost of the management of accounts receivable and accountsreceivable recycling costs will accelerate enterprise cash outflows.The business cycle has influence on enterprise. Operating cycle from obtain inventory to the sales that inventory and withdraw cash this time so far. Operating cycle depends on inventory turnover days and accounts receivable turnover days, the business cycle is combined. From that. Unreasonable accounts receivable existence, make business cycle extended, affected the enterprise capital circulation, make a lot of liquidity precipitation in non-productive link. Cause enterprise cash shortage, influence salaries and raw material purchasing, serious impact on the enterprise normal production and operation.Increased receivables management process. Error probability, bringsto the enterprise enterprise to face the additional loss accounts receivable account, possibly to the timely discovery, accounting errors can prompt understanding and other receivables accounts receivable dynamic enterprise details. Cause responsibility unclear. Accounts receivable contract, Taiwan about, commitments, the formalities ofexamination and approval of such material scattered, lost may make the enterprise has happened on the account receivable unable to receive the full recovery of repayment, the only partially withdraw through legal means. Can recover, but due to material not whole and cannot be recovered, until eventually form the enterprise assets loss.To strengthen the management of accounts receivable methodComprehensive comb, and establish material parameter. For enterprise all kinds of receivables launch a comprehensive system of comb, queuing, check the work. Because in past economic activity business minority, inefficient pattern. Hard to adapt to the market economy requirement,the law of development in the increasingly fierce market competition gradually be eliminated, the enterprise is in production, BanTingChan, failed state, has formed a widespread accounts receivable account for a long (most age 3 years), former party leave the state of operation and the debtor changes etc. Phenomenon, to clear a check increase the difficulty. Workers should browse a large number of original documents, traced back to carefully each individual accounts receivable from the nature, time, happened contents, amount. According to zhang age, systems, area and the possibility of recovery of accounts receivable are classified. Carefully analyzed collection verify each sum of money and amount. And this system, more likely way back near the door checkaccount receivable; Way to outside the system, and is unlikely to far back of receivables through telephone 4外文原文enquiries, enterprise sent a letter, lawyers sent a letter way to undertake checking: some not so clear accounts receivable multilateral bug verification. Please go back to the original sales personnel, agent help check to ensure that the data obtained by the accurate, reliable and accurate data collected in the visiting for the future of written-off receivables smoothly provide effective legal evidence. More importantly, with the debtor written-off receivables personnel and check accounts concerning the debtor family residence, operation sites, property status, income level made a comprehensive and detailed understanding, and according to the command of the debtor to evaluate solvency debt-repaying possibility. Judge, lock key goals for the next great written-off receivables smoothly and lay the foundation.Multi-pronged approach.we great effort, increase. After the preparation work or do. Accounts receivable written-off receivables entered the substantial "punish collect" crucial stage. In actual work, in order to give attention to collect the magnificence of the enterprise with benefit, one of the debtor to classify, different properties analysis of the debtor to adopt targeted collect method, in order to make the whole written-off receivables achieved good effect. The debtor to business clients. To possess management qualification, sound system, assets in good condition of customers, after consultations communication with the other, try to take groovy gathering way, so that both the collect keep good business cooperation relations; But for maliciouslong-term default behavior, used first lawyer in demand for collection,correspondence is invalid cases, still choose be representative of the debtor to court, apply for a court for compulsory execution. In the majesty of the law, the other group of a deterrent to repay the debtor will repay arrears, self-consciously plays to the whole written-off receivables to point the impetus with. On the system internal worker arrears. For system inside worker due to illness, life difficult, and many other reason formed non-business temporary loan, first of all, issued a document, clearly stipulates that deadline repossessed; Secondly, a large amount of arrears. Indeed, in a difficult to pay off after consultation with staff. Payment agreement signed. Divide second month in salary charged or deduct; Finally, the internal to laid-off employees and have extra-large disease worker, its economy is really difficult to repay embarrassment. In a humane treatment, offer certain debt relief. Such already make whole written-off receivables reach the expected effect, also can let laid-off workers to their real challenges organization care. Adopting property preservation measures. In the actual collect process. Often encountered some have the repaymentability but reimbursement conditions or timing immature the obligor, collect personnel can5cooperate actively court on the debtor's property implement preservation, making cdo in court, under the help of the relevant accounting units and individuals to impose preservation of property. For property preservation at the same time. Appoint our wealth pipe centervisit regularly the obligor, closely watching the debtor whereabouts, understand their property status. Once found the debtor reimbursement conditions mature, immediately notify the court, suspend the property preservation, reactivated cases. Applied to the court for compulsory execution withdraw arrears.Establish customer credit system. Strict credit business formalities for examination and approval from years of written-off receivables accounts receivable see. A few enterprises in experience increased sales push credit sales policy. Did not establish a complete customer credit system, to the customer assets status, reimbursement ability, financial situation, the credit rating don't know much. Even after receivable formation. Find the debtor to punish frequently occurred. There are a few enterprise to the customer credit conditions are too broad. Credit approval rights too scattered, sometimes a sales personnel can decided to sell on credit business formation. Cause some credit rating is low customers easily get credit, increasing the risk of bad loans.Earnestly implement post responsibility system, strict appraisal, rewards and punishments and trenchantSome enterprise although also established a comparatively perfect accounts receivable credit sales, management, a great responsibility and internal control system, but in actual work but become a mere formality, non-existing. Cause the enterprise internal responsibility unclear, the reward is unknown situation. To a certain extent, encourages the formation of large receivables, increasing the operating risk of anenterprise. So only with a good set of system doesn't solve all the problems in the practical work, the key still need to implement these system will reach the designated position, achieves truly in the bud.Foreign source :Friends of the accounting, in 2009 (30) 84 856外文译文外文译文企业应收账款管理存在的问题及对策汾西矿业化工公司赵爱萍【摘要】公司为了满足扩大销售、增加企业的竞争力、减少库存、降低存货风险和管理开支等的需要，在El常的经营活动中产生了应收账款。
财务风险管理中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料翻译Financial Risk ManagementAlthough financial risk has increased significantly in recent years, risk and risk management are not contemporary issues. The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market. Information is available instantaneously, which means that change, and subsequent market reactions, occur very quickly. The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates, interest rates, and commodity prices. Counterparties can rapidly become problematic. As a result, it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management.What Is Risk?Risk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss, while exposure is the possibility of loss, although they are often used interchangeably. Risk arises as a result of exposure.Exposure to financial markets affects most organizations, either directly or indirectly. When an organization has financial market exposure, there is a possibility of loss but also an opportunity for gain or profit. Financial market exposure may provide strategic or competitive benefits.Risk is the likelihood of losses resulting from events such as changes in market prices. Events with a low probability of occurring, but that may result in a high loss, are particularly troublesome because they are often not anticipated. Put another way, risk is the probable variability of returns.Since it is not always possible or desirable to eliminate risk, understanding it is an important step in determining how to manage it. Identifying exposures and risks forms the basis for an appropriate financial risk management strategy.How Does Financial Risk?Financial risk arises through countless transactions of a financial nature, including sales and purchases, investments and loans, and various other business activities. It can arise as a result of legal transactions, new projects, mergers and acquisitions, debt financing, the energy component of costs, or through the activities of management, stakeholders, competitors, foreign governments, or weather. When financial prices change dramatically, it can increase costs, reduce revenues, or otherwise adversely impact the profitability of an organization. Financial fluctuations may make it more difficult to plan and budget, price goods and services, and allocate capital.There are three main sources of financial risk:1. Financial risks arising from an organization’s exposure to changes in market prices, such as interest rates, exchange rates, and commodity prices.2. Financial risks arising from the actions of, and transactions with, other organizations such as vendors, customers, and counterparties in derivatives transactions3. Financial risks resulting from internal actions or failures of the organization, particularly people, processes, and systemsWhat Is Financial Risk Management?Financial risk management is a process to deal with the uncertainties resulting from financial markets. It involves assessing the financial risks facing an organization and developing management strategies consistent with internal priorities and policies. Addressing financial risks proactively may provide an organization with a competitive advantage. It also ensures that management, operational staff, stakeholders, and the board of directors are in agreement on key issues of risk.Managing financial risk necessitates making organizational decisions about risks that are acceptable versus those that are not. The passive strategy of taking no action is the acceptance of all risks by default.Organizations manage financial risk using a variety of strategies and products. It is important to understand how these products and strategies work to reduce riskwithin the context of the organization’s risk tolerance and objectives.Strategies for risk management often involve derivatives. Derivatives are traded widely among financial institutions and on organized exchanges. The value of derivatives contracts, such as futures, forwards, options, and swaps, is derived from the price of the underlying asset. Derivatives trade on interest rates, exchange rates, commodities, equity and fixed income securities, credit, and even weather.The products and strategies used by market participants to manage financial risk are the same ones used by speculators to increase leverage and risk. Although it can be argued that widespread use of derivatives increases risk, the existence of derivatives enables those who wish to reduce risk to pass it along to those who seek risk and its associated opportunities.The ability to estimate the likelihood of a financial loss is highly desirable. However, standard theories of probability often fail in the analysis of financial markets. Risks usually do not exist in isolation, and the interactions of several exposures may have to be considered in developing an understanding of how financial risk arises. Sometimes, these interactions are difficult to forecast, since they ultimately depend on human behavior.The process of financial risk management is an ongoing one. Strategies need to be implemented and refined as the market and requirements change. Refinements may reflect changing expectations about market rates, changes to the business environment, or changing international political conditions, for example. In general, the process can be summarized as follows:1、Identify and prioritize key financial risks.2、Determine an appropriate level of risk tolerance.3、Implement risk management strategy in accordance with policy.4、Measure, report, monitor, and refine as needed.DiversificationFor many years, the riskiness of an asset was assessed based only on the variability of its returns. In contrast, modern portfolio theory considers not only an asset’s riskiness, but also its contribution to the overall riskiness of the portfolio towhich it is added. Organizations may have an opportunity to reduce risk as a result of risk diversification.In portfolio management terms, the addition of individual components to a portfolio provides opportunities for diversification, within limits. A diversified portfolio contains assets whose returns are dissimilar, in other words, weakly or negatively correlated with one another. It is useful to think of the exposures of an organization as a portfolio and consider the impact of changes or additions on the potential risk of the total.Diversification is an important tool in managing financial risks. Diversification among counterparties may reduce the risk that unexpected events adversely impact the organization through defaults. Diversification among investment assets reduces the magnitude of loss if one issuer fails. Diversification of customers, suppliers, and financing sources reduces the possibility that an organization will have its business adversely affected by changes outside management’s control. Although the risk of loss still exists, diversification may reduce the opportunity for large adverse outcomes.Risk Management ProcessThe process of financial risk management comprises strategies that enable an organization to manage the risks associated with financial markets. Risk management is a dynamic process that should evolve with an organization and its business. It involves and impacts many parts of an organization including treasury, sales, marketing, legal, tax, commodity, and corporate finance.The risk management process involves both internal and external analysis. The first part of the process involves identifying and prioritizing the financial risks facing an organization and understanding their relevance. It may be necessary to examine the organization and its products, management, customers, suppliers, competitors, pricing, industry trends, balance sheet structure, and position in the industry. It is also necessary to consider stakeholders and their objectives and tolerance for risk.Once a clear understanding of the risks emerges, appropriate strategies can be implemented in conjunction with risk management policy. For example, it might bepossible to change where and how business is done, thereby reducing the organization’s exposure and risk. Alternatively, existing exposures may be managed with derivatives. Another strategy for managing risk is to accept all risks and the possibility of losses.There are three broad alternatives for managing risk:1. Do nothing and actively, or passively by default, accept all risks.2. Hedge a portion of exposures by determining which exposures can and should be hedged.3. Hedge all exposures possible.Measurement and reporting of risks provides decision makers with information to execute decisions and monitor outcomes, both before and after strategies are taken to mitigate them. Since the risk management process is ongoing, reporting and feedback can be used to refine the system by modifying or improving strategies.An active decision-making process is an important component of risk management. Decisions about potential loss and risk reduction provide a forum for discussion of important issues and the varying perspectives of stakeholders.Factors that Impact Financial Rates and PricesFinancial rates and prices are affected by a number of factors. It is essential to understand the factors that impact markets because those factors, in turn, impact the potential risk of an organization.Factors that Affect Interest RatesInterest rates are a key component in many market prices and an important economic barometer. They are comprised of the real rate plus a component for expected inflation, since inflation reduces the purchasing power of a lender’s assets .The greater the term to maturity, the greater the uncertainty. Interest rates are also reflective of supply and demand for funds and credit risk.Interest rates are particularly important to companies and governments because they are the key ingredient in the cost of capital. Most companies and governments require debt financing for expansion and capital projects. When interest rates increase, the impact can be significant on borrowers. Interest rates also affect prices in otherfinancial markets, so their impact is far-reaching.Other components to the interest rate may include a risk premium to reflect the creditworthiness of a borrower. For example, the threat of political or sovereign risk can cause interest rates to rise, sometimes substantially, as investors demand additional compensation for the increased risk of default.Factors that influence the level of market interest rates include:1、Expected levels of inflation2、General economic conditions3、Monetary policy and the stance of the central bank4、Foreign exchange market activity5、Foreign investor demand for debt securities6、Levels of sovereign debt outstanding7、Financial and political stabilityYield CurveThe yield curve is a graphical representation of yields for a range of terms to maturity. For example, a yield curve might illustrate yields for maturity from one day (overnight) to 30-year terms. Typically, the rates are zero coupon government rates.Since current interest rates reflect expectations, the yield curve provides useful information about the market’s expectations of future interest rates. Implied interest rates for forward-starting terms can be calculated using the information in the yield curve. For example, using rates for one- and two-year maturities, the expected one-year interest rate beginning in one year’s time can be determined.The shape of the yield curve is widely analyzed and monitored by market participants. As a gauge of expectations, it is often considered to be a predictor of future economic activity and may provide signals of a pending change in economic fundamentals.The yield curve normally slopes upward with a positive slope, as lenders/investors demand higher rates from borrowers for longer lending terms. Since the chance of a borrower default increases with term to maturity, lenders demand to be compensated accordingly.Interest rates that make up the yield curve are also affected by the expected rate of inflation. Investors demand at least the expected rate of inflation from borrowers, in addition to lending and risk components. If investors expect future inflation to be higher, they will demand greater premiums for longer terms to compensate for this uncertainty. As a result, the longer the term, the higher the interest rate (all else being equal), resulting in an upward-sloping yield curve.Occasionally, the demand for short-term funds increases substantially, and short-term interest rates may rise above the level of longer term interest rates. This results in an inversion of the yield curve and a downward slope to its appearance. The high cost of short-term funds detracts from gains that would otherwise be obtained through investment and expansion and make the economy vulnerable to slowdown or recession. Eventually, rising interest rates slow the demand for both short-term and long-term funds. A decline in all rates and a return to a normal curve may occur as a result of the slowdown.财务风险管理尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。
企业应收账款风险控制外文翻译文献
企业应收账款风险控制外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)原文：On Risk Control Accounts Receivable Abstract:Accounts receivable credit enterprise by way of sale of goods or services but to the cust o mers received, accounts receivable management directly affect the capital flow and economic operation of the article pointed out that enterprises should combine their actual situation, the establishment of receivables Accounts of the risk prevention mechanism, from the source control and take preventive measures not only the accounts receivable of enterprises face the risk of recovery, but also the existence of operating risks to the enterprise, from the status of receivables management business to start Analyze accounts receivable management business problems. Accounts receivable is the product of credit, credit on the one hand can improve the market competitiveness of enterprises, to expand sales, but on the other hand delayed the cash recovery time and increases the cost of collection of trade receivables, receivables from the paper The causes and management of money in terms of how to prevent the risk of accounts receivable.Key words:accounts receivable,controlIntroductionAccounts receivable is a result of external business credit products,materials, supplies, labor, etc. to purchase or receive services units to receive the funds. Enterprises can sell two basic forms, namely, credit method is way off. Cash sales approach is themost expected a sales settlement. However, in the fierce market economy, totally dependent on marketing approach is often unrealistic. Under the credit method, the enterprise in sales of products, can be provided to the buyer within a certain period of time free use of money the business of credit funds in an amount equal to the price of goods, which for the purchaser in terms of great attractive. For the enterprise is an important promotional tool, the enterprise product sales are sluggish, the market decline, the case of weak competition, or in enterprise sales of new products, new markets, in order to meet the needs of market competition and adopting various effective the credit method, it is wise for businesses. In the current market economic conditions, increased competition, with the continuous development of commercial credit, business credit sales of products means more favor. However, a large number of accounts receivable resulting in sales revenue growth can only book profits to the enterprise, can not bring business to maintain and expand the scale of production necessary for cash flow, and with the continued increase in the amount of accounts receivable, growing an average of aging, accounts receivable aging structure tends to deteriorate, may be more and more bad debt losses, to the huge enterprise production and management of potential risks. Therefore, how to effectively enhance the control and management of accounts receivable is a enterprises financial imperative.First, the business performance of accounts receivable riskAccounts receivable is an enterprise in the normal course of business, from selling goods, products or services or receive services to purchase units of a unit charge or debit the accounts of the transport fees. It is the business generated by the short-term credit product claims to offer the enterprise a commercial credit. Accounts receivable in an expanding market, increase sales revenue while also forming a receivables risk, mainly reflected in:1, accounts receivable possession of large amounts of liquidity, adding to the difficulties of shortage of working capital business. Enterprise credit products, issue stock, but can not recover the money, and enterprise customers on overdue payments can not take appropriate measures, resulting in a large number of corporate working capital was occupied by the long run will affect the flow of liquidity to enable enterprises to monetary shortage of funds, which affect the normal cost and normal production operations.2, exaggerated accounts receivable business results, so that the existence of hidden losses or loss of business. At present, revenue is recognized when the company followed the principle of accrual accounting, the accounting treatment for the occurrence of credit, debit "accounts receivable" account, credited "business income" subject to credit all revenue credited to current income, , the increase in corporate profits and the current period can not be achieved, said the cash income. According to the precautionary principle, the actual situation of enterprises according to their own accounts receivable Provision for bad debts, but in practice, in order to facilitate tax, the tax laws, administrative regulations expressly provides that the proportion of the general provision of 0.3% to 0.5%. If there is a lot of business accounts receivable, there is increased likelihood of bad debts, bad debts that actual extraction of the bad debts far exceeded. This is equal to exaggerate the company's operating results, andthe losses that may occur can not be fully estimated.3, accounts receivable increased by the loss of corporate cash flow. From handling the accounts of credit can be seen that although the company had a credit more revenue, increase profits, but did not make the cash inflow, but the company had to advance funds to pay various taxes and payment of costs and accelerate the enterprise's cash outflows.4, accounts receivable increased the opportunity cost of corporate capital losses. First of all, occupied by accounts receivable financing, which calls for accelerated turnover in the business, be rewarded, but because there are a lot of accounts receivable, in particular, the proportion of overdue accounts receivable on the rise (at present, China's late accounts receivable accounts receivable as high as 60%, while the Western countries, less than 10%), resulting in accounts receivable on the occupied capital lost its time value. Second, because the accounts receivable arising in the collection process, forcing the enterprises have to invest a lot of manpower, material and financial resources, and increased collection costs; the same time, because a lot of money by settling, the borrower time to be extended, increased interest expense. A variety of cost increase, making funds lost profit opportunities and increase the opportunity cost of capital.Third, how to control the risk of accounts receivable1, credit risk prevention policyWith the further development of China's market economy and increasing business competition, commercial credit receivables of the objective to be a competitive necessity of issuing commercial credit companies that do not attract customers to lose the competitiveness of the credit offers; course, the payment of business inevitably bring credit offers credit risk and credit policies on the manage receivables plays an important role. Credit policies include the following:(1) Credit standards. Credit standards are the company to provide commercial credit made the minimum requirements for the development of credit standards is the key to consider the customer to delay payment or refuse to pay money to bring the possibility of loss to the company size. To this end, companies need credit to customers for regular inspection and assessment of the quality of analysis on the credit quality of the testing and evaluation standards, there are three commonly used methods.First, 5C system evaluation. The system is to assess the important factor in customer credit quality, the following five aspects.①Quality: Quality is the customers and reputation, that is, the possibility of obligation, this factor is critical, it is a moral credit of the subjective factor, which is required to have the management of corporate credit experience, the right to judge and keen insight.②capacity: Capacity is the customers ability to pay when the credit expires, it is according to customer financial information, especially under the regular income and expenditure data be analyzed to determine their ability to pay the purchase price.③Capital: capital refers to the customer's financial strength and financial status, indicating that the background of the customer may pay the debt, usually reflect thefinancial position of the ratio of customers include: debt ratio, current ratio, earnings coverage ratio, fixed charges coverage ratio.④collateral: collateral or credit status on the bottom line I do not know the customer and requires a disputed credit guarantee of a variety of assets.⑤economic environment: mainly refers to the economic environment can affect the ability of customers to fulfill financial responsibility of economic development trends, it is beyond the control of the customer. Corporate credit managers in considering this factor, the analysis should focus on regional economic conditions and business products related to the development of industry-specific.Second, the credit analysis. According to customer's credit information, credit screening of several major factors, the number of statistical methods used for processing classified and quantified to calculate the weights, assessment of credit quality, enterprise credit management section based on credit scores to determine the weighted credit rating .Third, credit risk model method. According to the customer's financial business risk and receivables management company's own risk to determine credit risk, the use of the principle of mathematical statistics to establish a credit risk model, which ARC (credit risk) = PR risk customers can not pay the creditors × MR (accounts receivable risk management), MR (accounts receivable risk management) is the company's own accounts receivable management system, measures methods, control and supervision, the quality of personnel and other internal factors, can affect the risk of a few accounts receivable management major factors in assessing the scores of each factor and the weights, the weighted scores obtained MR values; Similarly, PR value is the major risk factors based on ratios of financial position (cash ratio, inventory turnover, quick ratio, etc.) to assess the score of each factor, calculated using the principle of mathematical statistics weight each factor, then the integrated value is calculated PR value. Several standard methods of the above can apply for credit credit offer credit quality of customers to predict, analyze, judge, to determine whether to grant credit offers.(2) credit terms. Corporate credit conditions is the need to pay money on credit conditions, including credit terms, discounts, terms and cash discounts. Credit period is the longest business requirements to the customer time to pay; discount period is required for customers to enjoy the time of payment cash discounts; cash discount to encourage customers in the period of early payment discounts given preferential treatment. Generally provide more favorable credit terms to increase sales, but it can also bring additional burdens, such as accounts receivable will increase the opportunity cost of bad debts, cash discounts and other costs, so companies must be carefully weighed. I think we can grasp the following principles: the principle of prudence, risk principle (the principle of loose-type), the principle of cooperation. Prudence two possibilities: First, companies in the market weakness, deteriorating economic environment, companies should make a negative decision management sales strategy, market risk should be taken to avoid the principle of prudence. Second, the customer, without the ability to pay low credit quality, and poor financial situation, or do not understand the ins and outs and the dispute by the credit quality to theprecautionary principle of justice.The principle of risk can be divided into two situations: First, companies in the economic recovery increased, the product in the industry or the District of merchantability good, corporate decision-making authorities should take active sales policy. Second, the customer, the credit quality is high, financial condition, ability to pay, credit managers should be taken when issuing credit risk principles.The principle of cooperation: For SMEs, the capital less strength is poor, the general financial situation, ability to resist market risk is small, it should be taken in the aggregate principle.2, accounts receivable, risk prevention intervalSince the formation of the company credit accounts receivable, the sales and billing between the two acts of a settlement time, the interval. Interval of the recovered funds back in time to enable enterprises to have more liquidity to carry out production and service activities, and actively take the initiative to debt collection units or individuals. Bad debt losses will be reduced to a minimum, strengthen the recognition that not justify the amount of time being to let the other know and recognize the debt, in practice, can be sent to the business or personal debts confirmation or destroy a single paragraph, so that Check the arrears owed the content of individual units or signature confirmation mail, so that companies understand the availability of debt, repayment intentions each other, urging each other timely repayment, but also easy to check the authenticity of accounts receivables.For the other debts but delays longer recognized or return the book debts owed to strengthen preventive work is to understand the delay in repayment, arrears mail confirmation is not the reason to visit the other units in the field, to identify the existence of the other units or individuals, whether deliberately delayed payments, if unable to pay the debt, is facing bankruptcy, whether the cases escaping with money, etc., will cause a timely manner to the departments concerned to jointly study measures, do everything possible to receivables, reduce bad debts, bad loss account, but also to prevent blindness in future credit. If the payment has been made to identify the other party, shall immediately identify the whereabouts of, would have been diverted, whether the corruption of the unit personnel, wrong billing, etc., to ensure timely detection of errors were corrected.Even for the reputation, business or reputation has always been very high against individuals should not be relaxed, because "the portal does not close tightly, sages from the Pirates of the Heart", the unit if not often to learn about, mission, and it will part of the business or reputation of high prestige individual to ill-gotten gains, regardless of honor towards the idea of development, trust, reputation has been misused, to the unit causing serious economic losses.3, the daily management of accounts receivable risk prevention(1) enterprises in order to accelerate the turnover rate of accounts receivable, factoring risk reduction, you must do the following basic work. We must first place the accounts receivable should be registered in time, the household accounts receivable detailing the time, amount, reason, and the billing period to recover the situation and so on, and collect credit information about customers, such as access to Customerrecent balance sheet and income statement and other statements, analyze liquidity, ability to pay and the rate of business performance; second request to the customer's bank credit certificate of the client to understand the customer's deposit balance, loan conditions and settlement status; the last customer-related exchange of other suppliers of credit information companies to understand the timely payment of the customer and so on. These measures, analysis of customer's credit status in order to detect and propose a solution.(2) To strengthen management and total management of a single customer. (1) make the basis of records, level of understanding of customer payments in a timely manner.(2) Check whether the customers break through credit. (3) grasp the customer's debt credit period has expired, customers have been closely monitoring the dynamic changes in debt maturity. (4) analysis of accounts receivable turnover and average billing period, to see whether at the normal level of liquidity. (5) to strengthen aging analysis of accounts receivable. Aging analysis of accounts receivable accounts receivable ledger should be based on the setting business case may be, the general ledger accounts receivable business sales region and sales by the household setting. (3) to strengthen the management of accounts receivable ledger. Screening of the accounts receivable ledger, aging analysis to determine which needs and which does not require, or purchase a unit occurs only a few pen and the amount outstanding, as a result of product quality, dispute, or disputes resulting from breach of contract Such accounts receivable should be shown separately case by case basis and specify the reasons put forward to resolve issues.4, accounting, risk prevention(1) Select the correct extractionChina's current accounting system to prepare low corporate law provides that only accounted for bad debts, this is an accounts receivable effective risk prevention measures. 2006 "Enterprise Accounting Standards" provides enterprises the ratio of provision for bad debts 0.3% -0.5%, specifically determined by the enterprises themselves, so that different companies to solve practical problems opened up a new way. The company shall state the specific circumstances under the scope of provision for bad debts, extraction method, the division of aging and extraction ratio, in accordance with administrative privileges, general meeting of shareholders or managers (the director) or similar approval, and in accordance with the laws and administrative regulations report to the relevant provisions of the parties to the record, the extraction method for bad debts has been determined shall not be changed, you need to change, based upon the above procedures, and report to the parties approved the record, and be stated in the accounting statements.(2) Select the correct method of settlement. The right of settlement to reduce the risk of accounts receivable is also very important. Settlement between the Bank of China's enterprises are mainly the following: check settlement, foreign exchange settlement, commission collection settlement, settlement and other bank draft, corporate customers operating according to ability, capacity to repay and credit status, select the appropriate settlement of strong profitability and solvency, credit risk of large customers to choose a good way, this will help the two sides establish a relationship ofmutual trust, expand the sales network and improve competitiveness.5, accounts receivable factoring risk preventionIf the enterprise is the work done against accounts receivable in the former, and effective, will be able to grasp the size of the risk of accounts receivable, then the problem will be greatly reduced workload. But a business in the ordinary course of business can be without accounts receivable, and its purpose is simply to do preventive work is to control the line of credit and change the overall aging structure, increasing the recoverability of the existing accounts receivable. Therefore, enterprises must conduct research into prevention of accounts receivable, to establish their own processing methods and principles.First, the analysis of total receivables. Look at the accounts receivable balance is reasonable, whether the enterprise's production and management has become a burden, whether the compression of the needs and possibilities, what basis. Based on the analysis in the total amount, further the balance of accounts receivable aging analysis carried out by detailed subjects. Accounts receivable aging analysis is the quality and value of the total re-evaluation is to determine the recoverability of the account balance and determine what measures to use to resolve basis. Aging in general the smaller the longer the greater the risk the possibility of recovery.Second is to determine the collection process. According to aging analysis to determine needs and special circumstances of the customer billing, the normal billing procedures: submit a letter - Telephone collection - send people to interview - legal action. First, analysis of the causes of default, such as customer due to poor management, inability to pay, the should be further analysis is temporary or has reached bankruptcy. The reason for the temporary relaxation of the repayment period should be appropriate to help clients through difficult times. This is more compatible with the aging short, good reputation, part of the customer accounts receivable. But should also seek to extend the normal part of the total share. In order to recover more money, but the two sides can establish good business relationship.For the already bankrupt state, can not be revitalized, it should be in a timely manner to the court to be liquidated in bankruptcy pay off some debt.Third, the customer has repayment ability, but refuses to pay, the enterprises should adopt appropriate methods of debt collection. Consultation method: with the debt repayment customers, deadlines, payment methods and friendly consultations. 1, the probation law: clarifying the position of creditors or debt collection proud of the hard to move the debtor, moved their compassion. 2, the carrot and stick method: two people with debt collection, hard unwilling to compromise, soft in the stone, complement each other. Make payment by debtors. $ Fatigue War and attempting to rally: the main leaders of business debt pegged to fight a protracted war, it will collapse. Or language stimulation, so as to save face and dignity and had to pay. 3, the storm Law: explicitly tell the debtor to its proceedings. For repayment in any case fail to reach an agreement negotiations have had a lawyer to take legal action.Before taking legal action against the principle of cost-effectiveness should be considered, do not face prosecution following conditions: 1, court costs exceed the amount of the debt claim; 2, the customer value of the collateral can not write off debt,it has a wide range of social relations, prosecution may be hurt the business operation or cause damage, even if successful, the possibility of recovery of receivables is extremely limited.In short, the establishment of sound policies and effective debt collection, collection costs and to reduce the trade-off between bad debt, effective debt collection policies to a large extent by the experience of the management staff, the enterprise should have a professional knowledge is solid, experienced, responsible and accounts receivable management team can do a better job to Collection.本文摘自《黑龙江科技信息》2010年第4期，作者：孙丽译文：论企业应收账款风险的控制摘要：应收账款是企业采用赊销方式销售商品或劳务而应向顾客收取的款项，应收账款管理直接影响企业营运资金的周转和经济效益文章指出，企业要结合自身的实际情况，建立应收账款的风险防范机制，从源头控制，防患于未然企业的应收账款不仅面临着回收的风险，同时其存在也会给企业带来经营风险，从企业应收账款管理的现状入手，分析企业应收账款管理中面临的问题。
财务风险管理外文文献翻译译文
Financial Risk ManagementAlthough financial risk has increased significantly in recent years, risk and risk management are not contemporary issues. The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originatewith events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market. Information is available instantaneously, which means that change, and subsequentmarket reactions, occur very quickly. The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchangerates, interest rates, and commodity prices.Counterparties can rapidly become problematic. As a result, it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management.What Is Risk?Risk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss, while exposure is the possibility of loss, although they are often used interchangeably. Risk arises as aresult of exposure.Exposure to financial markets affects most organizations, either directly or indirectly. When an organization has financial market exposure, there is a possibility of loss but also an opportunity for gain or profit. Financial market exposure may provide strategic or competitive benefits.Risk is the likelihood of losses resulting from events such as changes in market prices. Events with a low probability of occurring, but that may result in a high loss, are particularly troublesome because they are often not anticipated. Put another way, risk is the probable variability of returns.Since it is not always possible or desirable to eliminate risk, understanding it is an important step in determining how to manage it.Identifying exposuresand risks forms the basis for an appropriatefinancial risk management strategy.How Does Financial Risk?Financial risk arises through countless transactions of a financial nature, including sales and purchases, investments and loans, and various other business activities. It can arise as aresult of legal transactions, new projects, mergers and acquisitions, debt financing, the energy component of costs, or through the activities of management, stakeholders, competitors, foreign governments, or weather. When financial prices change dramatically, it can increase costs, reduce revenues, or otherwise adversely impact the profitability of an organization. Financial fluctuations may make it more difficult to plan and budget, price goods and services, and allocate capital.There are three main sources of financial risk:1.Financial risks arising from an organization e'xpsosure to changes in market prices, such as interest rates, exchange rates, and commodity prices.2.Financial risks arising from the actions of, and transactions with, other organizations such as vendors, customers, and counterparties in derivatives transactions3.Financial risks resulting from internal actions or failures of the organization, particularly people, processes, and systemsWhat Is Financial Risk Management?Financial risk management is a process to deal with the uncertainties resulting from financial markets. It involves assessingthe financial risks facing an organization and developing management strategies consistent with internal priorities and policies. Addressing financial risks proactively may provide an organization with a competitive advantage. It also ensures that management, operational staff, stakeholders, and the board of directors are in agreement on key issues of risk.Managing financial risk necessitatesmaking organizational decisions about risks that are acceptable versus those that are not.The passive strategy of taking no action is the acceptance of all risks by default.Organizations manage financial risk using a variety of strategies and products. It is important to understand how these products and strategies work to reduce risk within the context of the organization r'isks tolerance and objectives.Strategies for risk management often involve derivatives. Derivatives are traded widely among financial institutions and on organized exchanges. The value of derivatives contracts, such as futures, forwards, options, and swaps, is derived from the price of the underlying asset.Derivatives trade on interest rates, exchange rates, commodities, equity and fixed income securities, credit, and even weather.The products and strategies used by market participants to manage financial risk are the same ones used by speculators to increase leverage and risk. Although it can be argued that widespread use of derivatives increases risk, the existence of derivatives enables those who wish to reduce risk to pass it along to those who seek risk and its associated opportunities.The ability to estimate the likelihood of a financial loss is highly desirable. However, standard theories of probability often fail in the analysis of financial markets. Risks usually do not exist in isolation, and the interactions of several exposures may have to be considered in developing an understanding of how financial risk arises. Sometimes, these interactions are difficult to forecast, since they ultimately depend on human behavior.The process of financial risk management is an ongoing one. Strategies need to be implemented and refined as the market and requirements change.Refinements may reflect changing expectations about market rates, changes to the business environment, or changing international political conditions, for example. In general, the process can be summarized as follows: 1、Identify and prioritize key financial risks.2、Determine an appropriate level of risk tolerance.3、Implement risk management strategy in accordance with policy.4、Measure, report, monitor, and refine as needed.DiversificationFor many years, the riskiness of an asset was assessed based only on the variability of its returns. In contrast, modernportfolio theory considers not only an asset 'ri s kiness, but alsoits contribution to the overall riskiness of the portfolio to which it is added. Organizations may have an opportunity to reduce risk as a result of risk diversification.In portfolio management terms, the addition of individual components to a portfolio provides opportunities fordiversification, within limits. A diversified portfolio contains assets whose returns are dissimilar, in other words, weakly or negatively correlated with one another. It is useful to think of the exposures of an organization as a portfolio and consider the impact of changes or additions on the potential risk of the total.Diversification is an important tool in managing financial risks.Diversification among counterparties may reduce the risk that unexpected events adversely impact the organization through defaults. Diversification among investment assets reduces the magnitude of loss if one issuer fails.Diversification of customers, suppliers, and financing sources reduces the possibility that an organization will have its business adversely affected by changes outside management'scontrol. Although the risk of loss still exists, diversification may reduce the opportunity for large adverse outcomes.Risk Management ProcessThe process of financial risk management comprises strategies that enable an organization to manage the risks associated with financial markets.Risk management is a dynamic process that should evolve with an organization and its business. It involves and impacts many parts of an organization including treasury, sales, marketing, legal, tax, commodity, and corporate finance.The risk management process involves both internal and external analysis. The first part of the process involves identifying and prioritizing the financial risks facing an organization and understanding their relevance. It may be necessary to examine the organization and its products, management, customers, suppliers, competitors, pricing, industry trends, balance sheet structure, and position in the industry. It is also necessary to consider stakeholders and their objectives and tolerance for risk.Once a clear understanding of the risks emerges,appropriate strategies can be implemented in conjunction with risk management policy. For example, it might be possible to change where and how business is done, thereby reducing the organization 'exsposure and risk. Alternatively, existing exposures may be managed with derivatives. Another strategy for managing risk is to accept all risks and the possibility of losses.There are three broad alternatives for managing risk:1.Do nothing and actively, or passively by default, accept all risks.2.Hedge a portion of exposures by determining which exposures can and should be hedged.3.Hedge all exposures possible.Measurement and reporting of risks provides decision makers with information to execute decisions and monitor outcomes, both before and after strategies are taken to mitigate them. Since the risk managementprocess is ongoing, reporting and feedback can be used to refine the system by modifying or improving strategies.An active decision-making process is an important component of risk management. Decisions about potential loss and risk reduction provide a forum for discussion of important issues and the varying perspectives of stakeholders.Factors that Impact Financial Rates and PricesFinancial rates and prices are affected by a number of factors. It is essential to understand the factors that impact markets because those factors, in turn, impact the potential risk of an organization.Factors that Affect Interest RatesInterest rates are a key component in many market prices and an important economic barometer. They are comprised of the real rate plus a component for expected inflation, since inflation reduces the purchasing power of a lender 'a s sets.The greater the term to maturity, the greater the uncertainty. Interest rates are also reflective of supply and demand for funds and credit risk.Interest rates are particularly important to companies and governments because they are the key ingredient in the cost of capital. Most companies and governments require debt financing for expansion and capital projects. When interest rates increase, the impact can be significant on borrowers. Interest rates also affect prices in other financial markets, so their impact is far-reaching.Other components to the interest rate may include a risk premium to reflect the creditworthiness of a borrower. For example, the threat of political or sovereign risk can cause interest rates to rise, sometimes substantially, as investors demand additional compensation for the increased risk of default.Factors that influence the level of market interest rates include: 1、Expected levels of inflation 2、General economic conditions 3、Monetary policy and the stance of the central bank 4、Foreign exchange market activity 5、Foreign investor demand for debt securities 6、Levels of sovereign debt outstanding 7、Financial and political stabilityYield CurveThe yield curve is a graphical representation of yields for a range of terms to maturity. For example, a yield curve might illustrate yields for maturity from one day (overnight) to 30-yearterms. Typically, the rates are zero coupon government rates.Since current interest rates reflect expectations, the yieldcurve provides useful information about the market 'esxpectations offuture interest rates.Implied interest rates for forward-starting terms can be calculatedusing theinformation in the yield curve. For example, using rates for one-and two-year maturities, the expected one-year interestrate' s time can beginning in one year be determined.The shape of the yield curve is widely analyzed and monitored by market participants. As a gauge of expectations, it is oftenconsidered to be a predictor of future economic activity and mayprovide signals of a pending change in economic fundamentals.The yield curve normally slopes upward with a positive slope, as lenders/investors demand higher rates from borrowers for longerlending terms.Since the chance of a borrower default increases with term tomaturity, lenders demand to be compensated accordingly.Interest rates that make up the yield curve are also affected bythe expected rate of inflation. Investors demand at least theexpected rate of inflation from borrowers, in addition to lendingand risk components. If investors expect future inflation to behigher, they will demand greater premiums for longer terms tocompensate for this uncertainty. As a result, the longer the term,the higher the interest rate (all else being equal), resulting in an upward-sloping yield curve.Occasionally, the demand for short-term funds increasessubstantially, and short-term interest rates may rise above thelevel of longer term interest rates.This results in an inversion of the yield curve and a downward slopeto its appearance.The high cost of short-term funds detracts fromgains that would otherwise be obtained through investment andexpansion and make the economy vulnerable to slowdown or recession. Eventually, rising interest rates slow the demand for both short-term and long-term funds. A decline in all rates and a return to anormal curve may occur as a result of the slowdown.财务风险管理尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。
外文-应收账款相关材料(有翻译)
The term receivables refer to amounts due from individuals and companies. Receivables are claims that are expected to be collected in cash. The management of receivables is a vary important activity for any company that sells goods on credit. Receivables are important because they represent one of a company’s most liquid assets. For many companies receivables are also one of the largest assets.Receivables这个单词是指应收账款欠款的个人和公司。
应收账款是指预计将收集到的现金。
应收款的管理对任何一个通过信贷方式销售货物的公司而言都是一项重要的活动。
应收款很重要的，因为他们代表一个公司的最具流动性的资产。
对于许多公司而言，应收账款也是其中最大的资产之一。
Management Receivables应收账款的管理Receivables are a significant asset on the many books. As a consequence, companies must pay close attention to their receivables balances and manage them carefully.应收款是在很多书籍中都表明是一项很重要的资产。
因此，企业必须密切关注其应收款余额并且进行谨慎的管理。
Managing accounts receivables involves five steps:1.Determine to whom to extend credit2.Establish a payment period3.Monitor collections4.Evaluate the receivables balances5.Accelerate cash receipts from receivables when necessary应收账款的管理可分为五步来进行：1.决定谁可以提供信贷2.建立付款期限3.监测收回4.评价应收账款余额5.必要时加快应收账款的现金收回Extending Credit提供信贷A critical part of managing receivables is determining who should be extended credit and who should not. Many companies increase sales by being generous with their credit policy, but they may end up extending credit to risky customers who do not pay. If the credit policy is too tight, you will lose sales; If it is too loose, you may sell to “deadbeats” who will pay either very late or not at all. One CEO noted that prior to getting his credit and collection department in order, his salespeople had 300 square feet of office space per person, while the people in credit and collections had six people crammed into a single 300-square-foot space. Although this arrangement boosted sales, it had vary expensive consequences in bad debts expense.应收账款管理中一个决定性的部分就是确定谁应扩大信贷，谁不应该扩大。
企业应收账款管理外文翻译文献
企业应收账款管理外文翻译文献企业应收账款管理外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:Enterprise receivables management analysedFenXi mining chemical company zhaoAiping【abstract 】in order to meet the expanding sales and increase the competitiveness of the enterprises, reduce inventory, reduce inventory risk and management expenses need, the business activities in El often created accounts receivable. Accounts receivable is the enterprise is an important, the risk is bigger liquid assets, its quality is good or bad for a business often has had a significant impact. Because of the important account receivable, according to some accounts receivable management and accounting, points out the existing problems in the disadvantages of account receivable mismanagement, and puts forward some to strengthen the management of accounts receivable practices.【keywords 】receivables; The provision for; Management riskAccounts receivable is the enterprise is an important, the risk is bigger liquid assets, its quality is good or bad for a business often has had a significant impact. These long-term difficult to recover the accounts receivable existence, seriously affected the enterprise. The normal production and business enterprise management costs, increased to different extent some enterprise into a financial crisis.The role of account receivable. Expand sales, increase the competitiveness of the enterprises in the fierce market competition situation, is to promote the sales of credit is animportant way. Enterprise credit is actually to provide customers with the two transactions, to customer selling products, and in a limited period introverted customers funds. In credit-tightening, market weakness, lack of money, the promotion with obvious credit for enterprise sales role. New products and explore new market is more important significance.Reduce inventory, reduce inventory risk and management costs. To the enterprise to hold finished goods inventory additional fee, warehousing costs and insurance expenses; Instead, the enterprise to hold accounts receivable, you do not need the spending. Therefore, when the enterprise products inventory more for long time,generally can use more favorable credit conditions, the inventory into pipes receivable and reduce finished goods in stock, save related expenses.Accounts receivable in the management of the existing problemsAccounts receivable is broad, fixed number of year long. AmountsEnterprise to accounts receivable accounting is not standard. According to the provisions of the state financial and accounting systems. Accounts receivable is accounting enterprise for selling goods or services to happen to purchase unit shall be recovered or accept labor unit payments. But the enterprise did not strictly according to the provisions of the accounting enterprise receivables. Cause some should not be in the project accounting money also included in the project, cause accounts receivable accounting has no reality.The account receivable NPLS not timely, to the enterprise confirmed the appearance of virtually increased asset caused.Because enterprise to accounts receivable slackened management, especially some enterprise also to accounts receivable as means of adjusting profit. So on the account receivable SiZhang confirmation on staying there ~ some problems. Is mainly to stay SiZhang has already formed the receivables confirm fast enough, for many years in the accounts receivable formed account long-term, eased some already can't withdraw, this provision for the provision for no provision of virtual enterprise assets, causing thickening.Because some of the managers and operators enterprise financial management consciousness and lack of management concept. To accounts receivable is lack of effective management and collect investigation the author feel. In Shanxi Province in the part of the province tube enterprise still exist serious planned economy of ideas, these people to the market economy can't say don't understand, also cannot say don't understand, the main thing is not starts from oneself, and in practical work is often said the much, do less. Thought is drunk on the production and business operation this center, not how to do well management finance the primacy, failed to do the business management financial management as the center. Financial management to fund management as the center. The management of funds and use only paying attention to how to borrow and spend money, not for existing resources and capital for effective configuration and mobilize. Cause enterprise produced a considerable amount of receivables, also do not actively from the Angle of strengthening management, so lots of money to clean up the long-term retention outside. Affected the enterprise normal production and operation activities and the efficient use of the funds.The drawbacks of the receivable mismanagementReduce enterprise funds use efficiency, make enterprise profits down because of enterprise logistics and cash flow not consistent, merchandise shipped, prescribing sales invoices. Payment is not keeping pace recovery, and sales have established, this not up recovery entry sales. Certainly will cause no cash inflow generated sales tax on profits and losses, and sales income paid and years be paid in advance. If involves span more than to sales revenue account receivable. Then can produce enterprise by current assets paid annual shareholders dividend. Enterprise for such pursuit arising from the pad surface benefits and tax payment paid shareholders take up a lot of liquidity, as time passes will influence enterprise capital turnover. Which led to the enterprise actual operation situation veiled. Influence enterprise production plan and sales plan, etc, can't realize the set benefit goal.Exaggerated enterprise operating results. Because our country enterprise executes accounting foundation is the accrual (receivable meet system). The current credit happened all to write down current income. Therefore, the enterprise account profit increase does not mean that can meet the schedule of realizing cash inflows. Accounting system requires the enterprise in accordance with the percentage of account receivable balance to extract the provision for, the provision for a 5% rates generally for 3% (special enterprise except). If the actual loss of bad happened more than extract the provision for, will give enterprise to bring the great loss. Therefore, the enterprise of account receivable existence. On the TAB virtually increased sales income. In oerstate enterprise operation results. Increased risks of an enterprise cost.Speeding up the enterprise's cash outflows. Sell on credit although can make the enterprise produces more profits, but did not make enterprise cash inflows increase, on the contrary make enterprise had to use limited liquidity to various taxes and fees paid, accelerate the enterprise's cash outflows, main performance for:Enterprise tax payments. Accounts receivable bring sales income. Not actually receive cash, turnover is computational basis with sales, the enterprise must on time pay by cash. Enterprise pay tax as value added tax, business tax, consumption tax, resources tax and urban construction tax, inevitable meeting with sales revenue increases.Income tax payments. Accounts receivable generate revenue, but not in cashincome tax, and realizing cash payment must on time.Cash the distribution of the profits. Also exist such problems. In addition, the cost of the management of accounts receivable and accounts receivable recycling costs will accelerate enterprise cash outflows.The business cycle has influence on enterprise. Operating cycle from obtain inventory to the sales that inventory and withdraw cash this time so far. Operating cycle depends on inventory turnover days and accounts receivable turnover days, the business cycle is combined. From that. Unreasonable accounts receivable existence, make business cycle extended, affected the enterprise capital circulation, make a lot of liquidity precipitation in non-productive link. Cause enterprise cash shortage, influence salaries and raw material purchasing, serious impact on the enterprise normal production and operation.Increased receivables management process. Error probability,brings to the enterprise enterprise to face the additional loss accounts receivable account, possibly to the timely discovery, accounting errors can prompt understanding and other receivables accounts receivable dynamic enterprise details. Cause responsibility unclear. Accounts receivable contract, Taiwan about, commitments, the formalities of examination and approval of such material scattered, lost may make the enterprise has happened on the account receivable unable to receive the full recovery of repayment, the only partially withdraw through legal means. Can recover, but due to material not whole and cannot be recovered, until eventually form the enterprise assets loss.To strengthen the management of accounts receivable methodComprehensive comb, and establish material parameter. For enterprise all kinds of receivables launch a comprehensive system of comb, queuing, check the work. Because in past economic activity business minority, inefficient pattern. Hard to adapt to the market economy requirement, the law of development in the increasingly fierce market competition gradually be eliminated, the enterprise is in production, BanTingChan, failed state, has formed a widespread accounts receivable account for a long (most age 3 years), former party leave the state of operation and the debtor changes etc. Phenomenon, to clear a check increase the difficulty. Workers should browse a large number of original documents, traced back to carefully each individual accounts receivable from the nature, time, happened contents, amount. According to zhang age, systems, area and the possibility of recovery of accounts receivable areclassified. Carefully analyzed collection verify each sum ofmoney and amount. And this system, more likely way back near the door check account receivable; Way to outside the system, and is unlikely to far back of receivables through telephone enquiries, enterprise sent a letter, lawyers sent a letter way to undertake checking: some not so clear accounts receivable multilateral bug verification. Please go back to the original sales personnel, agent help check to ensure that the data obtained by the accurate, reliable and accurate data collected in the visiting for the future of written-off receivables smoothly provide effective legal evidence. More importantly, with the debtor written-off receivables personnel and check accounts concerning the debtor family residence, operation sites, property status, income level made a comprehensive and detailed understanding, and according to the command of the debtor to evaluate solvency debt-repaying possibility. Judge, lock key goals for the next great written-off receivables smoothly and lay the foundation.Multi-pronged approach.we great effort, increase. After the preparation work or do. Accounts receivable written-off receivables entered the substantial "punish collect" crucial stage. In actual work, in order to give attention to collect the magnificence of the enterprise with benefit, one of the debtor to classify, different properties analysis of the debtor to adopt targeted collect method, in order to make the whole written-off receivables achieved good effect. The debtor to business clients. To possess management qualification, sound system, assets in good condition of customers, after consultations communication with the other, try to take groovy gathering way, so that both the collect keep good business cooperation relations; But for malicious long-term default behavior, used first lawyer indemand for collection, correspondence is invalid cases, still choose be representative of the debtor to court, apply for a court for compulsory execution. In the majesty of the law, the other group of a deterrent to repay the debtor will repay arrears, self-consciously plays to the whole written-off receivables to point the impetus with. On the system internal worker arrears. For system inside worker due to illness, life difficult, and many other reason formed non-business temporary loan, first of all, issued a document, clearly stipulates that deadline repossessed; Secondly, a large amount of arrears. Indeed, in a difficult to pay off after consultation with staff. Payment agreement signed. Divide second month in salary charged or deduct; Finally, the internal to laid-off employees and have extra-large disease worker, its economy is really difficult to repay embarrassment. In a humane treatment, offer certain debt relief. Such already make whole written-off receivables reach the expected effect, also can let laid-off workersto their real challenges organization care. Adopting property preservation measures. In the actual collect process. Often encountered some have the repayment ability but reimbursement conditions or timing immature the obligor, collect personnel can cooperate actively court on the debtor's property implement preservation, making cdo in court, under the help of the relevant accounting units and individuals to impose preservation of property. For property preservation at the same time. Appoint our wealth pipe center visit regularly the obligor, closely watching the debtor whereabouts, understand their property status. Once found the debtor reimbursement conditions mature, immediately notify the court, suspend the property preservation, reactivated cases. Applied to the court forcompulsory execution withdraw arrears.Establish customer credit system. Strict credit business formalities for examination and approval from years of written-off receivables accounts receivable see. A few enterprises in experience increased sales push credit sales policy. Did not establish a complete customer credit system, to the customer assets status, reimbursement ability, financial situation, the credit rating don't know much. Even after receivable formation. Find the debtor to punish frequently occurred. There are a few enterprise to the customer credit conditions are too broad. Credit approval rights too scattered, sometimes a sales personnel can decided to sell on credit business formation. Cause some credit rating is low customers easily get credit, increasing the risk of bad loans.Earnestly implement post responsibility system, strict appraisal, rewards and punishments and trenchantSome enterprise although also established a comparatively perfect accounts receivable credit sales, management, a great responsibility and internal control system, but in actual work but become a mere formality, non-existing. Cause the enterprise internal responsibility unclear, the reward is unknown situation. To a certain extent, encourages the formation of large receivables, increasing the operating risk of an enterprise. So only with a good set of system doesn't solve all the problems in the practical work, the key still need to implement these system will reach the designated position, achieves truly in the bud.Foreign source ：Friends of the accounting, in 2009 (30) 84 85译文:企业应收账款管理存在的问题及对策汾西矿业化工公司赵爱萍【摘要】公司为了满足扩大销售、增加企业的竞争力、减少库存、降低存货风险和管理开支等的需要，在El 常的经营活动中产生了应收账款。
财务风险管理外文文献翻译译文
Financial Risk ManagementAlthough financial risk has increased significantly in recent years, risk and risk management are not contemporary issues. The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market. Information is available instantaneously, which means that change, and subsequent market reactions, occur very quickly. The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates, interest rates, and commodity prices. Counterparties can rapidly become problematic. As a result, it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management.What Is Risk?Risk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss, while exposure is the possibility of loss, although they are often used interchangeably. Risk arises as a result of exposure.Exposure to financial markets affects most organizations, either directly or indirectly. When an organization has financial market exposure, there is a possibility of loss but also an opportunity for gain or profit. Financial market exposure may provide strategic or competitive benefits.Risk is the likelihood of losses resulting from events such as changes in market prices. Events with a low probability of occurring, but that may result in a high loss, are particularly troublesome because they are often not anticipated. Put another way, risk is the probable variability of returns.Since it is not always possible or desirable to eliminate risk,understanding it is an important step in determining how to manage it. Identifying exposures and risks forms the basis for an appropriate financial risk management strategy.How Does Financial Risk?Financial risk arises through countless transactions of a financial nature, including sales and purchases, investments and loans, and various other business activities. It can arise as a result of legal transactions, new projects, mergers and acquisitions, debt financing, the energy component of costs, or through the activities of management, stakeholders, competitors, foreign governments, or weather. When financial prices change dramatically, it can increase costs, reduce revenues, or otherwise adversely impact the profitability of an organization. Financial fluctuations may make it more difficult to plan and budget, price goods and services, and allocate capital.There are three main sources of financial risk:1. Financial risks arising from an organization’s exposure to changes in market prices, such as interest rates, exchange rates, and commodity prices.2. Financial risks arising from the actions of, and transactions with, other organizations such as vendors, customers, and counterparties in derivatives transactions3. Financial risks resulting from internal actions or failures of the organization, particularly people, processes, and systemsWhat Is Financial Risk Management?Financial risk management is a process to deal with the uncertainties resulting from financial markets. It involves assessing the financial risks facing an organization and developing management strategies consistent withinternal priorities and policies. Addressing financial risks proactively may provide an organization with a competitive advantage. It also ensures that management, operational staff, stakeholders, and the board of directors are in agreement on key issues of risk.Managing financial risk necessitates making organizational decisions about risks that are acceptable versus those that are not. The passive strategy of taking no action is the acceptance of all risks by default.Organizations manage financial risk using a variety of strategies and products. It is important to understand how these products and strategies work to reduce risk within the context of the organization’s risk tolerance and objectives.Strategies for risk management often involve derivatives. Derivatives are traded widely among financial institutions and on organized exchanges. The value of derivatives contracts, such as futures, forwards, options, and swaps, is derived from the price of the underlying asset. Derivatives trade on interest rates, exchange rates, commodities, equity and fixed income securities, credit, and even weather.The products and strategies used by market participants to manage financial risk are the same ones used by speculators to increase leverage and risk. Although it can be argued that widespread use of derivatives increases risk, the existence of derivatives enables those who wish to reduce risk to pass it along to those who seek risk and its associated opportunities.The ability to estimate the likelihood of a financial loss is highly desirable. However, standard theories of probability often fail in the analysis of financial markets. Risks usually do not exist in isolation, and theinteractions of several exposures may have to be considered in developing an understanding of how financial risk arises. Sometimes, these interactions are difficult to forecast, since they ultimately depend on human behavior.The process of financial risk management is an ongoing one. Strategies need to be implemented and refined as the market and requirements change. Refinements may reflect changing expectations about market rates, changes to the business environment, or changing international political conditions, for example. In general, the process can be summarized as follows:1、Identify and prioritize key financial risks.2、Determine an appropriate level of risk tolerance.3、Implement risk management strategy in accordance with policy.4、Measure, report, monitor, and refine as needed.DiversificationFor many years, the riskiness of an asset was assessed based only on the variability of its returns. In contrast, modern portfolio theory considers not only an asset’s riskiness, but also its contribution to the overall riskiness of the portfolio to which it is added. Organizations may have an opportunity to reduce risk as a result of risk diversification.In portfolio management terms, the addition of individual components to a portfolio provides opportunities for diversification, within limits. A diversified portfolio contains assets whose returns are dissimilar, in other words, weakly or negatively correlated with one another. It is useful to think of the exposures of an organization as a portfolio and consider the impact of changes or additions on the potential risk of the total.Diversification is an important tool in managing financial risks.Diversification among counterparties may reduce the risk that unexpected events adversely impact the organization through defaults. Diversification among investment assets reduces the magnitude of loss if one issuer fails. Diversification of customers, suppliers, and financing sources reduces the possibility that an organization will have its business adversely affected by changes outside management’s control. Although the risk of loss still exists, diversification may reduce the opportunity for large adverse outcomes.Risk Management ProcessThe process of financial risk management comprises strategies that enable an organization to manage the risks associated with financial markets. Risk management is a dynamic process that should evolve with an organization and its business. It involves and impacts many parts of an organization including treasury, sales, marketing, legal, tax, commodity, and corporate finance.The risk management process involves both internal and external analysis. The first part of the process involves identifying and prioritizing the financial risks facing an organization and understanding their relevance. It may be necessary to examine the organization and its products, management, customers, suppliers, competitors, pricing, industry trends, balance sheet structure, and position in the industry. It is also necessary to consider stakeholders and their objectives and tolerance for risk.Once a clear understanding of the risks emerges, appropriate strategies can be implemented in conjunction with risk management policy. For example, it might be possible to change where and how business is done, thereby reducing the organization’s exposure and risk. Alternatively, existingexposures may be managed with derivatives. Another strategy for managing risk is to accept all risks and the possibility of losses.There are three broad alternatives for managing risk:1. Do nothing and actively, or passively by default, accept all risks.2. Hedge a portion of exposures by determining which exposures can and should be hedged.3. Hedge all exposures possible.Measurement and reporting of risks provides decision makers with information to execute decisions and monitor outcomes, both before and after strategies are taken to mitigate them. Since the risk management process is ongoing, reporting and feedback can be used to refine the system by modifying or improving strategies.An active decision-making process is an important component of risk management. Decisions about potential loss and risk reduction provide a forum for discussion of important issues and the varying perspectives of stakeholders.Factors that Impact Financial Rates and PricesFinancial rates and prices are affected by a number of factors. It is essential to understand the factors that impact markets because those factors, in turn, impact the potential risk of an organization.Factors that Affect Interest RatesInterest rates are a key component in many market prices and an important economic barometer. They are comprised of the real rate plus a component for expected inflation, since inflation reduces the purchasing power of a lender’s assets .The greater the term to maturity, the greater theuncertainty. Interest rates are also reflective of supply and demand for funds and credit risk.Interest rates are particularly important to companies and governments because they are the key ingredient in the cost of capital. Most companies and governments require debt financing for expansion and capital projects. When interest rates increase, the impact can be significant on borrowers. Interest rates also affect prices in other financial markets, so their impact is far-reaching.Other components to the interest rate may include a risk premium to reflect the creditworthiness of a borrower. For example, the threat of political or sovereign risk can cause interest rates to rise, sometimes substantially, as investors demand additional compensation for the increased risk of default.Factors that influence the level of market interest rates include:1、Expected levels of inflation2、General economic conditions3、Monetary policy and the stance of the central bank4、Foreign exchange market activity5、Foreign investor demand for debt securities6、Levels of sovereign debt outstanding7、Financial and political stabilityYield CurveThe yield curve is a graphical representation of yields for a range of terms to maturity. For example, a yield curve might illustrate yields for maturity from one day (overnight) to 30-year terms. Typically, the rates are zero coupon government rates.Since current interest rates reflect expectations, the yield curve provides useful information about the market’s expectations of future interest rates. Implied interest rates for forward-starting terms can be calculated using the information in the yield curve. For example, using rates for one- and two-year maturities, the expected one-year interest rate beginning in one year’s time can be determined.The shape of the yield curve is widely analyzed and monitored by market participants. As a gauge of expectations, it is often considered to be a predictor of future economic activity and may provide signals of a pending change in economic fundamentals.The yield curve normally slopes upward with a positive slope, as lenders/investors demand higher rates from borrowers for longer lending terms. Since the chance of a borrower default increases with term to maturity, lenders demand to be compensated accordingly.Interest rates that make up the yield curve are also affected by the expected rate of inflation. Investors demand at least the expected rate of inflation from borrowers, in addition to lending and risk components. If investors expect future inflation to be higher, they will demand greater premiums for longer terms to compensate for this uncertainty. As a result, the longer the term, the higher the interest rate (all else being equal), resulting in an upward-sloping yield curve.Occasionally, the demand for short-term funds increases substantially, and short-term interest rates may rise above the level of longer term interest rates. This results in an inversion of the yield curve and a downward slope to its appearance. The high cost of short-term funds detracts from gains that would otherwise be obtained through investment and expansion and make the economyvulnerable to slowdown or recession. Eventually, rising interest rates slow the demand for both short-term and long-term funds. A decline in all rates and a return to a normal curve may occur as a result of the slowdown.财务风险管理尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。
财务风险管理外文文献翻译译文
Financial Risk ManagementAlthough financial risk has increased significantly in recent years, risk and risk management are not contemporary issues. The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market. Information is available instantaneously, which means that change, and subsequentmarket reactions, occur very quickly. The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchangerates, interest rates, and commodity prices. Counterparties can rapidly become problematic. As a result, it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management.What Is Risk?Risk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss, while exposure is the possibility of loss, although they are often used interchangeably. Risk arises as a result of exposure.Exposure to financial markets affects most organizations, either directly or indirectly. When an organization has financial market exposure, there is a possibility of loss but also an opportunity for gain or profit. Financial market exposure may provide strategic or competitive benefits.Risk is the likelihood of losses resulting from events such as changes in market prices. Events with a low probability of occurring, but that may result in a high loss, are particularly troublesome because they are often not anticipated. Put another way, risk is the probable variability of returns.Since it is not always possible or desirable to eliminate risk, understanding it is an important step in determining how to manage it. Identifying exposuresand risks forms thebasis for an appropriate financial risk management strategy.How Does Financial Risk?Financial risk arises through countless transactions of a financial nature, including sales and purchases, investments and loans, and various other business activities. It can arise as a result of legal transactions, new projects, mergers and acquisitions, debt financing, the energy component of costs, or through the activities of management, stakeholders, competitors, foreign governments, or weather. When financial prices change dramatically, it can increase costs, reduce revenues, or otherwise adversely impact the profitability of an organization. Financial fluctuations may make it more difficult to plan and budget, price goods and services, and allocate capital.There are three main sources of financial risk:1. Financial risks arising from an organization e'xpsosure to changes in market prices, such as interest rates, exchange rates, and commodity prices.2. Financial risks arising from the actions of, and transactions with, other organizations such as vendors, customers, and counterparties in derivatives transactions3. Financial risks resulting from internal actions or failures of the organization, particularly people, processes, and systemsWhat Is Financial Risk Management?Financial risk management is a process to deal with the uncertainties resulting from financial markets. It involves assessingthe financial risks facing an organization and developing management strategies consistent with internal priorities and policies. Addressing financial risks proactively may provide an organization with a competitive advantage. It also ensures that management, operational staff, stakeholders, and the board of directors are in agreement on key issues of risk.Managing financial risk necessitatesmaking organizational decisions about risks thatare acceptable versus those that are not. The passive strategy of taking no action is the acceptance of all risks by default.Organizations manage financial risk using a variety of strategies and products. It is important to understand how these products and strategies work to reduce risk within the context of the organization r'isks tolerance and objectives.Strategies for risk management often involve derivatives. Derivatives are traded widely among financial institutions and on organized exchanges. The value of derivatives contracts, such as futures, forwards, options, and swaps, is derived from the price of the underlying asset.Derivatives trade on interest rates, exchange rates, commodities, equity and fixed income securities, credit, and even weather.The products and strategies used by market participants to manage financial risk are the same ones used by speculators to increase leverage and risk. Although it can be argued that widespread use of derivatives increases risk, the existence of derivatives enables those who wish to reduce risk to pass it along to those who seek risk and its associated opportunities.The ability to estimate the likelihood of a financial loss is highly desirable. However, standard theories of probability often fail in the analysis of financial markets. Risks usually do not exist in isolation, and the interactions of several exposures may have to be considered in developing an understanding of how financial risk arises. Sometimes, these interactions are difficult to forecast, since they ultimately depend on human behavior.The process of financial risk management is an ongoing one. Strategies need to be implemented and refined as the market and requirements change. Refinements may reflect changing expectations about market rates, changes to the business environment, or changing international political conditions, for example. In general, the process can be summarized as follows:1、Identify and prioritize key financial risks.2、Determine an appropriate level of risk tolerance.3、Implement risk management strategy in accordance with policy.4、Measure, report, monitor, and refine as needed.DiversificationFor many years, the riskiness of an asset was assessed based only on the variability of its returns. In contrast, modern portfolio theory considers not only an asset 'ri s kiness, but also its contribution to the overall riskiness of the portfolio to which it is added. Organizations may have an opportunity to reduce risk as a result of risk diversification.In portfolio management terms, the addition of individual components to a portfolio provides opportunities for diversification, within limits. A diversified portfolio contains assets whose returns are dissimilar, in other words, weakly or negatively correlated with one another. It is useful to think of the exposures of an organization as a portfolio and consider the impact of changes or additions on the potential risk of the total.Diversification is an important tool in managing financial risks.Diversification among counterparties may reduce the risk that unexpected events adversely impact the organization through defaults. Diversification among investment assets reduces the magnitude of loss if one issuer fails. Diversification of customers, suppliers, and financing sources reduces the possibility that an organization will have its business adversely affected by changes outside management' scontrol. Although the risk of loss still exists, diversification may reduce the opportunity for large adverse outcomes. Risk Management ProcessThe process of financial risk management comprises strategies that enable an organization to manage the risks associated with financial markets. Risk management isa dynamic process that should evolve with an organization and its business. It involves and impacts many parts of an organization including treasury, sales, marketing, legal, tax, commodity, and corporate finance.The risk management process involves both internal and external analysis. The first part of the process involves identifying and prioritizing the financial risks facing an organization and understanding their relevance. It may be necessary to examine the organization and its products, management, customers, suppliers, competitors, pricing, industry trends, balance sheet structure, and position in the industry. It is also necessary to consider stakeholders and their objectives and tolerance for risk.Once a clear understanding of the risks emerges,appropriate strategies can be implemented in conjunction with risk management policy. For example, it might be possible to change where and how business is done, thereby reducing the organization 'exsposure and risk. Alternatively, existing exposures may be managed with derivatives. Another strategy for managing risk is to accept all risks and the possibility of losses.There are three broad alternatives for managing risk:1. Do nothing and actively, or passively by default, accept all risks.2. Hedge a portion of exposures by determining which exposures can and should be hedged.3. Hedge all exposures possible.Measurement and reporting of risks provides decision makers with information to execute decisions and monitor outcomes, both before and after strategies are taken to mitigate them. Since the risk managementprocess is ongoing, reporting and feedback can be used to refine the system by modifying or improving strategies.An active decision-making process is an important component of risk management. Decisions about potential loss and risk reduction provide a forum for discussion ofimportant issues and the varying perspectives of stakeholders.Factors that Impact Financial Rates and PricesFinancial rates and prices are affected by a number of factors. It is essential to understand the factors that impact markets because those factors, in turn, impact the potential risk of an organization.Factors that Affect Interest RatesInterest rates are a key component in many market prices and an important economic barometer. They are comprised of the real rate plus a component for expected inflation, since inflation reduces the purchasing power of a lender 'a s sets.The greater the term to maturity, the greater the uncertainty. Interest rates are also reflective of supply and demand for funds and credit risk.Interest rates are particularly important to companies and governments because they are the key ingredient in the cost of capital. Most companies and governments require debt financing for expansion and capital projects. When interest rates increase, the impact can be significant on borrowers. Interest rates also affect prices in other financial markets, so their impact is far-reaching.Other components to the interest rate may include a risk premium to reflect the creditworthiness of a borrower. For example, the threat of political or sovereign risk can cause interest rates to rise, sometimes substantially, as investors demand additional compensation for the increased risk of default.Factors that influence the level of market interest rates include:1、Expected levels of inflation2、General economic conditions3、Monetary policy and the stance of the central bank4、Foreign exchange market activity5、Foreign investor demand for debt securities6、Levels of sovereign debt outstanding7、Financial and political stabilityYield CurveThe yield curve is a graphical representation of yields for a range of terms to maturity. For example, a yield curve might illustrate yields for maturity from one day (overnight) to 30-year terms. Typically, the rates are zero coupon government rates.Since current interest rates reflect expectations, the yield curve provides useful information about the market 'esxpectations of future interest rates. Implied interest rates for forward-starting terms can be calculated using the information in the yield curve. For example, using rates for one- and two-year maturities, the expected one-year interestrate beginning in one year ' s time can be determined.The shape of the yield curve is widely analyzed and monitored by market participants. As a gauge of expectations, it is often considered to be a predictor of future economic activity and may provide signals of a pending change in economic fundamentals.The yield curve normally slopes upward with a positive slope, as lenders/investors demand higher rates from borrowers for longer lending terms. Since the chance of a borrower default increases with term to maturity, lenders demand to be compensated accordingly.Interest rates that make up the yield curve are also affected by the expected rate of inflation. Investors demand at least the expected rate of inflation from borrowers, inaddition to lending and risk components. If investors expect future inflation to be higher, they will demand greater premiums for longer terms to compensate for this uncertainty. As a result, the longer the term, the higher the interest rate (all else being equal), resulting in an upward-sloping yield curve.Occasionally, the demand for short-term funds increases substantially, andshort-term interest rates may rise above the level of longer term interest rates. This results in an inversion of the yield curve and a downward slope to its appearance.The high cost of short-term funds detracts from gains that would otherwise be obtained through investment and expansion and make the economyvulnerable to slowdown or recession. Eventually, rising interest rates slow the demand for both short-term and long-term funds. A decline in all rates and a return to a normal curve may occur as a result of the slowdown.财务风险管理尽管近年来金融风险大大增加，但风险和风险管理不是当代的主要问题。
应收账款管理外文翻译
附录原文Receivable managementWith the development of enterprises, a gradual increase in accounts receivable, the rising cost of funds, and enterprises to increase their market share, reducing the provision of goods or services on credit services, credit rating, to obtain more business channels and expand sales. In this case enterprises can not be sufficient liquidity to pay day-to-day management activities and related taxes and fees, they need to rely on bank loans to solve this problem. However, the heavy interest, but also further increase the cost of the enterprise, and with the growth of accounts receivable aging, and its loss of the possibility of bad debts have also increased, so that the cost of capital rise. Some enterprises also exist as a result of malicious arrears accounts, and accounts receivable collection enterprises basically rely on their own collection, resulting in the recovery of accounts receivable due to unnecessary cost increases can not be transferred, the cost of capital increase, increasing accounts receivable risk recovery section.1 Accounts receivable risk causesFirst, the causes of accounts recevableTo promote the sale of enterprises and accelerate the collection, to pay a certain cost to provide customers with a certain degree of credit terms. In determining the customer's credit terms, the enterprise must ensure that customer credit terms to provide the benefits to the enterprise greater than the cost of credit. If the credit period is too long, the blind implementation of the cash discount, or discount rate determined unreasonable, all the credit companies will only increase costs and increase the recovery of accounts receivable risks and cost recovery is not conducive to the development of enterprises. The lack of a number of small and medium enterprises engaged in full-time accounts receivable risk management, the lack of a sound and effective customer profiles and professional credit rating, credit limits and creditcontrol, there is no risk of bad debts in advance, a matter of prevention and control.Many enterprises, wages and benefits linked to the operating mode, the operator simply allows the pursuit of high-margin, commodity or the provision of credit blind services, to create indicators met or surpassed the illusion, do not consider value for money and recyclability, and increase business accounts receivable risk. Enterprise internal control system in a large number of claims for clean-up funds, poor collection, resulting in financial losses. Corporate accounting departments should timely accounting, accounts receivable reflect the situationcorrectly. However, the prevalence of accounting in debt, debt accounts do not wither in time the entire problem of cleaning up failed to claim the funds, check, and many of the business of money is unknown, the possibility of increased bad debts. In order to inflated corporate profits, capital losses and the current cost of long-term hanging on subjects dealing with accounts receivable, resulting in actual loss virtual surplus. The existence of these issues to cover up the of business losses, is not conducive to strengthening the management of enterprises easily create the illusion of false claims, resulting in distortion of accounting information, serious impact on information usersmake the right decisions.Second, accounts receivable management and prevent risks(A)receivables in advance of risk controlBad debt risk is an objective existence, as long as there is likely to have bad credit. Not all accounts receivable can be passed on, all can be avoided, so must be provision for bad debts. Enterprises should be fully estimated bad debt losses that may occur will be the impact of gains and losses, bad debts on schedule extract prepared to break down the risk of bad debt losses. Their provision is based on sound principles and the principle of proportion. Accounting system of China's enterprises, enterprises can only account for bad debt allowance for loss method. Allowance for bad debts is estimated that loss of time, the formation of bad debts. Have to guard against the risk of bad debts, to resist the loss of identity, is to guard against the risk of accounts receivable of the first barrier. Accounts receivable as a bad loss does not mean that companies give up to obtain the right to accounts receivable, business units should continue to pay attention to the debt situation, as far as possible to recover thereceivable. Clear job responsibilities, the establishment of system of personal responsibility. ShouldAccounts receivable management is a system, in accordance with the relevant provisions of enterprises, improve the sales management system, a clear job responsibilities and business processes for the refinement of management; to negotiate the contract, opening, distribution and delivery, to go out and receivables and other business-related departments and staff to ensure that the mutual separation of incompatible duties. The various departments to carry out their duties, fulfill their duties, responsible, responsibility to the people, to maximize the recovery of accounts receivable, to shorten the accounts receivable collection period,To reduce the bad debt losses. Enterprises in the sales process, should be granted in strict accordance with the customer's credit trading volume control, and in accordance with the principle of limited authorization in the enterprise at all levels within the respective provisions of the credit limit may be granted. Hierarchical management system that is conducive to business at a reasonable credit limits, credit limits businesses to deal with the implementation of regular inspection and analysis, to ensure that the credit limit of safety and reasonable. Credit standards in the process, through comprehensive analysis, to find out will not affect the sales will not increase the risk of the optimal point of balance. Credit terms including credit terms and cash discounts, to extend the credit period to be appropriate to expand sales, but it can also result in accounts receivable to increase the opportunity cost of occupancy, at the same time increase the risk of bad debt losses. Enterprises to deal with different clients in credit and making necessary adjustments so that it has always been able to keep the scope of enterpriseInside. Business units in determining the credit terms and credit limit of credit before the credit must be made to understand and carry out the assessment, given the appropriate credit standards, thus the effective control of accounts receivable. Credit analysis from the quality of enterprises, capital, capacity, collateral and credit situation in these five cases are analyzed.(B)Accounts receivable risk control thingsFinancial sector client money received should be recorded or made such an inquiryprocedure, it is necessary to control the contract and customer requirements to issue bills of lading, and sent to transport personnel or customer receipt, the transport sector should be organized according to the bill of lading shipments, and to ensure that the specifications of the goods, model, the number is correct, should be based on bills of lading after delivery to customers, such as timely invoicing, payment settlement process. Contracts should be standardized, in line with the requirements of contract law, the subject of the contract, the quantity, quality, delivery time, delivery location, payment method and careful assessment of liability for breach of contract and decide whether to accept the orders, thereby enabling business conduct standardized and refinement. As far as possible, enterprises should use their own settlement in a favorable settlement and advanced means to return the funds to accelerate and shorten the time in-transit funds.(C)the risk of accounts receivable after the controlControl of accounts receivable, including credit contract after the expiration of the recovery of funds control and funds due to various reasons could not be recovered due to the formation of bad debts and losses. Business enterprises through the establishment of accounts receivable management information system, credit process from beginning to the accounts receivable due date ofFollow-up supervision of clients to ensure that customers normally pay the purchase price, minimizing the incidence of overdue accounts. Accounts receivable tracking service, to maintain good relations with customers, but also allows customers to feel the pressure of creditors, greatly improve the recovery of accounts receivable. Maintained through regular contact with customers to remind them of their payment due date can also be found in the packaging of goods, quality, transport, and billing problems and disputes in a timely manner to make the appropriate decision-making.Arising from the sale of customer accounts receivable management has become a fund management business, money management, an important part. For enterprises to implement high-quality accounts receivable asset securitization, the lack of liquidity of enterprises, but can produce a stable predictable cash flows of assets, asset structure through the integration and separation of the assets of credit in order to guarantee some assets, controlled by the trustee issued a special ad hoc bodies, in thecapital market. The use of legal means to defend corporate interests.Enterprise can be entrusted to professional accounts receivable accounts receivable recovery companies, large and medium-sized enterprises, if a larger amount of accounts receivable, accounts receivable can be entrusted to the company for recycling. Professional callable receivables in the amount of comparative advantage, to a certain extent, reduce accounts receivable to invest in financial译文应收账款管理随着企业的发展，应收账款逐渐增多，资金成本不断上升，而企业为扩大市场占有率，降低了赊销商品或提供劳务服务的信用评定，以获取更多的商业渠道、扩大销售份额。
应收账款【外文翻译】
外文文献翻译一、外文原文原文：Accounts Receivable IssuesFor many companies, the accounts receivable portfolio is its largest asset. Thus, it deserves special care and attention. Effective handling of the portfolio can add to the bottom line, while neglect can cost companies in unseen losses.Accounts Receivable Strategies to Energize the Bottom LineDon’t be surprised to find the big shots from finance suddenly looking over your shoulder questioning the ways your credit department operates. Accounts receivable has become the darling of those executives desperate to optimize working capital and improve their balance sheet.Here’s a roundup of some of the tactics that have been collected from the best credit managers to squeeze every last cent out of their accounts receivable portfolio: ·Have invoices printed and mailed as quickly as possible. Most customers start the clock ticking when the invoice arrives in their offices. The sooner you can get the invoice to them, the sooner they will pay you. While this strategy will not affect days sales outstanding(DSO),it will improve the bottom line.·Look for ways to improve invoice accuracy without delaying the mail date.·Offer more stringent terms where appropriate in your annual credit reviews and with new customers. Consider whether shorter terms might be better for you company.·Offer financial inducements to customers who agree to pay your invoices electronically.·If you have not had a lockbox study performed in the last few years, have one done to determine your optimal lockbox location.·With customers who have a history of paying late, begin your collection effortsbefore the due date. Call to inquire whether they have the invoice and if everything is in order. Resolve any problems quickly at this point.·If you have been giving a grace period to those taking discounts after the discount period, reduce or eliminate it.·Resolve all discrepancies quickly so payment can be made promptly.·If a customer indicates it has a problem with part of an invoice, authorize partial payments.·Keep a log of customer problems and analyze it once a month to discover weaknesses in your procedures that cause these quandaries.·Apply cash the same day the payment is received. Collectors can then spend their time with customers who have not paid rather than annoying ones who have already sent their payment.·Deal with a bank that makes lockbox information available immediately by fax, or preferably, online. Then when a customer claims it has made a payment , the collector will be able to verify this.·Look into ways to accept P-cards from customers placing small orders and those who cannot be extended credit on open account terms.·Benchmark department and individual collectors’ performance to pinpoint those areas and individuals in need of additional training.Review your own policies and procedures to determine if there are any areas that could be tweaked to improve cash flow. Then, when the call comes from executive quarters, you will be ready, and they will be hard pressed to find ways that you fell down on the job.Dealing with Purchase OrdersLeading credit managers have learned to pay attention to the purchase orders that their companies receive. Specifically, they want to ensure that the purchase order accepted by the salesperson does not include clause that will ultimately cause trouble for their companies, or even legal difficulties later on. Realistically, the salesperson should have caught the problem, but he or she rarely does. When the customer doesn’tpay due to one of these techn icalities, it’s not the salesperson who will get blamed.To help avoid a purchase order disaster, credit professionals can take the following steps:1．Simply read the purchase order. Vendors often slip clauses into purchase orders that you would never agree to. One favorite is to include a statementsaying the seller will be paid as soon as its customer pays the buyer. This is arisk few companies are willing to tolerate.2．Prioritize attachments. Typically, buyers write purchase orders that contain attachments. These include drawings, specifications, supplementary termsand conditions for work done on company premises, or safety rules for thesupplier.When including attachments, it is recommended that one of them be a listof priorities to guard against any inconsistencies in the documents. Thepurchase order should “clearly reference all the attachments, and there shouldbe a recitation as to which attachments are controlling over the others.” In theevent of any inconsistency between or among these documents, the purchaseorder shall be controlling over any attachments, and the attachments shall beinterpreted using the priority listed.3．Take care when reference is made to a buyer’s documents in the purchase order. There are likely to be both helpful and harmful statements in thosedocuments that reference the buyer’s material. The buyer may have printedits own terms and conditions on the back of a document. By referring to thedocument in the purchase order, you may inadvertently refer not only to theprice, but also to terms and conditions, which may include warrantydisclaimers and limitations of remedies that your company does not intend togive.Instead, the recommendation is not to refer to the buyers’ documents.Insist that the information is specified in the purchase order. If this is notpractical, the following language might work:” Any reference to thepurchaser’s quotation contained in this purchase order is a reference forconvenience only, and no such reference shall be deemed to include any ofthe purchaser’s standard terms and conditions of sale. The seller expresslyrejects anything in any of the buyer’s documents that is inconsistent with theseller’s standard terms and conditions.”Another favorite is to include terms and conditions on the back of thepurchase order written in very small print and a pale (almost undecipherable)color.4．Be careful of confirming purchase orders. Often, buyers will place orders via telephone, only to later confirm them with a written purchase order. In oralcontracts, the buyer will often want the purchase order to be more than justan offer. Therefore, the buyer will try to show on the purchase order that it isa confirming purchase order and cement the oral contract made over thephone. If the buyer does so, the confirming purchase order will satisfy theUniform Commerical Code (UCC) requirement of a written confirmationunless the other side objects to it within ten days.More than one cunning purchaser has slipped terms into a confirmingpurchase order that were nothing like those agreed to orally. Don’t fall intothe trap of assuming that the confirming purchase order confirms what wasactually said on the phone.Credit professionals who take these few extra steps with regard to purchase orders will limit their troubles.Quality of Accounts Receivable: Days Sales OutstandingMany credit professionals are measured on their effectiveness by reviewing the accounts receivable portfolio. The most common measurement is the length of time a sale stays outstanding before being paid. The Credit Research Foundation (CRF) defines DSO as the average time in days that receivables are outstanding. It helps determine if a change in receivables is due to a change in sales, or to another factor such as a change in selling terms. An analyst might compare the day’s sales in receivables with the company’s credit terms as an indication of how efficiently thecompany manages its receivables. Days sales outstanding is occasionally referred to as days receivable outstanding, as well. The formula to calculate DSO is:365e Re Sales t N Annual ceivablesGrossQuality of Accounts Receivable: Collection Effectiveness IndexSome feel that the quality of the portfolio is dependent to a large extent on the efforts of the collection staff. This is measured by the collection effectiveness index (CEI). The CRF says this percentage expresses the effectiveness of collection efforts over time. The closer to 100% the ratio gets, the more effective the collection effort. It is a measure of the quality of collection of receivables, not of time. Here’s the formula to calculate the CEI:Daysor Months of Number N ceivables Current Ending N Sales Credit ceivables Beginning ceivablesTotal Ending N Sales Credit ceivables Beginning =⨯-+-+100Re )(Re Re )(ReQuality of Accounts Receivable: Best Possible Days Sales OutstandingMany credit professionals find fault with using DSO to measure theirperformance. They feel that a better measure is one based on average terms based on customer payment patterns. The CRF says that this figure expresses the best possible level of receivables. The CRF believes this measure should be used together with DSO. The closer the overall DSO is to the average terms based on customer payment patterns (best possible DSO [BPDSO])，the closer the receivables are to the optimal level. The formula for calculating BPDSO is:AnalyzedPeriod for Sales Credit Analyzed Period in Days of Number ceivables Current ⨯ReBad-Debt ReservesInevitably, no matter how good the credit professional, a company will have a customer that does not pay its debts. Most companies understand that bad debts are simply part of doing business and reserve for bad debts. In fact, many believe that acompany with no bad debts is not doing a good job. The reason that being that if the company loosened its credit terms slightly, the company would greatly increase its sales and, even after accounting for the bad debts, its profits. Thus, most companies plan for bad debt, monitor it, and periodically, depending on the company’s outlook, revise projections and credit policy to allow for an increase or decrease.For example, as the economy goes into a recession, most companies will experience an increase in bad debts if their credit policy remains static. So, in light of declining economic conditions, companies should either increase their bad-debt reserves or tighten the credit policy. Similarly, if the economy is improving, a company would take reverse actions, either decreasing the reserve for bad debts or loosening the credit policy.Many companies take advantage or a favorable economy to expand their customer base. They might simultaneously increase the bad-debt reserve and loosen credit policy. Obviously, these decisions are typically made at a fairly high level. Other factors will also come into play in establishing a bad-debt reserve. Industry conditions are key and can often be quite different than the state of the economy. This is especially true when competition comes from foreign markets.There is no one set way to calculate the reserve for bad debts. Many simply take a percentage of sales or outstanding accounts receivable, or they make some other relatively uncomplicated calculation.How to Reduce Your Bad-Debt Write-OffsMost credit and collection professionals would love to be able to brag about having no bad-debt write-offs. Few can. While a goal of reducing the amount of bad debt write-offs to zero might be unrealistic in most industries, keeping that number as low as possible is something within the control of today’s credit managers. The following seven techniques will help you keep your numbers as low as possible:1.Call early. Don’t wait until the ac count goes 30 or even 60 days past duebefore calling customers about late payments. Such delays can mean that, in the case of a financially unstable company, a second and perhaps even a thirdshipment will be made to a customer who ultimately will pay for naught. Some professionals even call a few days before the payment is due to ensure that everything is in order and the customer has everything it needs to make a timely payment. By beginning your calling campaign as early as possible, it is possible o uncover shaky situations. Even if payment is not received for the first delivery, future order are not accepted, effectively reducing bad-debt write-offs.municate, communicate, communicate. Keep the dialogue open with everyone involved. This not only includes your customers, but the sales force as well. In many cases, they are in a better position than the credit manager to know when a customer is on thin ice. With good lines of communication between sales and credit, it is possible to avoid taking some of those orders that will ultimately have to be written off.3.Follow up, follow up, follow up. Continual follow up with customers is important, whether you’re trying to collect on a timely basis or attempting to avoid a bad-debt write-off. If the customer knows you will call every few days or will be calling to track the status of promises made, it is much more likely to pay. This can also be the case of the squeaky wheel getting the grease, or in this case the money, when cash is tight.4.Systematize. Many collection professionals keep track of promises and deadlines by hand, on a pad or calendar. Items tend to fall through the cracks with this approach. Invest some money either in prepackaged software or in developing your own in-house, and the likelihood of losing track of customers diminishes. Some accounting programs have a tracking capability that many have not taken the time to learn. If your software has such a facility, use it.5.Specialize. Set up a group of one or more individuals who do nothing but try to collect receivables that are overdue. By having experts on staff to handle such work, you will improve your collection rate and speed.6.Credit hold. Putting customers on credit hole early in the picture will sometimes entice a payment from someone who really had no intention of paying you. This technique is particularly effective with customers who rely heavily onyour product and would be hard put to get it elsewhere. Of course, if you sell something that many other vendors sell as well, putting a potentially good customer on hold could backfire.7.Small claims court. Some credit professionals have had great success incollecting smaller amounts by taking the customer to small claims court. The limits for such actions vary by state but can be as high as $10,000.While these techniques will not necessarily squeeze money from a bankrupt client, they will help you get as much as possible as soon as possible from as many of your customers as possible. This can be especially important in avoiding preference actions with clients who eventually do file. The quicker you get the clock ticking, the more likely you are to be able to avoid preference claims.Source: Mary S. Schaeffer, 2002, Essentials of Credit, Collections, and Accounts Receivable, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.( October 01, 2002 ):pp81-102.二、翻译文章译文：应收账款对许多公司来说，应收账款是其最大的资产。
应收账款管理外文文献翻译
文献出处：Kontuš E. MANAGEMENT OF ACCOUNTS RECEIV ABLE IN A COMPANY[J]. Ekonomska misao i praksa, 2013 (1): 21-38.原文MANAGEMENT OF ACCOUNTS RECEIV MANAGEMENT OF ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE ABLEIN A COMPANYUDK / UDC: 657.422:658.155JEL klasifikacija / JEL classification: G32, D29, M41Prethodno pri Prethodno priopćenje / Preliminary communication općenje / Preliminary communicationPrimljeno / Received: 8. listopada 2012. / October 8, 2012Prihvaćeno za tisak / Accepted for publishing: 10. lipnja 2013. / June 10, 20131. INTRODUCTIONAccounts receivable is the money owed to a company as a result of having sold its products to customers on credit. The primary determinants of the company's investment in accounts receivable are the industry, the level of total sales along with the company's credit and the collection policies.Accounts receivable management includes establishing a credit and collections policy.Credit policy consists of four variables: credit period, discounts given for early payment, credit standards and collection policy. The three primary issues in accounts receivable management are to whom credit should be extended, the terms of the creditand the procedure that should be used to collect the money.The major decision regarding accounts receivable is the determination of the amount and terms of credit to extend to customers. The total amount of accounts receivable outstanding at any given time is determined by two factors: the volume of credit sales and the average length of time between sales and collections. The credit terms offered have a direct bearing on the associated costs and revenue to be generated from receivables. If credit terms are tight, there will be less of an investment in accounts receivable and fewer bad debt losses, but there will also be lower sales and reduced profits.We hypothesize that by applying scientifically-based accounts receivable management and by establishing a credit policy that results in the highest net earnings, companies can earn a satisfactory profit as well as a return on investment.The purpose of this study is to determine ways of finding an optimal accounts receivable level along with making optimum use of different credit policies in order to achieve a maximum return at an acceptable level of risk. In striving to fill in the gaps relating to net savings from changes in credit policy, the study makes its owncontribution to research and thereby to managers by giving them general recommendation. With the aim of completing these gaps, the study will investigate accounts receivables, their management and explore costs and benefits from changes in credit policy as well as net profitability.When a company is considering changes in its credit policy in order to improveits income, incremental profitability must be compared with the cost of discount andthe opportunity cost associated with higher investment in accounts receivable.The outcome represents a new mathematical model for calculating net savings from changes in credit policy and with this model a company can consider different credit policies as well as changes in credit policy in order to improve its income and profitability.2. LITERATURE REVIEW2.1. Accounts receivable managementAccounts receivable represents a sizable percentage of most firms' assets. Investments in accounts receivable, particularly for manufacturing companies, represent a significant part of short-term financial management. Firms typically sell goods and services on both cash and a credit basis. Firms would rather sell for cash than on credit, but competitive pressures force most firms to offer credit. The extension of trade credit leads to the establishment of accounts receivable. Receivables represent credit sales that have not been collected. As the customers pay these accounts, the firm receives the cash associated with the original sale. If the customer does not pay an account, a bad debt loss is incurred1.When a credit sale is made, the following events occur: inventories are reduced by the cost of goods sold, accounts receivable are increased by the sales price, and the difference is profit, which is added to retained earnings. If the sale is for cash, then the cash from the sale has actually been received by the firm, but if the sale is on credit, the firm will not receive the cash from the sale unless and until the account iscollected. Carrying receivable has both direct and indirect costs, but it also has an important benefit-increased sales.According to Chambers and Lacey there are three primary issues in the management of accounts receivable: to whom to extend credit, what the terms of the credit should be, and what procedure should be used to collect the money. Extending credit should be based upon a comparison of costs and benefits. The analysis must build in uncertainty because we are uncertain of future payment, and we will handle this by computing the expected costs and expected benefits through payment probabilities. The potential cost of extending credit is that the customer will not pay. Although there is a temptation to compute this cost as the full price of the product, it is almost always more appropriate to use the actual cost of the product. The potential benefit of extending credit is not just the hope for profit on the one transaction; rather, it is the potential value of the customer for a long-term relationship.The decision of how much credit to offer must be made when the customer initially requests credit and when the customer requests additional credit. The fundamental principle that guides financial decisions can be used: marginal benefitversus marginal cost. The marginal cost is the additional potential lost costs of the product. The costs of past uncollected sales are sunk costs and should not be included as a marginal costs. The marginal benefits are the potential sales and interest revenues – including the potential to recover past sales that remain uncollected.Once the decision to grant credit has been made, the firm must establish theterms of the credit. Credit terms are often separated into two parts: the credit periodand the credit discount.Collection of accounts receivable is an important process for a corporation and requires a well-designed and well-implemented policy. One technique is the factoring of accounts receivables. In a typical factoring arrangement, one firm will sell their accounts receivable outright to another firm for an agreed-upon price. There ia usually no recourse in such transactions, such that the buyer (also known as the factor) takes the loss if the purchaser of the goods does not ultimately pay for them.Another technique to expedite the receipt of accounts receivable is to utilize lock boxes. Lock boxes are payment collection locations spread geographically so as to reduce the amount of time required for checks mailed to the firm to be deposited and cleared. The lock boxes are typically post office box addresses from which deposits go directly to a bank on the day of receipt. The reduction of mailing time and check clearing time for the banks can produce significant savings when large sums of money are involved.Payments of accounts receivable should be closely monitored to detect potential problems such as would be indicated by slow payments. Following up on slow-payingcustomers is an important function of the credit department. Procedures should be carefully developed and consistently implemented.The major decision regarding accounts receivable is the determination of theamount and terms of credit to extend to customers. The total amount of accountsreceivable is determined by two factors: the volume of credit sales and the averagelength of time between sales and collections. The credit terms offered have a directbearing on the associated costs and revenue to be generated from receivables.In evaluating a potential customer’s ability to pay, consideration should be given to the firm’s integri integrity, ty, financial soundness, collateral to be pledged, and current economic conditions. A customer’s credit soundness may be evaluated through quantitative techniques such as regression analysis. Bad debt losses can be estimated reliably when a company sells to many customers and when its credit policies have not changed for a long period of time. In managing accounts receivable, the following procedures are recommended:• establish a credit policy• establish a policy concerning billing• establish a policy • establish a policy concerning collection. concerning collection.The establishment of a credit policy can include the following activities:• A detailed review of a potential customer’s soundness should be made prior to extending credit. Procedures such as a careful review of the customer’s fin financial ancial statements and credit rating, as well as a review of financial service reports are common.• As customer financial health changes, credit limit should be revised.• Marketing factors must be noted since an excessively restricted credit policy will lead to lost sales.• The policy is financially appropriate when the return on the additional sales plus the lowering in inventory costs is greater than the incremental cost associated with the additional investment in accounts receivable.The following procedures are recommended in establishing a policy concerning billing:• Customer statements should be sent within 1 day subsequent to the close of the period.• Large sales should be billed immediately.• Customers should be invoiced for goods when t he order is processed rather than when it is shipped.• Billing for services should be done on an interim basis or immediately prior to the actual services. The billing process will be more uniform if cycle billing is employed.• The use of seasonal dating’s should be considered.In establishing a policy concerning collection the following procedures should be used:• Accounts receivable should be aged in order to identify delinquent and high-risk customers. The aging should be compared to industry norms.• Collection efforts should be undertaken at the very first sign of customerfinancial unsoundness6.2.2. Managing the credit policyThe success or failure of a business depends primarily on the demand for itsproducts.The major determinants of demand are sales prices, product quality, advertising,and the company’s credit policy. The financial manager is responsible for administering the company’s credit policy. Receivables management begins with the credit policy. Credit policy consists of four major components: credit standards, credit terms, the credit limit and collection procedures.Credit standards refer to the required financial strength of acceptable credit customers.Based on financial analysis and non financial data, the credit analyst determines whether each credit applicant exceeds the credit standard and thus qualifies for credit. Lower credit standards boost sales, but also increase bad debts. The minimum standards a customer must meet to be extended credit are: character, capital, capacity, conditions and collateral.The credit period, stipulating how long from the invoice the customer has to pay, and the cash discount together comprise the seller’s credit terms. A company’s credit terms are usually very similar to that of other companies in its industry7.Discounts given for early payment include the discount percentage and how rapidly payment must be made to qualify for the discount.If credit is extended, the dollar amount that cumulative credit purchases cantomer constitutes that customer’s credit limit. The customer reach for a given cuscustomerperiodically pays for credit purchases, freeing up that amount of the credit limit for further orders. The two primary determinants of the amount of a customer’s credit limit are requirements for the supplier’s products and the ability of the customer to pay its debts. The latter factor is based primarily on the customer’s recent paymentrecord with the seller and others and a review and analysis of the customer’s most recent financial statements8Detailed statements regarding when and how the company will carry out collection of past-collection of past-due accounts make up the company’s collection procedures. These due accounts make up the company’s collection procedures. These policies specify how long the company will wait past the due date to initiate collection efforts, the methods of contact with delinquent customers, and whether and at what point accounts will be referred to an outside collection agency9.Collection policy is measured by its toughness or laxity in attempting to collect on slow-paying accounts. A tough policy may speed up collections, by it might also anger customers, causing them to take their business elsewhere10A firm may liberalize its credit policy by extanding full credit to presently limited credit customers or to non-credit customers. Full credit should be given only if net profitability occurs. A financial manager has to compare the earnings on sales obtained to the added cost of the receivables. The additional earnings represent the contribution margin on the incremental sales because fixed costs are constant. The additional costs on the additional receivables result from the greater number of bad debts and the opportunity cost of tying up funds in receivables for a longer time period.If a firm considers offering credit to customers with a higher-than-normal risk rating, the profitability on additional sales generated must be compared with the amount of additional bad debts expected, higher investing and collection costs, and the opportunity cost of tying up funds in receivables for a longer period of time. Whenidle capacity exists, the additional profitability represents the incremental contribution margin (sales less variable costs) since fixed costs remain the same.译文公司应收账款的管理埃莉奥诺拉克罗地亚预算和财务部门经理1.引言应收账款是指由于企业将其产品销售给客户而应向购买单位收取的款项。
应收账款外文文献
【keywords】receivables; The provision for; Management risk
Accounts receivable is the enterprise is an important, the risk is bigger liquid assets, its quality is good or bad for a business often has had a significant impact. These long-term difficult to recover the accounts receivable existence, seriously affected the enterprise. The normal production and business enterprise management costs, increased to different extent some enterprise into a financial crisis.
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文献出处：Michalski G. The Study of Accounts receivable risk management [J]. International Review of Business Research Papers, 2014 (68): 83-96.（声明：本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库。
）原文The Study of Accounts receivable risk managementMichalski G.AbstractIn the fierce market competition, enterprises in order to obtain a competitive advantage, in addition to relying on product，price, advertising and other means, basically use credit to credit as the foundation of this marketing means. The development of credit, to a certain extent, to expand the company's market share, improves the competitiveness of enterprises, but on the other hand, the formation of a large number of accounts receivable. Due to the factors of customer, market and many other aspects of existence, accounts receivable is easy to form a bad and doubtful debt. Once the bad and doubtful debts too much，would seriously endanger the development of the enterprise, and even lead to bankruptcy. Therefore, enterprises in the positive use of credit this marketing means to expand market share, we must strengthen the management of accounts receivable using a variety of measures, to reduce the risk of accounts receivable, in order to avoid business dilemma to expand credit and difficult to collect the payment. Under this background, the research of enterprise accounts receivable risk management has a very important significance to reduce enterprise accounts receivable risk.Key words: Accounts receivable; Risk management; Credit management1 IntroductionEnterprise in order to expand product sales, increase product sales, more or less, there are certain goods sell on credit, goods sell on credit is formed the account receivable, thereby increasing the risk of enterprise operation. Therefore, the enterprise must take practical measures, formulate rational and effective managementmethods, such as accounts receivable beforehand prevention, supervision and recycling management, to ensure the reasonable occupied level of accounts receivable and payment security, as far as possible to reduce bad debt losses, reduce business risk. In order to strengthen the management of accounts receivable risk, to revitalize the enterprise funds, increase the risk resistance ability of the enterprise. Through effective management, can guarantee the enterprise production and management normalization, reduce unnecessary financial expenses keep enough cash flow, can be more flexible to respond to market changes, increase the ability to resist risks of enterprises in the market, to better control the market.2 Problems need to be solved2.1Internal control department responsibilities chaos. Internal control system refers to the unit in order to ensure that business activities orderly, ensure the safety and integrity of the assets, prevent fraud, and fraud, and realize the goal of management and develop and implement a series of has the control function of the methods, measures and procedures. In the era of the socialist market economy, the enterprise accounts receivable risks mainly because of the internal system, one-sided pursuit of profit, did not establish the sustained development strategy, lack of communication between sales department and finance department, not assign special personnel to pursue of accounts receivable, no accounts receivable inventory system is established.2.2 Sales staff lack of professional ethics. Some salesman wanted to get rich without considering corporate interests, only to complete performance when selling products, not to take to the customer management by objectives, the lack of effective planning, after the occurrence of credit to the customer pledge no tracking or lack of tracking, collection of easily accept the customer the reason and finish the receivable task. Lack of complete sales idea, don't think the recovery of payment is a part of sales. These behaviors can't provide accurate market information, for the company to mislead the company decision, reduce the company's economic benefit, resulting in enterprise receivables cost increase.2.3 lack of advanced analysis of the accounts receivable risk degree. Enterprise musthave a large number of sales of goods, in order to survive must withdraw the payment at the same time, only in this way can enterprises healthy development, but sometimes in order to expand sales of enterprises by credit, also can produce a large number of accounts receivable, accounts receivable increase directly affect the enterprise's short-term debt paying ability and cash flow. To this, the enterprise must according to the customer in reimbursement dynamics of accounts receivable risk rating, see which companies can return on time, which don't, take action on their payments, in advance to avoid the loss.2.4 Credit management system is not perfect.At present our country has just started to establish the system of credit management, credit management system is almost blank, credit management units are mainly limited to the banking, securities and other financial institutions, enterprises are few. Enterprise is mostly blind credit policy, the result is looser credit policy, easy cause credit long maturity and high cash discount, low credit standards. At the same time, the social credit consciousness is weak, many enterprises do not value their own credit, malicious delinquency, form a vicious circle, causes the credit crisis.3 How to deal with the enterprise accounts receivable risk3.1 Improve accounts receivable internal control system.Set up a perfect credit management, to manage customer credit, to the customer for effective risk management, the purpose is to predict in advance to reduce losses. Understand the customer's credit situation, establish credit files for customers according to collect information for dynamic management. Enterprise financial department should regularly take back, aging of accounts receivable, cost, and so on and so forth, should use the ratio in the analysis, comparison, trend, analysis methods, such as the structure analysis of overdue loans bad debt risk and the impact on the financial condition, to determine bad treatment and the current credit policy. Check the implementation of internal control system, internal audit department to check whether there are accounts receivable cannot be brought back, check whether there is any major mistakes, dereliction of duty on staff, internal fraud, deliberately not withdraw accounts, etc., to ensure the recovery of accounts receivable. Sales department shall establish a perfectmarketing system, and constantly improve the level of sales personnel's professional ethics, strengthen the performance, not to sell, while ignoring the potential risk of receivables.3.2 Perfect sales staff appraisal method. An enterprise to keep accounts receivable is not high, we must strengthen the enterprise staff risk awareness, the operator is the soul of enterprise management and sales personnel, is the direct way to create sales revenue, if in this link problems, will affect the healthy development of the enterprise, the enterprise should enhance the propaganda work for employees, increasing reward, make employees to realize enterprise management state is closely connected with employees, earnestly, completes the labor of duty, improve enterprise economic benefits. Set up payment for goods collection appraisal system.In order to prevent sales staff one-sided pursuit of sales and sales, enterprises should make payment for goods inspection rewards and punishment system, such as accounts receivable, bad debt loss rate index, carries on the inspection of relevant staff, in order to determine the rewards and punishments.3.3 Strengthen the advanced analysis of accounts receivable risk degree. Accounts receivable risk analysis for an enterprise to correct forecast development trend of accounts receivable is very important, is advantageous to the accounts receivable back on time, reduce bad debt losses, therefore the enterprise accounts receivable, enterprises should take various measures to strive for timely recovery of funds, to not withdraw money, should do a good job in the accounts receivable risk degree analysis, when it is necessary to take certain measures, in order to reduce the risk of accounts receivable. In this use ABC classification management of inventory management, to talk about how to analyze the degree of accounts receivable risk.3.4 Enhance the management of enterprise credit system. In order to strengthen the management of accounts receivable, formulate an effective accounts receivable credit policy, not only can save funds advance expenditure, reduce bad debt losses, but also can expand sales, improve the economic benefits of enterprises. Establish customer credit evaluation system, risk aversion. Customer credit evaluation system is carried out on the customer credit evaluation, according to the evaluation results toidentify which customers can give commercial credit, which you can't, control the accounts receivable risk. When the customer credit evaluation, from the two aspects of qualitative and quantitative analysis.Qualitative analysis - credit standards. Qualitative analysis is a kind of credit standards, credit standard is to provide business credit, and minimum requirements, establish standard of credit is the key to consider customer delay the payment, or refuse to pay the payment to the company the possibility of damage. The determination of credit standards, mainly according to the actual situation of enterprises, market competition situation and the customer's credit situation to decide. Enterprises in determining the credit standards to do comprehensive problem. Typically companies can use a standard, in order to measure and compare the customer's credit standing. In addition, the company is necessary to conduct regular customer credit quality inspection and evaluation analysis. We can through to the customer's quality, ability, capital, collateral, makes an analysis of the operating environment, etc, this evaluation method is commonly referred to as 5 c system evaluation method, the system is an important factor to evaluate customers' credit quality.Quantitative analysis --, credit conditions. Quantitative analysis is, in fact, a kind of credit conditions. Credit conditions refers to the enterprise for customer credit payment, including credit term, discount and cash discount, is the customer credit quantitative, according to the quantitative index to evaluate the customer credit risk prevention. Customer credit index quantitative process is first calculated can reflect customer debt paying ability and financial status of the main indexes. These indicators including asset-liability ratio, current ratio, quick ratio, equity ratio, etc., and then reflect the quantitative indicators of customer credit compared with normal indicators divided customers into several categories, and different for different categories of customer credit policy, in order to avoid the blindness of sell on credit.3.5 Intensify receivables collection and cash. Accounts receivable collection is in the customer without payment within the prescribed time limit, after the occurrence of accounts receivable, various measures should be taken, as far as possible the paymentfor goods timely recovery. For overdue accounts receivable, should according to its default time, amount to carry on the analysis, collection measures according to the circumstance, collection measures: 5 days late, a first letter again, we call each other asked, head of the situation and understand their attitude, know the reason why the customer can't pay;30 days overdue, it issued a second again, and immediately stop supply again on the phone, cancel the credit limit and credited to corporate customers credit list; Exceed the time limit of 60 days, the third seal again letter, if possible for customers to visit; Overdue 90 days, a fourth letter again letter, consulting professional institutions, the debt to asset survey;180 days overdue, consider litigation or arbitration. In order to guarantee the normal business activities of enterprises, improve enterprise economic benefits, we should reasonable use of accounts receivable, cash for accounts receivable. Enterprises can use accounts receivable to loan, do so on the one hand, reduce the accounts receivable too much, can get a bank loan at the same time, for the enterprise development, enterprises can also be discounted receivables into commercial paper, use of bill financing, reduce the cost of the loan, enterprises can also use accounts receivable factoring financing. Therefore, when the accounts receivable too much, the enterprise should enhance the cash accounts receivable, reduce the loss.4 ConclusionsAccounts receivable is not merely a kind of credit risk management after the event, but a continuous space on a full time complete process. Should be a process and a full range of management process, is a kind of management thought. Comprehensive reflected in accounts receivable management is not only sales department and finance department's affairs, but the collection of the sales department, finance department, accounting department and legal department affairs and the power of the internal audit department. This paper to prevent and dissolve all kinds of accounts receivable risk, lists the concrete methods of the various measures, some may be in domestic has not implemented, but believe as companies stepped up on accounts receivable risk management, continuous improvement of the primary market, the improvement of domestic credit environment, accounts receivable risk will begreatly reduced. Account of the risk management in the developing process of hard to avoid can appear some new problems, which has yet to be further solved译文应收账款风险管理米科斯基摘要在激烈的市场竞争中，企业为了获取竞争优势，除了依靠产品、价格、广告等手段之外，基本上都釆用了以信用为基础的赊销这一营销手段。