2006 参考英文文献
(一)本刊2006年收录的国内外文献源一览表
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维普资讯
熔 接 学 会 志 溶 接技 衍
日本横械学会志 日本接着协会志
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石 川 岛 播 磨 技 鞭 檄 械技 术
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中 国锅 炉 压 力 容 器 安 全
北 京 航 空航 天大 学学 报 南京工业大学学报（ 自然 科 学 版 ）
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英语论文参考文献精选3篇
英语论文参考文献精选3篇英语论文参考文献精选1篇英文及其它语种的文献在前，中文文献在后，参照以下标准执行。
期刊论文Bolinger, D. 1965. The atomization of word meaning [J]. Language 41 (4): 555-573.朱永生，2006，名词化、动词化与语法隐喻[J]，《外语教学与研究》(2)：83-90。
论文集论文Bybee, J. 1994. The grammaticization of zero: Asymmetries in tense and aspect systems [A]. In W. Pagliuca (ed.). Perspectives on Grammaticalization [C]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 235-254.文秋芳，2003a，英语学习者动机、观念、策略的变化规律与特点 [A]。
载文秋芳、王立非(编)，《英语学习策略实证研究》[C]。
西安：陕西师范大学出版社。
255-259。
网上文献Jiang, Yan. 2000. The Tao of verbal communication: An Elementary textbook on pragmatics and discourse analysis [OL]. (accessed 30/04/2006).王岳川，2004，当代传媒中的网络文化与电视批评[OL]， (2005年11月18日读取)。
专著Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language [M]. New York: Holt.吕叔湘、朱德熙，1952，《语法修辞讲话》[M]。
北京：中国青年出版社。
译著Nedjalkov, V. P. (ed.). 1983/1988. Typology of Resultative Constructions, trans. Bernard Comrie [C]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.赵元任，1968/1980，《中国话的文法》(A Grammar of Spoken Chinese)[M]，丁邦新译。
英文论文参考文献
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2006年经济学家英文原版
Digest Of The. Economist. 2006(4-5)Hot to trotA new serv ice hop es to do for texting what Skype did for voice callsTALK is cheap—particularly since the appearance of voice-over-internet se rvices such as Skype. Such services, which make possible very cheap (or even free) calls by rou ting part or all of each call over the interne t, have forced traditional telecoms firms to cut their prices. And now the same thing could be about to happen to mobilephone text mess ages, following the launch this week of Hotxt, a Britis h start-up.Users download the Hotxt software to their handsets, just as they would a game or a ringtone. They choose a user name, and can then exchange as many messages as they like with other Hotxt users for £1 ($1.75) per week. The messages are sent as data packe ts across the internet, rather than being rou ted through operators' textmessaging infras tructu re. As a resul t, users pay only a tiny data-transport charge, typically of a penny or so per mess age. Since text messages typically cost 10p, this is a big saving—particula rly for the cost-conscious teenagers at whom the service is aimed.Most teenagers in Britain, and elsewhere in Europe, pay for their mobile phones on a “pre-paid” basis, rather than having a monthly contract with a regular bill. Pre-paid tariffs are far more expensive: bu ndles of free texts and other special deals, which can reduce the cost of text messaging, are generally not available. For a teenager who sends seven messages a day, Hotxt can cut the cost of texting by 75%, saving £210 per year, sa ys Doug Richard, the firm's co-fou nder. For really intensi ve text-messagers, the savings could be even bigger: Josh Dhaliwal of mobileYouth, a market-research firm, says that some teenagers—chiefly boys aged 15-16 and girls aged 14-15— are “supertexters” who send as many as 50 mess ages per day.While this sounds like good news for users, it could prove painful for mobile operators. Text-mess aging accou nts for around 20% of a typical operator's revenues. With margi ns on text messages in excess of 90%, texting also accou nts for nearly half of an operator's profits. Mr Ri chard is confident that there is no legal way that operators can block his service; they could raisedata-transport costs, but that w ould undermine their own efforts to pus h new services. Hotxt plans to launch in other cou ntries soon.“The challenge is getting that initial momentu m,” says Mr Dhaliwal. Hotxt needs to persuade people to sign up, so that they will persuade their friends to sign up, and so on. Unlike Skype, Hotxt is not free, so users may be less inclined to give it a try. Bu t as Skype has also shown, once a disru ptive, low-cost communications service starts to spread, it can quickly become very big indeed. And that in turn can lead to lower prices, not jus t for its users, bu t for everyone.A discerning viewA new way of processing X-rays gives much clear er imagesX-RAYS are the mysterious phenomenon for which Wilhelm Röntge n was awarded the first Nobel prize in physics, in 1901. Since then, they have shed their mystery and found widespread use in medici ne and industry, where they are used to revealthe inner properties of solid b odies.Some properties, however, are more easily discerned than others. Conventional Xray imagi ng relies on the fact that different materials abs orb the radia tion to different deg rees. In a medical context, for example, bones absorb X-rays readily, and so show up white on an X-radiograph, which is a photog raphic neg ative. But Xrays are less g ood at discriminating between different forms of soft tissue, such as muscles, tend ons, fat and blood vessels. That, however, could soon change. For Franz Pfeiffer of the Paul Scherrer Institu te in Villigen, Switzerland, and his colleagues report, in the April edition of N ature Physics, that they have manipulated s tandard X-ray imagi ng techniques to show many more details of the inner body.The trick needed to discern this fine detail, according to Dr Pfeiffer, is a simple one. The researchers took advantage not only of how tissues absorb X-rays bu t also of how much they slow their passage. This slowing can be seen as changes in the phase of the radiation that emerges—in other words of the relative posi tions of the peaks and troughs of the waves of which X-rays are composed.Subtle changes in phase are easil y picked up, so doctors can de tect even small variations in the composi tion of the tissue under investigation, such as might be caused by the early stages of breast cancer. Indeed, this trick—known as phase-contras t imaging—is already used rou tinely in optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Until now, however, no one had thou ght to use it for medical X-radiography.To perform their trick, the researchers used a series of three devices called transmission gratings. They placed one between the source of the X-rays and the body u nder examination, and two be tween the body and the X-ray detector that forms the image. The first grating gathers information on the phases of the X-rays passing through it. The second and third work together to produce thedetailed phase-contrasted image. The approach generates two separate images—the classic X-ray image and the phase-contras ted image—which can then be combined to produce a hig h-resolu tion picture.The researchers tested their technique on a C ardinal tetra, a tiny iridesc ent fish commonly fou nd in fish tanks and aquariums. The conventional X-ray image showed the bones and the gu t of the fish, w hile the phase-contrasted image showed details of the fins, the ear and the eye.Dr Pfeiffer's technique would thus appear to offer a way to get much greater de tail for the same amount of radiation exposure. Moreover, since it uses standard hospital equipment, it should be easy to introduce into medical practice. X-rays may no long er b e the s tuff of Nob el prizes, but their usefulness may just have increased sig nificantly.Here be dragonsWith luck, you may soon be able to buy a mythological petPAOLO FRIL, chairman and chief scientific officer of GeneDu pe, based in San Melito, California, is a man with a dream. That dream is a d ragon in every home.GeneDu pe's business is biotech pets. Not for Dr Fril, though, the mundane cloning of dead moggies and pooches. He plans a range of entirely new animals—or, rather, of really qui te old animals, with the twist that even when they did exis t, it was only in the imagination.Making a mythical creature real is not easy. Bu t GeneDu pe's team of bi ologis ts and compu ter scientists reckon they are equal to the task. Their secret is a new field, which they call “virtual cell biology”.Biology and computing have a lot in common, si nce both are about processing information—in one case electronic; in the other, bi ochemical. Virtual cell biology as pires to make a software model of a cell that is accurate in every biochemical detail. That is possible because all animal cells use the same parts lis t—mitochondria for energ y processing, the end oplasmic reticulu m for making proteins, Golgi body for protein asse mbly, and so on.Armed with their virtu al cell, GeneDupe's scientis ts can customise the result so that it belongs to a particular species, byloadi ng it with a virtual copy of that animal's genome. Then, if the cell is also loaded with the rig ht virtual molecules, it will behave like a fertilised egg, and start dividi ng and developing—first into an embryo, and ultimately into an adult.Because this “growth” is going on in a compu ter, it happens fast. Passi ng from egg to adult in one of GeneDu pe's enormous Mythmaker computers takes less than a minu te. And it is here that Charles Darwin gets a look in. With such a short generation time, GeneDu pe's scientis ts can add a little evolu tion to their products.Each compu ter starts with a search image (dragon, unicorn, gryphon, etc), and the genome of the real animal most closely resembling it (a lizard for the dragon, a horse for the unicorn and, most taxingly, the spliced genomes of a lion and an eag le for the gryphon). The virtual genomes of these real animals are then tweaked b y random electronic mu tations. When they have matu red, the virtual adults most closely resembling the targets are picked and cross-bred, while the others are cull ed.Using this rapid evolu tionary process, GeneDu pe's scientis ts have arrived at genomes for a range of mythological creatures—in a computer, at least. The next stage, on w hich they are jus t embarking, is to do it for real.This involves synthesising, wi th actual DNA, the genetic material that the compu ter mod els predict will produce the mythical creatures. The synthetic DNA is then inserted into a cell that has had its natural nu cleus removed. The resul t, Dr Fril and his commercial backers hope, will be a real live dragon, unicorn or w hat have you.T ales of the unexpectedWhy a drug trial went so badly wrongIN ANY sort of test, not least a drugs trial, one should expect the u nexpected. Even so, on March 13th, si x volunteers taking part in a small clinical trial of a treatment known as TGN1412 got far more than they bargained for. All end ed up seriousl y ill, with multiple organ failure, soon after being injected with the drug at a special testing unit at Northwick Park Hospital in London, run by a company called Parexel. One man remains ill in hospital.Small, preliminary trials of this sort are intended to find ou t whether a drug is toxic. Nevertheless, the mishap was so serious that Britain's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), a government body, swiftly launched a fu ll inquiry. On April 5th it announced its preliminary findings. These were that the trial was run correctly, doses of the drug were given as they were supposed to have been, and there was no contamination during manufacturing. In other words, it seems that despite extensive tests on animals and hu man-cell cultures, and des pite the fact that the doses in the hu man trial were only a five-hundredth of those given to the animals, TGN1412 is toxic in people in a way that simply had not shown up.This is a difficult resul t for the drug business because it raises questions ab ou t the right way of testing medicines of this kind. TGN1412 is u nusual in that it is an antib ody. Most drugs are w hat are known as “small molecules”. Antib odies are big, powerful proteins tha t are the workhorses of the immune system. A mere 20 of them have been approved for hu man therapy, or are in latestage clinical trails, in America and Europe, bu t hundreds are in pre-clinical development, and will soon need to be tried out on people.Most antibody d rugs are desig ned to work in one of three ways: b y recruiting parts of the immune system to kill cancer cells; by delivering a small-molecul e drug or a radi oactive atom specifically to a cancer; or by blocking unwanted immune responses. In that sense, TGN1412 was u nusual because it worked in a fourth way. It is what is called a “superag onis tic” antib ody, desi gned to increase the numbers of a type of immune cell know n as regulatory T-cells.Reduced numbers, or impaired function, of regulatory T-cells has been implicated in a nu mber of illnesses, such as type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Boosting the pool of these antib odies seemed li ke a g ood treatment strateg y. Unfortu nately, that strategy fell disastrousl y to pieces and it will take a little longer to find ou t why.The resul t highlights concerns raised in a paper jus t published by the Academy of Medical Sciences, a g rou p of experts b ased in Lond on. It says there are special ris ks associated with novel antib ody therapies. For example, their chemical specificity means that the y might not bind to their targets in hu mans as they do in other species.Accidence and substanceT wo possib le exp lanations for the bulk of realityTHE unknown pervades the universe. That which people can see, with the aid of various s orts of teles cope, accounts for just 4% of the total mass. The rest, however, mus t exis t. Withou t it, galaxies would not survive and the universe would not be gently expanding, as witnessed by as tronomers. What exactly constitutes this dark matter and dark energy remains mysterious, but physicists have recently u ncovered some more clues, ab out the former, at least.One possible explanation for dark matter is a group of subatomic particles called neutrinos. These objects are so difficult to catch that a screen made of lead a light-year thick would stop only half the neu trinos beamed at it from getting through. Yetneu trinos are thoug ht to be the most abundant particles in the universe. Some ten thousand trillion trillion—most of them produced by nuclear reactions in the sun—reach Earth every second. All bu t a handful pass straight through the planet as if it wasn't there.According to the Standard Model, the most successful description of particle physi cs to date, neutrinos come in three varieties, called “flavours”. These are know n as electron neu trinos, tau neu trinos and muon neu trinos. Ag ain, according to the StandardMod el, they are point-like, electrically neu tral and massless. Bu t in recent years, this view has been challenged, as physicists realis ed that neu trinos might have mass.The first strong evidence came in 1998, when researchers at an experiment called SuperKamiokande, based at Kamioka, in Japan, showed that muon neu trinos produced by cosmic rays hitting the upper atmosphere had g one missing by the time they should have reached an underground detector. SuperKamiokande's operators suspect that the missing muon neu trinos had changed flavour, becoming electron neutrinos or—more likely—tau neutrinos. Theory suggests that this process, called oscillation, can happen only if neu trinos have mass.Since then, there have been other reports of oscillation. Results from the Sudbury Neutrino Obse rvatory in Canada suggest that electron neutrinos produced b y nuclear reactions in the sun change into either muon or tau neu trinos on their jou rney to Earth. Tw o other Japanese experiments, one conducted at Kamioka and one involving the KEK particle-accelerator lab oratory in Tsukuba, near Tokyo, also hint at oscillation.Last week, researchers working on the MINOS experiment at Fermilab, near C hicago, confirmed these resul ts. Over the coming months and years, they hope to produce the most accurate measurements yet. The researchers created a beam of muonneu trinos b y firing an intense stream of protons into a bl ock of carbon. On the other side of the target sat a particle detector that monitored the number of muon neutrinos leaving the Fermilab si te. The neu trinos then traveled 750km (450 miles) through the Earth to a detector in a former iron mine in Soudan, Mi nnesota.Myths and migrationDo immigrants really hurt A merican wor kers' wages?EVERY now and again America, a nation largely made up of immigrants and their descendants, is gripped by a furious political row over whether and how it should stem the flood of people wanting to enter the country. It is in the mids t of just such a quarrel now. C ongress is contemplating the erection of a wall along stretches of the Mexican border and a crackdown on illegalworkers, as well as softer policies such as a guest-w orker programme for illegal immigrants. Some of the arguments are plain silly. Immig ration's defenders claim tha t foreigners come to do jobs tha t Americans won't—as if ci ties with few immigrants had no gardeners. Its opponents say that immigrants steal American jobs—succu mbing to the fallacy that there are only a fixed number of jobs to g o around.One common argu ment, though not silly, is often overstated: that immigration pushes down American workers' wages, especially among high-school dropouts. It isn't hard to see why this might be. Over the past 25 years American incomes have become less equally dis tribu ted, typical wages have grown surprisingly sl owly for such a healthy economy and the real wages of the least skilled have actua lly fallen. It is plausible that immigration is at least partly to blame, especially be cause recent arrivals have disproportionately poor skills. In the 2000 census immigrants made up 13% of A merica's pool of workers, but 28% of those withou t a high-school education and over half of those with eig ht years' schooling or less.In fac t, the relationship be tween immigration and wages is not clear-cut, even in theory. That is because wages depend on the supply of capi tal as well as lab our. Alone, an influx of immigrants raises the supply of workers and hence reduces wages. But cheaper labour increases the potential retu rn to employers of building new factories or opening new valet-parking companies. In so doing, they create extra demand for workers. Once capital has fully adjusted, the final impact on overall wages should be a wash, as long as the immigrants have not changed the productivity of the workforce as a whole.However, even if wages do not change on average, immigration can s till shift the relative pay of workers of di fferent types. A large inflow of low-skilled people could pus h down the relative wages of low-skilled natives, assuming that they compete for the same jobs. On the other hand, if the immigrants had compleme ntary skills, natives would be relatively be tter off. To gauge the full effect of immigration on wages, therefore, you need to know how quickly capital adjusts and how far the newcomers are substitutes for local workers.Roaming holidayT he EU hopes to slash the price of cross-border mobile calls“TODAY it is only when usi ng your mobile phone abroad that you realis e there are still borders in Europe,” lamented Viviane Reding, the European commissioner responsible for telecoms and media regulation, as she annou nced plans to slash the cost of mobile roaming last month. It is a laudable aim: Eu ropean consumers typically pay €1.25 ($1.50) per minute to call home from another European country, and €1 per minute to receive calls from home while abroad. With roa ming margi ns ab ove 90%, European mobile operators make profits of arou nd €10 billi on a year from the trade, the commission estimates.Ms Reding's plan, unveiled on March 28th and up for discussion until May 12th, is to impose a “home pricing” scheme. Even while roaming, callers would be charged whatever they would normally pay to use their phones in their home cou ntries; charges for incoming calls while roaming would be abolished. That may sou nd good. But, as the industry is understandabl y at pains to point out, it could have some curious knock-on effects.In particular, consumers could sign up with operators in foreign countries to take advantage of lower prices. Everyone w ould take out subscriptions to the cheapest supplier and bring them back home, says John Tysoe of the Mobile World, a consultancy. “You'd end up with a complete muddle. An operator mig ht have a netw ork, but no customers, because they'v e all migrated.”Another problem with Ms Reding's plan, he says, is that operators would compensate for the loss of roaming fees— thou ght to account for arou nd 3% of their revenues and 5% of profits—by raising prices elsewhere. This would have the perverse effect of lowering prices for international business travellers, a big chunk of roaming traffic, while raising prices for most consumers.The commission's proposals are “economically incoherent”, says Richard Feasey of Vodafone, which operates mobile networks in many European countries. Imposi ng price caps on roaming is legally questionable, he says, and Vodafone has, in any case, been steadil y reducing its roaming charges. (European regulators prevented it from doing so for three years on antitrust grounds after its takeover of Mannesmann in 2000.) Orange, another multinational operator, says it is planning to make price cu ts, too. “Of course, now everybody's got price cuts,” says Stefano Nicoletti of Ovu m, a consultancy.But perhaps Ms Reding's unspoken plan is to use the threat of regulation as a way to prompt action. Operators are rig ht that her proposals make no sense, but they are charging too much all the sa me. So expect them to lobb y hard against the proposals over the next cou ple of years, while quietly cutting their prices—an outcome tha t would, of course, allow both sid es to claim victory.Dev ices and their desiresE ngineers and chemists get togetherTHERE used to be a world of difference between treating a patient with a de vice—such as a fake hip or a pacemaker—and using biolog y and biochemistry. Different ailments required wholly di fferent treatments, often with little in common. Bu t that is changing as medical advances—such as those being trumpeted at the biotechnolog y industry's annual gathering this week in Chicago—foster combinations of su rgical implants and other hardware with support from medicines. Drug-releasi ng stents were one of the first fruits of this trend, which increasingly requires vastly different sorts of health-care firms to mesh their research efforts.That will be a challenge. While pharmaceu tical and biotech firms are always in search of the next big thing, devicemakers prefer g radual progress. Instead of hanging ou t with b reathless entrepreneu rs near America's east and west coasts, where most drug and biotechnology firms are bas ed, many of the device-makers huddle in midwestern cities such as Minneapolis, Indianapolis and Kalamazoo. And u nlike Big Pharma, which uses marketing bli tzes to tell ailing consu mers ab ou t its new drugs, medical-device sales teams ac t more as instructors, showing doctors how to install their latest creations.Several companies, however, are now trying to bring these two busi ness cultu res together. Earlier this year, for example,Angi otech Pharmaceuticals, a C anadian firm, bought American Medical Instruments (AMI). Angiotech's managers reckon their company has devised a good way to apply d rug coatings to all sorts of medical paraphernalia, from su tures and syringes to catheters, in ord er to reduce the shock to the body. AMI makes just the sorts of medical supplies to which Angiotech hopes to apply its techniques.One of America's biggest makers of medical devices, Medtronic, has been doing joint research with Genzyme, a biotechnology company that is also keen on broade r approaches to health care. Genzyme sa ys that it was looking for better ways to treat ailments, such as coronary and kidney diseas e, and realised that it needed to u nderstand better how electro-mechanical devices and information technology work. Bu t combining its efforts with those of Medtronic “on a cultural level is very hard”, the company says. Biotechnology firms are used to much more risky projects and far longer de velopment cycles.Another difference is that device-makers know that if a problem emerges with their hardware, the engineers will tinker around and try to resolve the glitch. Biotech and pharmaceu tical firms have no such option. If a difficul ty emerges after years of developing and testing a new pill, as with Merck's Vioxx, there may be little they can d o abou t it. “You can't fu tz with a molecul e”, says Debbie Wang, a health-care indus try analyst.Strangely, says Ms Wang, some of the most promising engineering ou tfits were once divisi ons of pharmaceu tical andhealth-care companies, which got rid of them precisely because they did not appear to offer the rapid growth that managers saw in prescription drugs. Guidant, a maker of various cardiovascular devices, was spun off by Eli Lilly in 1994 and a decade later became the prize in a bidding war between Johnson & Johnson and Boston Scientific, which Boston won earlier this year.Pfizer sold How medica, which makes joint replacements and prosthetics, to Kalamazoo-based S tryker in 1998. Anotherjoint-replacement maker, Zimmer, was spun off from B ristol-Myers Squibb in 2001. N ow both those companies are looking for ways to add “anti-interactive coatings”—ie, d rugs—to their business. One of the most troublesome complications in joint replacement is infection.The big drug companies might be tempted to reacquire the firms that they let go. Bu t, given the potential for cultural and strategic clashes, it may make more sense for a few big and broad medical-device makers, such as Med tronic, Boston Scientific and St Jude Medical, to continue consolidating their own industry while co-operating, along the lines of the Med tronic-Genzyme venture, with biotech and pharmaceu tical firms as they see fit. There would still be irritation; bu t probabl y less risk of wholesale rejec tion.E at less, liv e moreHow to liv e longer—maybeDIETING, accordi ng to an old joke, may not actu ally make you li ve longer, but it sure feels that way. Nevertheless, evidence has been accumulating since the 1930s that calorie res triction—reducing an animal's energy intake below its energ y expenditure—extends lifespan and delays the onset of age-related diseases in rats, d ogs, fish and monkeys. Such resul ts have inspired thousands of people to put up with constant hunger in the hope of living longer, healthier lives. They have also led to a search for drugs that mimic the effects of calorie restriction withou t the pain of going on an actu al diet.Amid the hype, it is easy to forget that no one has until now show n that calorie restriction works in humans. That omission, however, changed this month, wi th the publication of the initial results of the first systematic investigation into the matter. Thisstudy, known as C ALERIE (Comprehensive Assessment of Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy), was sponsored by America's National Institu tes of Health. It took 48 men and women aged between 25 and 50 and assigned them randomly to either a control group or a calorie-res triction regi me. Those in the second group were required to cu t their calorie intake for six months to 75% of that needed to maintain their weight.The CALERIE study is a landmark in the history of the field, be cause its subjects were either of normal weight or only sli ghtly overweig ht. Previous projects have used individuals who were clinically obese, thus confusi ng the unquestionable benefits to health of reducing obesity with the possible advantages of calorie res triction to the otherwise healthy.At a molecular level, CALERIE suggests these advantages are real. For example, those on restricted diets had lower insulin resistance (hig h resistance is a ris k factor for type 2 diabetes) and lower levels of low-densi ty lipoprotein cholesterol (high levels are a risk factor for heart disease). They showed drops in bod y temperature and blood-insulin levels—both phenomena that have been seen in long-lived, calorie-restricted animals. They also suffered less oxidative damage to their DNA.Eric Ravussin, of Louisiana State Universi ty in Baton Rouge, who is one of the s tudy's authors, says that such results provide support for the theory that calorie restriction produces a metab olic adaptation over and above that which would be expected from weight loss alone. (He also points ou t tha t it will be a long time before such work reveals whether calorie res triction actu ally extends life.) Nevertheless, such metabolic adaptation could be the reas on why calorie res triction is associated with longer lifespans in other animals—and that is certainly the hope of those who, for the past 15 years, have been searching for ways of triggering that metabolic adaptation by means other than semi-starvation.The search for a d rug tha t will stave off old ag e is itself as old as the hills—as is the wis hful thinking of the suckers who finance such efforts. Those who hope to find it by mimicking the effect of calorie restriction are not, however, complete snake-oil salesmen, for there is know n to be a family of enzymes called sirtui ns, which act both as sensors of nu trient availability and as regulators of metabolic rate. These might provide the necessary biochemical link between starving and living longer.Univ ersal serv ice?Proponents of “softwar e as a service” say it w ill wipe out traditional softwareSOMETHING momentous is happening in the software business. Bill Gates of Microsoft calls it “the next sea change”. Analysts call it a “tectonic shift” in the industry. Trade publications hail it as “the next big thing”. It is software-as-a-service (SaaS)—the delivery of software as an internet-bas ed service via a web browser, rather than as a product that mus t be purchased, installed and maintained. The appeal is ob vious: SaaS is quicker, easier and cheaper to deploy than tradi tional software, which means technology budgets can be focused on providing competitive advantage, rather than maintenance.This has prompted an outb reak of iconoclasm. “Traditional s oftware is dead,” says Jas on Maynard, an analyst at Credi t Suisse. Just as most firms do not ow n generators, bu t buy electricity from the grid, so in fu ture they will buy software on the hoof, he says. “It's the end of software as we know it. All software is becoming a service,” declares Marc B enioff of , thebest-known proponent of the idea. But while S aaS is growing fast, it still represents only a tiny fraction of the overall software industry—a mere $3.35 billi on last year, estimates Mr Maynard. Most observers expect it to be worth around $12 billi on by 2010—bu t even that is equal only to Microsoft's quarterly sales today. There is no denying that SaaS is coming. Bu t there is much debate, even among its ad vocates, about how quickly it will g row, and how widely it will be adopted.At the moment, small and medium-sized businesses are the most enthusias tic adopters of SaaS, since it is cheaper and simpler than maintaining rooms of server computers and employing staff to keep them running. Unlike the market for desktop software, which is dominated b y Microsoft, or for high-end enterprise software, which is dominated by SAP and Oracle, the middle grou nd is still hig hly fragmented, which presents an opportunity. “This is the last great software market left—the las t unconsolidated market,” says Zach Nelson of NetSuite, which provides a suite of software services including accou nting, sales-force automation and customer service. His firm is targeting small and mediu m-si zed businesses by providing “verticalised” services—that is, versions of its software adapted to particular types of company, such as professional-service firms, wholesale dis tributors and software firms.Larg e companies, says Mr Nels on, have already made big investments in traditional software. “The y'v e alread y been through the pain,” he says. So they will not be in a hu rry to ditch their exis ting investments in traditional software from the likes of SAP and Oracle. “I have no fantasy of replacing those guys,” says Mr Nelson. Bu t Mr Benioff of disagrees. His firm provides customer-relationship management (CR M) software as a service, which is already used by many big firms including Cisco, Sprint and Merrill Lynch. “The world's larges t companies are now using s for the world's larges t CR M implementations,” he says. “It's the fu ture of our industry that everything will be a service.”Even so, Mr Maynard reckons it will be some time before large companies fully embrace the service mod el. H owever,。
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MLA格式参考文献示例期刊文章1. 一位作者写的文章Stewart, Donald C. "What is an English Major, and What Should It be?"College Composition and Communication 40 (1989): 188-202.Yu, Yongding. [余永定]. 财政稳定问题研究的一个理论框架. 世界经济, 2005(7): 25-29.2. 两位作者写的文章Brownell, Hiram H., and Heather H. Potter. "Inference Deficits in Right-Brain Damaged Patients." Brain and Language 27 (1986): 310-21.Li, Jianzhong, and Liu, Xianmin. [李建中, 刘显敏]. 大数据的一个重要方面：数据可用性. 计算机研究与发展, 2013 (6): 1147-62.3. 三位及以上的作者写的文章Mascia-Lees, Frances E., et al. "Double Liminality and the Black Woman Writer." American Behavioral Scientist 31 (1987): 101-14.Zhang, Peng, et al. [张鹏等]. 云计算环境下适于工作流的数据布局方法. 计算机研究与发展, 2013 (3): 636-47.专著1.一位作者写的书籍Graff, Gerald. Professing Literature: An Institutional History. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1987.Zhang, Zhijian. [张志健]. 严复思想研究. 桂林: 广西师大出版社, 1989.2.两位作者写的书籍Plant, Raymond, and Kenneth Hoover. Conservative Capitalism in Britain and the United States: A Critical Appraisal. London: Routledge, 2014.Yin, Di, and Shang, Hai. [隐地, 尚海]. 到绿光咖啡屋听巴赫读余秋雨. 上海: 上海世界图书出版公司, 2001.3.三位作者写的书籍Chen, Weizheng, et al. [陈维政等]. 人力资源管理. 大连: 大连理大学出版社, 2006.Hall, Stuart, et al. Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972-79 (Cultural Studies Birmingham). London: Routledge, 1991.4. 新版书Erikson, Erik. Childhood and Society. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 1963.编著1. 一位主编编撰的书籍Loshin, David, ed. Big Data Analytics. Boston: Morgan Kaufmann, 2013. Zhong, Lanfeng. [钟兰凤] (编). 英文科技学术话语研究. 镇江: 江苏大学出版社, 2014.2. 两位主编编撰的书籍Kerckhove, Derrick De, and Charles J. Lumsden, eds. The Alphabet and the Brain: The Lateralization of Writing. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988. Zhang, Delu, and Zhang, Guo. [张德禄, 张国] (编). 英语文体学教程. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2011.3. 三位及以上主编编撰的书籍Campbell, Colin. M., et al, eds. Groups St Andrews 2001 inOxford: Volume 2.New York: Cambridge UP, 2003.Zhang, Keding, et al. [张克定等] (编). 系统评价功能. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2007.4. 书中的文章Glover, David. "The Stuff that Dreams are Made of: Masculinity, Femininity, and the Thriller." Gender, Genre and Narrative Pleasure. Ed. Derek Longhurst. London: Unwin Hyman, 1989. 67-83.He, Jianmin, and Yu, Jianping. [何建敏, 于建平]. 学术论文引言部分的经验功能分析. 张克定等(编). 系统功能评价. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2007, 93-101.Miao, Xingwei. [苗兴伟]. 英语的评价型强势主位结构. 张克定, 王振华(编). 系统功能评价. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2007, 163-69.翻译的书籍（Translated book）Lacan, Jacques. Ecrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Norton, 1977.Le, Dailei. [勒代雷]. 释意学派口笔译理论. (刘和平译). 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2001.Kontra, Miklos, et al. 语言: 权利和资源. (李君, 满文静译). 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2014.Wang, Rending, and Yu, Qiuyu. [王仁定, 余秋雨]. 吴越之间——余秋雨眼里的中国文化（彩图本）. (梁实秋, 董乐天译). 上海: 上海文化出版社, 2001.硕博士论文Hubert, Henry Allan. "The Development of English Studies in Nineteenth-Century Anglo- Canadian Colleges." Diss. U of British Columbia, 1988.Wang, Xuanzi. [王璇子]. 功能对等视角下的英语长句翻译. 南京大学硕士学位论文, 2014.注：1.出版社名称须使用缩写。
重要参考文献30篇
重要参考文献30篇重要参考文献30篇[1]Jeremy, Munday. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application [M].London: Routledge, 2001.[2]曹剑杰. 浅析西方三大通讯社的体育新闻报道[J]. 中国记者, 1997.[3]曹乔卉. 漫谈英语体育新闻标题翻译[J]. 学术之窗, 2008[4]陈建军. 从“目的论”的角度看《布波族：一个社会新阶层的崛起》之中文译本[J]. 中国翻译, 2004.[5]陈静芳. 《新闻英语通》. 上海交通大学出版社, 2006.[6]崔光虎. 论经济新闻英语词汇的隐喻[J]. 湖北经济学院报, 2006.[7]杜思民. 英语体育新闻修辞特色[J]. 新闻爱好者, 2009[8]方梦之. 翻译新论与实践[M]. 青岛出版社, 2002.[9]冯婕. 外刊新闻标题的理解与传译[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1995, 4.[10]冯庆华. 实用翻译教程[M]. 上海外语教育出版社, 2002.[11]郝勤. 体育新闻学[M]. 高等教育出版社, 2004.[12]黄勤. 我国的新闻翻译研究：现状与展望[J]. 上海翻译, 2007.[13]黄焰结. 足球新闻标题欣赏与翻译[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2007.[14]贾文波. 功能翻译理论对应用翻译的启示[J]. 上海翻译, 2007.[15]金琪. 论VOA体育英语词汇的隐喻[J]. 科教文汇, 2008.[16]廖志勤. 英文新闻标题及其翻译策略[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2006, 2.[17]刘江伟. 基于目的论的体育新闻汉译研究[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报, 2009.[18]马国力. 体育英语[M]. 北京外语教学与研究出版社，2002.[19]马骏婷. 体育新闻及体育新闻英语汉译[D]. 上海外国语大学, 2007.[20]孟蓓. 照应衔接与英语体育新闻语篇翻译[J]. 延安职业技术学院学报, 2010.[21]孟莲芬，韦建军. 体育翻译中词义的选择[J]. 上海科技翻译, 1997.[22]邱艳. 谈电视体育新闻翻译技巧[J]. 中国广播电视学刊.[23]汤琼，孙秀清. 奥运会及国际体育比赛英语[M]. 暨南大学出版社, 2002.[24]肖奚强. 略论体育新闻的语言特色[J]. 世界汉语教学, 1998.[25]徐辉. 浅谈体育英语中的英汉翻译技巧[J]. 科技信息, 2009.[26]许明武. 新闻英语与翻译[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.[27]张海琳. 体育英语的特点及其英汉翻译[J]. 教育在线, 2009[28]张建. 新闻英语文体与范文评析[M]. 上海外语教育出版社, 2004.[29]张锦兰. 目的论与翻译方法[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2004.[30]庄金玉. 体育新闻莫“杀气”太重[J]. 新闻知识, 2004.其他相关文献70篇[1]Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai ForeignLanguage Education Press, 2001.[2]Nord, Christina. T ranslating as a Purposeful Activity, Functionalist ApproachesExplained [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001. [3]Pinkham, Joan. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: ForeignLanguage Teaching and Research Press, 2004.[4]Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials & Limitations[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.[5]包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2001.[6]蔡基刚. 英汉词汇对比研究[M]. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2008.[7]陈刚. 英汉语句型结构的差异及其对写作教学的指导意义[J]. 北京理工大学学报（社会科学版）, 2004(12): 58-60.[8]陈立珍. 跨文化英汉词汇对比研究与英汉翻译[A]. 福建省外国语文学会2006年年会暨学术研讨会论文集（下）[C], 2006.[9]陈声柏. 中西思维方式差异的原因建构[J]. 兰州大学学报（社会科学版）,2004(2): 85-89.[10]陈小慰. 翻译功能理论的启示—对某些翻译方法的新思考[J]. 中国翻译,2000(4): 9-12.[11]陈毅平. 中式英语的特点与演变[J]. 武汉大学学报（人文科学版）, 2007(4):513-516.[12]程镇球. 论汉译英的几个问题[M]. 北京：北京教育与研究出版社, 1998.[13]杜瑞清, 姜亚军. 近二十年中国英语研究述评[J]. 外语教学与研究（外国语文双月刊）, 2001(1): 37-41.[14]杜云辉. 东西方思维差异与跨文化交流[J]. 中国科技翻译, 2000(11): 31-33.[15]冯婕. 外刊新闻标题的理解与传译. 《上海科技翻译》, 1995.[16]郭超人. 《体育新闻选》. 新华出版社, 1999.[17]过家鼎. 注意外交用词的政治含义[J]. 中国翻译, 2002(11): 59-60.[18]海彪. 谈外国体育名词. 术语的翻译. 《沈阳体育学院学报》, 1994.[19]韩怀伟, 赵宏凌. 语料库支持的汉化思维在英语写作中的迁移分析[J].北京理工大学学报(社会科学版), 2004(6): 55-57.[20]何明珠. 英语无灵主语句的理解与翻译[J]. 外语教学, 2003(9): 50-55.[21]吉灵娟. 功能翻译理论对翻译专业口译教学的启示[A]. 福建省外国语文学会2006年年会暨学术研讨会论文集（下）[C], 2006.[22]季清芬. 中西方思维差异在翻译中的影响[J]. 成都教育学院学报, 2004(4):28-29.[23]贾红霞. 从翻译目的论谈译员译前的准备工作[J]. 北京机械工业学院学报,2006(12): 87-90.[24]贾文波. 功能翻译理论对应用翻译的启示[J]. 上海翻译, 2007(2): 9-14.[25]贾毓玲. 从《政府工作报告》的翻译谈如何克服“中式英语”的倾向[J]. 上海科技翻译, 2003(4): 26-28.[26]江娟. 浅析汉英赛事报道标题的文体特征. 《武汉科技大学学报》, 2005.[27]金积令. 汉英词序对比研究—句法结构中的前端重量原则和末端重量原则[J].外国语（上海外国语大学学报）, 1998(1): 28-35.[28]孔君. 论英语新闻文体与汉译. 2003.[29]李长栓. 汉英语序的重大差异及同传技巧[J]. 中国翻译, 1997(3): 4.[30]连淑能. 论中西思维方式[J]. 外语与外语教学, 2002(2): 40-46.[31]林建冰. 体育汉英/英汉翻译的“特效处理”. 《长春师范学院学报》, 2003.[32]刘亦庆. 《文体与翻译》. 中国对外翻译出版公司, 1986.[33]刘银燕. 中式英语，你在使用吗？—《中式英语之鉴》评介[J]. 外语教学,2002(5): 94-95.[34]彭菲. 国际体育新闻的编译技巧. 《体育周报》, 2008[35]丘悦，彭斌. 报刊新闻英语的翻译. 《广西大学学报》, 2001.[36]任小平. 外交口译的灵活度[J].中国翻译, 2000(5): 40-44.[37]任晓霏. 从形合和意合看汉英翻译中的形式对应[J]. 中国翻译, 2002(3):上一页下一页。
考研英语06年4篇阅读
Text 1Inthe 2006 film version of The Devil Wears Prada, Miranda Priestly, played byMeryl Streep, scold her unattractive assistant for imagining that high fashiondoesn’t affect her. Priestly explains how the deep blue color of the assistant’ssweater descended over the years from fashion shows to department stores and tothe bargain bin in which the poor girl doubtless found her garment。
Thistop-down conception of the fashion business couldn’t be more out of date or atodds with feverish world described in Overdressed, Elizabeth Cline’s three-yearindictment of “fast fashion”. In the last decades or so, advances in technologyhave allowed mass-market labels such as Zara, H&M, and Uniqlo to react totrends more quickly and anticipate demand more precisely. Quckier turnroundsmean less wasted inventory, more frequent releases, and more profit. Thoselabels encourage style-conscious consumers to see clothes as disposal——meant to last only a wash or two, although they don’t advertisethat——and to renew their wardrobe every few weeks. Byoffering on-trend items at dirt-cheap prices, Cline argues, these brands havehijacked fashion cycles, shaking all industry long accustomed to a seasonalpace。
参考文献英文范文
参考文献英文范文参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。
下面是店铺给大家整理的参考文献英文范文，供大家参阅!参考文献英文范文：英文参考文献标准格式一、参考文献的类型参考文献(即引文出处)的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下：--专著,著作[C]--论文集(一般指会议发表的论文续集，及一些专题论文集，如《***大学研究生学术论文集》[N]-- 报纸文章[J]--期刊文章：发表在期刊上的论文，尽管有时我们看到的是从网上下载的(如知网)，但它也是发表在期刊上的，你看到的电子期刊仅是其电子版[D]--学位论文：不区分硕士还是博士论文--报告：一般在标题中会有"关于****的报告"字样[S]-- 标准[P]--专利[A]--文章：很少用，主要是不属于以上类型的文章[Z]--对于不属于上述的文献类型，可用字母"Z"标识，但这种情况非常少见常用的电子文献及载体类型标识：[DB/OL] --联机网上数据(database online)[DB/MT] --磁带数据库(database on magnetic tape)[M/CD] --光盘图书(monograph on CDROM)[CP/DK] --磁盘软件(computer program on disk)[J/OL] --网上期刊(serial online)[EB/OL] --网上电子公告(electronic bulletin board online)很显然，标识的就是该资源的英文缩写，/前面表示类型，/后面表示资源的载体，如OL表示在线资源二、参考文献的格式及举例1.期刊类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名,出版年份,卷号(期号)起止页码.【举例】[1] 周融，任志国，杨尚雷，厉星星.对新形势下毕业设计管理工作的思考与实践[J].电气电子教学学报，2003(6):107-109.[2] 夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业设计(论文)教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育,2004(1):46-52.[3] Heider, E.R.& D.C.Oliver. The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3): 62 67.2.专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名.出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码.【举例】[4] 刘国钧,王连成.图书馆史研究.北京:高等教育出版社,1979:15-18,31.[5] Gill, R. Mastering English Literature . London: Macmillan, 1985: 42-45.3.报纸类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名,出版日期(版次).【举例】[6] 李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报，1998-12-27(3).[7] French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China[N]. Atlantic Weekly, 1987-8-15(33).4.论文集【格式】[序号]作者.篇名 [C].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[8] 伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海:上海译文出版社,1979:12-17.[9] Spivak,G. "Can the Subaltern Speak?"[A]. In C.Nelson & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: Universityof Illinois Press, 1988, pp.271-313.[10] Almarza, G.G. Student foreign language teacher's knowledge growth [A]. In D.Freeman and J.C.Richards (eds.). Teacher Learning in Language T eaching [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1996. pp.50-78.5. 学位论文【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:保存者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[11] 张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京:北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983:1-7.6.研究报告【格式】[序号]作者. 篇名.出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.【举例】[12] 冯西桥.核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析.北京:清华大学核能技术设计研究院, 1997:9-10.7.专利【格式】[序号]专利所有者.题名[P].国别:专利号,发布日期.【举例】[13] 姜锡洲.一种温热外敷药制备方案[P].中国专利:881056073, 1989 07 26.8.标准【格式】[序号]标准编号,标准名称[S].【举例】[14] GB/T 16159-1996, 汉语拼音正词法基本规则 [S].9.条例【格式】[序号]颁布单位.条例名称.发布日期【举例】[15] 中华人民共和国科学技术委员会.科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991-06-0510.电子文献【格式】[序号]主要责任者.电子文献题名.电子文献出处[电子文献及载体类型标识].或可获得地址，发表或更新日期/引用日期.【举例】[16] 王明亮.关于中国学术期刊标准化数据库系统工程的进展[EB/OL].http: ///pub/wml.txt/980810 2.html, 1998 08 16/1998 10 04.[17] 万锦.中国大学学报论文文摘(1983 1993).英文版 [DB/CD]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社, 1996.11.各种未定义类型的文献【格式】[序号] 主要责任者.文献题名[Z].出版地:出版者, 出版年.特别说明：凡出现在"参考文献"项中的标点符号都失去了其原有意义，且其中所有标点必须是半角,如果你的输入法中有半角/全解转换,则换到半角状态就可以了,如果你的输入法中没有这一转换功能,直接关闭中文输入法,在英文输入状态下输入即可.其实，很多输入法(如目前比较流行的搜狐输入法)都提供了四种组合：(1)中文标点+ 全角：这时输入的标点是这样的，：【1】-(而这时，我没有找到哪个键可以输入/ 符号)也就是说，这些符号是一定不能出现在"参考文献"中的;(2) 中文标点+半角：这时输入的标点是这样的，：【1】-(这时，我还是没有找到哪个键可以输入/ 符号)也就是说，这些符号也不能出现在"参考文献"中的;上面列出的符号，中间没有任何的空格，你能看出它们有什么区别吗?我看只是-的宽度有一点点不同，其它都一样(3)英文标点+全角：这时输入的标点是这样的，.：[1]-/(4)英文标点+半角：这时输入的标点是这样的,.:[1]-/从这两项可以明显的看出，半角和全角其实最大的差别是所占的宽度不一样，这一点对于数字来说最为明显，而英文标点明显要比中文标点细小很多(也许因为英文中，标点的功能没有中文那么复杂，就是说英文中标点符号的能力没有中文那么强大)所以，很多人在写"参考文献" 时，总是觉得用英文标点+半角很不清楚，间距也太小，其实这点完全不用担心如果你觉得真的太小不好看，就用英文标点+全角吧而在[1] 之后，一般也都有一个空格对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：①作者姓名采用"姓在前名在后"原则，具体格式是：姓,名字的首字母. 如： Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为：Cowley, M.R.，如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为：Norris, F. & I.Gordon.②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：Mastering English Literature,English Weekly.三、注释注释是对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明注释应置于本页页脚，前面用圈码①、②、③等标识参考文献英文范文：英文论文参考文献格式写法Learning Advice Centreyour in the author/date system) and, for law students or in dissertations, the numeric system. Different subject areas use slight variations of these systems (and other systems do exist) so you must consult your course/module handbook for clarification of the specific conventions that you are expected to use within your subject area(s).References need to appear in two places:1. within the body of your writing include: author‟s surname, year of publication and, if quoting, the exact page number from which the quote is taken;2. in the bibliography include at least: author‟s surname, initial(s), year of publication, title of text/chapter, edition, publisher & place of publication; see page 3 for specific details that apply to referencing different sources. There are two ways inwhich you can reference, or cite, another person's work: a) by paraphrasing; this shows you have fully interpreted what you have read - see Learning Skills Help Sheet on How to Paraphrase;1.1 References within the body of the text - Harvard Systemb) by quoting directly; follow with a comment to show relevance/understanding If the direct quotation is more than two lines, you should indent it as a separate paragraph e.g.: As Cottrell (2003, p.148) points out“Our views of what is …intelligent‟can prevent us from developing our minds to their full potential. People who feel they are …not very bright‟ or …not very creative‟ probably will fulfil that estimation of themselves. On the other hand, positive thinking and constructive mental activity develop the mind.”Citing secondary sources:If you are referencing a work cited by the author of the text you are reading, you should cite the original work as being within a secondary source i.e. what what the writer of the book you are reading has read, using the following method: According to De Bono (1994, cited in Cottrell, 2003, p.148), “clever people are often hampered by their apparent intelligence in two ways:” they are good at arguing and defending their point of view; they indulge in negative criticism which is a quick, easy and dramatic way of proving someone wrong.Cont'dYou can make an appointment with the Learning Advisor if you wish to receive more individual advice on your independent learning skills. Email or phone 020 7911 5000 ext. 2364.Learning Advice Centrereference appears as a footnote at the bottom of the page e.g.: There were many changes in the British diet in the periodafter 1870. Fruitbecame more common, especially in the form of fruit jam. Even the fish-and-chip shop dates from the same period.1 (Note: See bottom of this page for associated footnote.)To insert footnotes using Word, click on the placein your document where you want to insert thefootnote.Then click on the Insert menu, select Reference,then click on Footnote.Another window will then open that will allow you to format thefootnotes manually, if you require.Once the footnote has been inserted in the text and it appearsat the bottom of the page, click next to the number at the bottom to add the reference details: author surname, initial(s),publication year, title of work/article, page number, etc.Once you have referenced an author for the first time using the numeric system you do not have to repeat that same reference in full again. If the same work is referenced consecutively on the same page use: ibid. = (from the Latin …ibidem‟, meaning …the same‟) orop.cit. = (from the Latin …opere citado‟ meaning …in the work already cited‟)If the same work is referenced on another page, list the author‟s surname, initials and date of publication again followed by op.cit. and the page number.Different page numbers for the citations you use must be listed with each footnote (see example below).2Hobsbawm, H., (1990), The Eating Habits of the British People, p. 162 2 ibid., p. 1631Learning Advice Centre according toBooks Heinz, E., (2000), A History of Baked Beans, Arnold, London If there are two authors you must list both authors‟names e.g.: Heinz, E., and McDonald, R., (2001), A History of Baked Beans, Arnold, London If there are more than two authors, name the first author followed by ‘et al’ (Latin meaning …and others‟) e.g.:Heinz, E., et al., (2002), The Bean and Other Legumes, Routledge, New York If the book has more than one edition, you must state which edition you have used e.g.:Heinz, E., and McDonald, R., (2006), A History of Baked Beans, (2nd Ed.), Arnold, LondonAn article in a book Johnson, S., (1998a), The Cornflake in History, In: Jennings, N., (Ed.) Food for Thought, Edinburgh University Press, UKJournal articles Johnson, S., (1998b), …Deconstructing the pre-millennial diet: Special K and postmodernism‟, Cultural Studies 11, 1: pp.32–44This means that an article by Sarah Johnson called …Deconstructing the pre-millennial diet: Special K and postmodernism‟was published in the journal Cultural Studies, volume 11, number 1, on pages 32 to 44. This issue of the journal was published in 1998.Where you have referenced two or more separate works by the same author that were published in the same year, add alphabetical notation after the publication year in both the text and bibliography to distinguish between the works. (Seeexamples above.)E-journal articles Jimenez, R., (2003), …Sex Differences in L2 Vocabulary Learning Strategies‟, International Journal of Applied Linguistics 13, 1, pp.54-77, [online], available from: [Accessed 13/10/2006]For e-journals/books you must state that it is an online resource, cite the URL and include the date you accessed it at the end in addition to including the journal volume/number and the publication year, as above.Learning Advice Centre acceptable title and state the date you accessed the site e.g.: Holmes, A., (2000), Greenpeace wins media war, [online], available from: [Accessed 25/10/2006].If you cannot find & state the author‟s name, use the name of the organisation, e.g.: BBC, (2007), Northern Ireland: The Troubles, [online], available from:[Accessed 30/04/2007].Newspaper articlesList the writer‟s surname and initial(s), year of publication, title of article, title of newspaper followed by the full date of publication, section of the paper and page number, e.g.: Ratner, C., (2000), …Magazine sparks love feud‟, The Independent, 10 October 2000, Thursday Review: p.14Reference to a ThesisList the surname, initials, year, title, type of thesis, name of institution submitted to: Smith, J., (2005), Linguistic Significance of Teenage Slang in the UK, (PhD), University of Westminster TV ProgrammesFollowing the series title list the number and title of the episode, year, transmitting channel followed by the full date and time, if known, of transmission. Venice, Episode 4; Death, (2004),BBC 2, 12/12/2004Contributions in ProgrammesIndividual speakers or contributors to programmes should be referenced by name followed by year, programme title, channel and date of transmission e.g.: Brown, G., (2007), Live Treasury Questions, BBC Parliament, 29/03/2007 DVD/Video List the title, year of production, format, Director‟s name, production place and organisation, e.g.: Dogma, (1999), VHS, Directed by Kevin Smith, View AskewLearning Advice Centreo create a bibliographic list that can be imported into your word documentTo log in to RefWorks use your Athens username and password.NOTE: before you start to use RefWorks it is highly advisable that you either look at the guidance on the library home page or work through the online tutorials. RefWorks is not a tool that can be learned in 5 minutes and used as a last minute quick fix if you are behind on an assignment.Remember, as with any assignment, you should ensure that once you have imported your bibliography you edit and format it to match your departmental protocol; bibliographical information created using RefWorks may be formatted in an alternative way.References:Cottrell, S., (2003), Skills for Success; The Personal Development Planning Handbook, Palgrave Macmillan, UK Holland, M., (2006), Citing References, Academic Services, Bournemouth University,参考文献英文范文：英文参考文献格式英文文献采用“APA格式”：单一作者著作的书籍：姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.Sheril, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.两位作者以上合著的书籍：姓，名字首字母., & 姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社. Smith, J., & Peter, Q. (1992). Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University Press.文集中的文章：Mcdonalds, A. (1993). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment of supernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies: Case studies in application (pp. 42–64). London: OtherWorld Books.期刊中的文章(非连续页码)：Crackton, P. (1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change? Canadian Change, 64(7), 34–37.期刊中的文章(连续页码)：姓，名字首字母.(年). 题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.Rottweiler, F. T., & Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Narnia: Two foes on the brink of destruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54, 66–146.月刊杂志中的文章：Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.。
毕业论文英文参考文献
毕业论文英文参考文献论文的参考文献是在英语专业论文写作过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。
征引过的文献在注释中已注明，不再出现于文后参考文献中。
下面是店铺带来的关于毕业论文英文参考文献的内容，欢迎阅读参考!毕业论文英文参考文献(一)[1]徐安律.原住民小说《圆屋》获美国国家图书奖[N].中华读书报，2012(004).[2]Coulombe,JosephL.ReadingNativeAmericanLiterature[M\. NewYork:Routledge,2011.[3]Erdrich,Louise.TheRoundHouse\M\.NewYork:HarperCollin sPublishers,2012.[J].作家，2013(12)：1.[4]杨恒.弱者的失语法律的缺位--评美国国家图书奖获奖作品《圆屋》[J].博览群书，2013(6)：84-88.[5]Said,Edward.CultureandImprerialism[M].NewYork:Vintage Books,1994.[6]Erdrich,Louise.LoveMedicine[M],NewYork:HarperPerennia l,1993.[7]罗世平.凝视：后殖民主义文学折射[J].国外文学，2006(4)：122.[8]任一鸣.《后殖民：批评理论与文学》[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2008.[9]Halliday,Lisa.LouiseErdrich[J].ParisReview,2010(52)：133-137.[10]温语晴.书写印第安文化的温暖和困境一美国当代作家路易丝·厄德里克和她的作品.[11]陈榕.《凝视》[A].《西方文论关键词》[C].ed.赵一凡.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2011.[12]Russo,Maria.Disturbing the spirits[i]. New York TimesBook Review, 2012(10): 9[13]Said, Edward. Culture and Imprerialism[M]. New York: Vintage Books,1994.[14]Fanon,Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth[M]. New York: Grove Press,1968.[15]徐安律.原住民小说《圆屋》获美国国家图书奖[N].中华读书报，2012(004).毕业论文英文参考文献(二)[1] 陈鹏.高速公路服务区及收费站建筑节能研究[D].中南大学，2007[2] 清华大学建筑节能研究中心.中国建筑节能年度发展研究报告[M]2014.北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2014:39[3] 李慧玲.绿色建筑理念下的高速公路服务区建筑设计研究[D].西安：长安大学，2011[4] 公通字[2009]46 号.民用建筑外保温系统及外墙装饰防火暂行规定[S].新乡市建筑工程质量监督站印发.2009[5] 汤旭东.建筑工程中的现浇聚苯复合材料屋面保温技术[J].江西建材，2014,(11)：45[6] 杨欣霖.高速公路服务区绿色建筑技术体系研究[D].西安：长安大学，2011[7] 欧志华，郭俊明.浅谈我国建筑节能50%设计标准的含义[J].建筑节能，2007,35(12)：60-62[8] 邹惠芬，王国业，郭立杰等.严寒地区窗户热工性能对建筑能耗的影响分析[J].沈阳建筑大学学报(自然科学版).2009,25(5)：982-986[9] 崔洪军，刘孔杰.国外服务区建设及研究现状[J].中国交通报，2008,(12)：138-139[10] 郎松军.建筑结露的起因和防治方法初探[J].四川建筑，2002,22(Z1)：201-203[11] 王金奎，史慧芳，邵旭.体形系数在公共建筑节能设计中的应用[J].低温建筑技术，2010,(5)：98-99[12] 王丽颖，丘雨佳.对德国被动式居住建筑节能技术的考察[J].长春工程学院学报，2013,14(3)：38-40[13] 赖有志，陆京海，杨军霞，张童.现浇轻质泡沫混凝土在屋面工程中的应用[J].施工技术.2011,40(14)：79-94毕业论文英文参考文献(三)[1]蒋花，史志康.整合与对话一论《金色笔记》中的戏仿[J].当代外国文学，2007(2)：78.[2]黄梅.女人的危机和小说的危机--女人与小说杂谈之四[J].读书，1988(01)：5.[3]孙宗白.真诚的女作家多丽丝·莱辛[J].外国文学研宄，1981(3)：70.[4]施旻.《金色笔记》是女性主义文本吗·一关于多丽丝·莱辛及其《金色笔记》的论争[J].东岳论丛，2000(5)： 132-134.[5]李福祥.多丽丝·莱辛笔下的政治与妇女主题[J].外国文学评论，1993(4)：40-43[6]黎会华·多丽丝·莱辛《金色笔记》中的现代主义技巧分析[J].外语研究，2003(6)：73.[7]陈才宇，刘新民.金色笔记[M].北京：译林出版社，2000.[8]黎会华·解构菲勒斯中心：构建新型女性主义主体一《金色笔记》的女性主义阅读[J].浙江师范大学学报，2004(3)：33.[9]韩小敏，纪卫宁.析伍尔夫与莱辛文学创作的相似性[J].理论专刊，2004(8)：125-126.[10]姜红.有意味的形式[J].外国文学，2003(4)：96-98.[11]徐燕.《金色笔记》的超小说艺术[J].宁波大学学报，2003(3)：78-80[12]蒋花，史志康.整合与对话一论《金色笔记》中的戏仿[J].当代外国文学，2007(2)：78.[13]卢婧.《金色笔记》的艺术形式与作者莱辛的人生体验[D].南京师范大学博士学位论文，2008.[14]佘海若.迟来的正义：被缚的自由女性一记2007年诺贝尔文学奖[J].今日科苑，2007(23)： 19-24.[15]刘颖.建构女性的主体性话语一评多丽丝·莱辛的《金色笔记》[J].邵阳学院学报，2004(4).[16]范晓红.从《金色笔记》解读多丽丝·莱辛的生态整体观[D].南京师范大学，2011.[17]Brewster, Dorothy. Doris Lessing\M\. New York: Wayne, 1965: 161.[18]Spilka, Mark. Lessing and Lawrence: the Battle of theContemporary Literature,1975(16)： 218-240.。
2006年英语二阅读唐迟
2006年英语二阅读唐迟In 2006, the English II reading material by Tang Chi wasa significant contribution to the field of language education. It was designed to enhance the reading comprehension skillsof students, providing them with a diverse range of textsthat covered various topics and genres. The material was meticulously curated to challenge and engage students, encouraging them to think critically and analytically.The texts included in Tang Chi's 2006 English II reading series were selected for their relevance and interest to the target audience. They ranged from contemporary issues to classic literature, ensuring that students were exposed to a wide array of writing styles and perspectives. Each reading was accompanied by a set of questions that aimed to test the students' understanding and interpretation of the material.One of the key features of Tang Chi's reading materialwas its focus on developing analytical skills. Students were encouraged to delve deeper into the text, examining theauthor's use of language, the structure of the narrative, and the underlying themes and messages. This approach not only improved their reading skills but also fostered a deeper appreciation for the art of writing.Moreover, the reading material was designed to be accessible to students at different levels of proficiency. It catered to beginners who were just starting to explore thenuances of English literature, as well as advanced learners who were looking to refine their analytical abilities. This inclusive approach made the material a valuable resource for a broad spectrum of students.In addition to improving language skills, the 2006 English II reading material by Tang Chi also aimed to broaden students' horizons. By exposing them to a variety of cultural and historical contexts, the material encouraged students to think beyond their immediate surroundings and to consider global perspectives.In conclusion, Tang Chi's 2006 English II reading material was a comprehensive and engaging resource that played a crucial role in enhancing students' reading abilities. It was a testament to the importance of a well-rounded educational approach that not only focuses on language acquisition but also on critical thinking and cultural awareness.。
英语类论文参考文献（3篇）
英语类论文参考文献（3篇）英语类论文参考文献（3篇）英语类论文参考文献(一)[1] Kemmis.S&R.Mc Taggart. The Action Research Planne[M]. Geelong, Victoria; Deakin University Press, 1982.[2] Hustler. D, T. Cassidy & J. Cuff(eds.). Action Research in Classroom and Schools [C]. Inndon: Allen & Unwin, 1986.[4] Cohen, L.& Mansion, L. ResearchMethods in Education (4th ed.)[M]. London and New Youk: Routledge, 1994.[5] Richards, J. C.& C. Lockhart. Reflective Teaching in Second Language Calssrooms [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.[6]胡青球.行动研究:教学与科研紧密结合的桥梁式研究方法[J].山东外语教学, 2002 (5): 54-56.[7]李静纯.导读[A].华莱士.语言教师行动研究[M].北京:人民教育出版社, 2000.[8]王蔷.英语教师行动研究[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.[9]支永碧.从行动研究到行动教育[J].大连:外语与外语教学, 2008 (9): 28-33.[1]郭建中.当代美国翻译理论[M].武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000[2]王慧.论翻译教学中思维能力的培养[J].吉林省教育学院学报，2009(10)[3]白晓莉.大学英语翻译教学现状及对策分[J].读与写(教育教学刊)，2008(5)[4]刘宓庆.翻译教学：实务与理论[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2007[5]萧立明.英汉比较研究与翻译[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社，2002[6]何刚强.当代英汉互译指导与实践[M].上海:华东理工大学出版社，1997[7]程镇球.政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J].中国翻译，2003(3).[8]杨全红.简论汉英新词翻译[J].中国翻译，1999(3).Malley，J& A. Chamot. Learner Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990Neil J. Anderson,《《第二语言阅读探索：问题与策略》》外语教学与研究出版社 2004郑敏.对语言学习策略分类框架的质疑[J ].外语与外语教学,200(12):33 - 35.英语类论文参考文献(二)[1] Aitchison, J. 1987. Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon [M]. Oxford: Basil lackwell.[2] Blakemore, D. 1992. Understanding Utterances [M]. Oxford: Blackwell.[3] Blakemore, D. 2002. Relevance and Linguistic Meaning: The Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse Markers [M]. Cambridge: CUP.[4] Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford: OUP.[5] Emmorey, K. D. & V. A. Fromkin. 1990. The mental lexicon[A]. In J. Frederick (ed.). Language:The Cambridge Survey: Psychological and Biological Aspects [C]. Newmeyer: CUP.[6] Garnham, A. 1985. Psycholinguistics:#from 英语类论文参考文献（3篇）来自end# Central T opics [M]. Cambridge: CUP.[7] Anderson , A. et al. 1999. Cross-linguistic evidence for the early acquisition of discourse markers as register variables [J]. Journal of Pragmatics (10): 1339-1351.[8] Wesche, M. & T. M. Paribakht. 1996. Assessing vocabulary knowledge: Depth vs. breadth [J].Canadian Modern LanguageReview (10): 13-40.[9] 丁言仁.2004.第二语言习得研究与英语学习 [M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.[10]束定芳，庄智象.1996.现代外语教学理论、方法与实践[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.[11]文秋芳. 2001.英语学习的成功之路[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.[12]陈新仁.2002.话语联系语与英语议论文写作:调查分析[J].外语教学与研究(5):350-354.[13]崔刚.1994.布鲁卡氏失语症实例研究[J].外语教学与研究(1):272-33.[14]桂诗春.2004.我国外语教学的新思考[J].外国语(4):229.[15]何安平，徐曼菲.2003.中国大学生英语口语Small Words的研究[J].外语教学与研究(6):446-452.[16]黄远振.2001.词的形态理据与词汇习得的相关性[J].外语教学与研究(6):430–435.[17]文秋芳.2002.编写英语专业教材的重要原则[J].外语界(1):7-21.[18]文秋芳.2003.频率作用与二语习得[J].外语教学与研究(2):151-154.英语类论文参考文献(三)文献类型标识：普通图书[M], 会议录[C], 汇编[G], 报纸[N], 期刊[J]学位论文[D], 报告[R]，标准[S]，专利[P]，数据库[DB]计算机程序[CP]，电子公告[EB] 磁带[MT]，磁盘[DK]光盘[CD]，联机网络[OL]专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地：出版社，出版年份.[1]何兆熊. 新编语用学概论[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2000.[2]Brown, P. & Levinson, S.C. Politeness: Universals in Language Usage [M].Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.期刊类[3]刘建达.中国学生英语语用能力的测试[J]. 外语教学与研究, 2006(4): 259-265.[4]Cameron, L. Confrontations or Complementarities? Metaphor in Language Use and Cognitive Metaphor Theory [J]. Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 2007(5): 107-135.报纸类[5]李大伦.经济全球化时代英语学习的重要性[N]. 光明日报，1998-12-27(3).[6]French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China [N].Atlantic Weekly,1987-8-15(33).论文集[7]伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海：上海译文出版社，1979：12-17.[8] Spivak,G. Can the Subaltern Speak? [A]. In C.Nelson & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, 271-313.学位论文[9]王淼.中初水平学习者在外语学习环境下的偶遇词汇学习[D]. 上海外国语大学，2004 .研究报告[10] 冯西桥.翻译研究的多维视角[R].北京：清华大学, 1997：9-10.。
2006年考研英语一阅读第二篇
2006年考研英语一阅读第二篇解析第一部分：文章概述1. 进入主题：指出文章题目及作者2006年考研英语一阅读第二篇是一篇名为“Experiments with Noninvasive Techniques to Improve Visualization of Blood Vessels”，作者是Robert Edward.2. 文章内容概述：简要描述文章的内容和重点这篇文章主要介绍了一些非侵入性技术，旨在改善对血管的可视化。
作者列举了一些实验，探讨了这些技术的效果以及对于人体影响的潜在风险。
第二部分：文章分析1. 文章结构分析这篇文章的结构比较清晰，分为概述、实验方法、实验结果和讨论等部分。
通过介绍问题、实验的设计和结果以及对结果的讨论，文章呈现了一种逻辑完整的结构。
2. 关键词解析非侵入性技术、可视化、血管、实验方法和结果。
3. 文章要点文章的主要观点是介绍非侵入性技术在改善血管可视化方面的应用，通过实验结果和讨论展示这些技术的优势和潜在风险。
第三部分：文章水平评价1. 难度分析这篇文章涉及了一些医学领域的专业知识，对于一般考生来说可能有一定的难度。
2. 文章内容质量作者通过实验结果和讨论对非侵入性技术进行了比较深入的分析，内容较为丰富，但可能对非医学专业的考生来说有一定的难度。
3. 阅读价值对于医学相关专业的考生来说，这篇文章具有一定的参考价值，可以帮助他们了解最新的非侵入性技术在实验方面的应用和效果。
第四部分：写作指导1. 文章结构建议考生可以先通读全文，把握文章的主旨和结构，然后再逐段进行阅读和分析。
2. 关键词理解对于不熟悉医学相关专业知识的考生，建议多查阅相关的参考资料，帮助理解文章中的专业术语和概念。
3. 解题思路在阅读理解时，要抓住文章的主要观点和重点内容，不要被一些细节问题所迷惑，要有针对性地进行答题。
第五部分：结语2006年考研英语一阅读第二篇是一篇关于非侵入性技术在血管可视化方面的文章，内容较为专业和深入，对于医学相关专业的考生具有一定的参考价值。
国外关于低段阅读研究的文献
国外关于低段阅读研究的文献以下是关于低段阅读研究的一些国外文献：1. Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 167-188.2. Share, D. L. (2008). On the Anglocentricities of current reading research and practice: The perils of over-reliance on an "outlier" orthography. Psychological Bulletin, 134(4), 584-615.3. Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. National Academies Press.4. Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (2012). Test of word reading efficiency (TOWRE-2). PRO-ED.5. National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.6. Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 37-55.7. Hirsch, E. D. (2003). Reading comprehension requires knowledge—of words and the world. American Educator, 27(1), 10-13, 16-22, 28-29.8. Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(2), 31-74.9. Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (2007). Reading comprehension difficulties: Correlates, causes, and consequences. In Handbook of children's literacy (pp. 684-710). Springer.10. Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis) abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97-110). Guilford Press.这些文献涵盖了低段阅读的理论、研究结果、教学指导和相关问题的讨论，可以作为研究和实践的参考资料。
2006年1-6月全国主要外语刊物外国文学研究论文索引
1．女人的交谈，瓦连京.拉斯普，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
2．从罗得西来开来的火车，纳丁.戈迪默，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
3．伊根诗选，德斯蒙德．伊根，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
4．历史的回声－拜厄特《占有》之多重对话关系，程倩，《当代外国文学》，2006。
5．论《收藏家》的对话艺术特征，于建华，《当代外国文学》，2006。
6．创作内外的选择--戴维。
洛奇之《治疗》，张琼，《当代外国文学》，2006。
7．以语言摩魔镜烛照社会的丑陋与荒诞--埃尔弗里德。
耶利内克论，张春蕾，《当代外国文学》，2006。
8．论《家乡》与《唐老鸭》中“父与子”母题，蒲若西，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
9．美国的猴王--论杰拉尔德.维兹诺与汤亭亭塑造的恶作剧形象，方红，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
10．三重主题及其完成:关于库切之《耻》，仵从巨，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
11．悖论的迷宫--评索尔.贝娄的《拉维尔斯坦》，祝平，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
12．评《拉维尔斯坦》的文化母题：寻找自我的民族家园，江宁康，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
13．丹．布朗小说的写作模式初探，刘玉波，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
14．当代俄罗斯女性小说中对经典文本的戏拟，段丽君，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
15．《伊万的女儿，伊万的母新》简论－－兼评拉斯普京年代的创作，赵杨，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
16．《林中阳台》意象的隐喻魅力，游晓航，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
17．私人与公众的歌者－－爱尔兰诗人伊根作品赏析，金文宁，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
18．裂缝中的意义－－读《特吉昂廷》，袁德成，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
19．当代美国实验小说家约翰．巴思在中国研究评述，蒋首超，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
20．迎迓与拒纳：法国文学在中国的世纪历险，钱林森，《当代外国文学》，2006．1。
外文参考文献格式模板
外文参考文献格式模板英文参考文献引用格式有两种：APA格式和MLA格式。
1、APA格式：APA（American Psychological Association）是一种标明参考来源的格式，主要使用在社会科学领域及其他学术准则中，国内很多期刊也是采用的APA格式。
APA文内注的参考文献格式是：“（作者姓氏，发表年份）”。
APA文末的参考文献目录格式是：Reference List, 必须以姓（Family name）的字母顺序来排列，基本结构为：期刊类：【作者】【发表年份】【文章名】【期刊名】【卷号/期数：起止页码】Smith,J.（2006）.The title of the article.The title of Journal,1,101-105。
非期刊类：【作者】【发表年份】【书籍名】【出版地：出版社】Sussan.G.（2002）.What computers can't do.NewYork:Harp&Row。
2、MLA格式：MLA是美国现代语言协会（Modern Language Association）制定的论文指导格式，多用于人文学科（Liberal Arts）。
MLA文内注的基本格式：“（作者姓氏，文献页码）”。
MLA文末的参考文献目录格式：在MLA格式中称为Works Cited,同样是以姓（Family name）的字母顺序来排列，基本结构为：期刊类：【作者】【“文章名”】【期刊名】【卷号或期数】【发表年份】起止页码】Nwezeh,C.E.“The Comparative Approachto Modern African Literature.”Year book of General and Comparative Literature 28(1979):22。
非期刊类：【作者】【书籍名】【出版地：出版社】【发表年份】Winfield,Richard w in Civil Society.Madison:U of Wisconsin P,1995。
英语毕业论文参考文献格式范文
英语毕业论文参考文献格式范文本文是参考文献写作指导，简单的介绍了英语毕业论文的一些参考文献格式范文。
文章类型：英语毕业论文参考文献格式一英语毕业论文参考文献格式一1. Brown, H. (2006). Readings on Second Language Acquisition. Beijing: World Press2. Ellis, R. (2000).Second Language Acquisition ．Shanghai ：Shanghai Foreign LanguageEducation Press3. Horwitz, E.K.＆Cope J. (1986).Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety.TheModernLanguage Journal, 70(2):125-1324. Horwitz ，E ．K. (1986).Preliminary Evidence for the Reliability and Validity of a ForeignLanguage Anxiety Scale. TESOL Quarterly, 20(2):559ForeignLanguage Anxiety Scale. TESOL Quarterly, 20(2):559——562．5. Krashen, S.D. (1985).The Input Hypothesis.London: Longman6. Maslow, A.H.(1970).Motivation and Personality (2nded.).New York: Harper and Row7. Piaget, J. (1926). The Language and Thought of the Child. New York: Harcourt Brace8. Rodgers, C.R. (1969). Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education MightBecome.Ohio:Merrill9. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher MentalProcesses.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10. 陈青岩，(2013），高职学生英语学习焦虑新探究.南昌教育学院学报(3):85-8611. 陈巧薇, (2010), 国内英语学习焦虑研究10年综述.赤峰学院学报(8):152-15412. 陈琦、刘儒德, (2007), 当代教育心理学．北京：北京师范大学出版社当代教育心理学．北京：北京师范大学出版社13. 陈琦、刘儒德、张建伟, (2001), 教育心理学. 北京：高等教育出版社北京：高等教育出版社14. 车文博, (2003), 人本主义心理学. 杭州：浙江教育出版社杭州：浙江教育出版社15. 郭永玉、王伟, (2007), 心理学导引．武汉：华中师范大学出版社心理学导引．武汉：华中师范大学出版社16. 贾冠杰, (2006), 二语习得论. 南京：东南大学出版社南京：东南大学出版社17. 贾冠杰，(2010)，英语教学基础理论. 上海：上海外语教育出版上海：上海外语教育出版18. 刘文娟, (2010), 高职非英语专业学生英语学习焦虑的调查及其对策.济南职业学院学报(4):104-10619. 廖晓燕,桑龙扬, (2010), 高职院校学生英语学习焦虑降低的对策.九江学院学报(1):113-11520. 闵芬, (2008), A Case Study of Correlation between English Learners’ Anxiety andTheir Oral Performance in the Language Classroom, 中国知网中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库. 东华大学硕士学位论文东华大学硕士学位论文21. 王寅，(2007), 认知语言学. 上海: 上海外语教学研究出版社上海外语教学研究出版社22. 西格蒙德·弗洛伊德，林尘译, (2011), 自我与本我。
外文参考文献资料范例
外文参考文献资料范例[1] Andrea H. Creating ‘buzz’：opportunities and limitations of social media for arts institutions and their viral marketing, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing,2012; 17(3), 173-182.[2] Andreas M. K，Michael Haenlein.Two hearts in three-quarter time: How to waltz the social media/viral marketing dance.Business horizons，2011,54(3)，253-263.[3] Angela D.,David T.. Controlled infection! Spreading the brand message through viral marketing. Business Horizons. 2005,3(48).143-149,[4] Bowman D.，Narayandas D.. Managing customerinitiated contacts with manufacturers: The impact on share of category requirements and word-of-mouth behavior Journal of Marketing Research, 2001，38(3),281-297.[5] Brown J. J., Reingen P. H.. Social ties and word-of-mouth referral behavior. The Journal of Consumer Research, 1987,14(3),350—362，[6] Carmen C. Social and attitudinal determinants of viral marketing dynamics. Computers in Human Behavior，2011,27(6)，2292-2300.[7] Douglas R.Media Virus. New York;Ballantine Books，1994,3-16.[8] Ennew C.，Banerjee A.. Li D..Managing Word of mouth communication: empirical evidence.International Journal of Bank Marketing, 2000,18(2).75-83.[9] Goldenberg J.，Libai B., Muller E.. Talk of the network: A complex systems look at the underlying process of word-of-mouth. Marketing Letters, 2001, 3(12).211-223.[10] Hinz, 01iver,Skiera.Seeding Strategies for Viral Marketing: An Empirical Comparison. Journal of Marketing,2011,75(6),55-72,[11] Ho Jason Y.C., Dempsey.vral marketing: Motivations to forward online content.ournal of Business Research?2010,63(9-10), 1000-1006.[12] Hoedemaekers, Casper.Viral marketing and imaginary ethics, or the joke that goes too far. Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society,2011,16(2),162-178.[13] Jinshuang L.. Scalable Influence Maximization in Social Networks Using theCommunity Discovery Algorithm. Genetic and Evolutionary Computing(1CGEC), 2012 Sixth International Conference on.2012.8(25),284-287.[14] Judith C. Dina M.. The effect of word of mouth on sales: Online bookreviews.Journal of Marketing Research.2006. 43(3).345-356.[15] Jure L, Lada A. A, Bernardo A. H. The dynamics of viral marketing. In ACMconference on Electronic Commerce，2006，pages 228-237.[16] Joseph E. ,Regina L..Viral Marketing or Electronic Word-of-MouthAdvertising:Examining Consumer Responses and Motivations to Pass Along Email. Journalof Advertising Research,2004,12(44),333-348.[17] Lucy H..Viral Marketing: Share index is measure of a viral's success，MarketingWeek,2010,5(4)，24-32.[18] M. J. S"Game Plan For Viral Marketing. Meetings and Conventions,2010,45(6),41-53.[19] Malcolm G. The Tipping Point. New York： Little,Brown and Company，2000,5-20.[20] Mani R. S.，Balaji R. Knowledge-sharing and influence in online social networksvia viral marketing. Communications of the ACM, 2003，46(12)，300—307.[21] Matt H.The art of buzz; Viral marketing agency knows how to get a lot ofattention. National Post,2011,FP4.[22] McConnell， Michael.'Viral' marketing's power - and time torenew.Snips，2011，80(6),5-20.[23] Michalski, Radoslaw J.. Negative Effects of Incentivised Viral Campaigns for Activity in Social Networks. Cloud and Green Computing(CGC).2012,11(1-3),391-398.[24] Palka, Wolfgang.Mobile word-of-mouth - A grounded theory of mobile viralmarketing. Information Technology Journal,2009.24(2), 172-185.[25] Pandit S.，Yang Y..Maximizing Information Spread through Influence Structuresin Social Networks. Data Mining Workshops (ICDMW), 2012 IEEE 12thInternational Conference on. 2012,12(10),258-265.[26] Raei H. A New Algorithm for Positive Influence Dominating Set in SocialNetworks. Advances in Social Networks Analysis and Mining (AS ON AM), 2012IEEE/ACM International Conference on.2012,8(26),253-257.[27] Ralph F.W. The Six Simple Principles of Viral Marketing. 2005-02-01.[28] Scott, David M. The New Rules of Marketing and PR: How to Use NewsReleases, Blogs, Podcasting，Viral Marketing and Online Media to Reach BuyersDirectly, John Wiley & Scons.2011,41-101[29] Sabrina H. Viral marketing-establishing customer relationships by 'word-of-mouse'. Electronic Markets，2000,10(3),158-161.[30] Shapiro,Michael J.. Building Buzz:How Viral Marketing PromotesMeetiongs.Meetings and Conventions,201045(6).36-42.[31] Watts D., Peretti J.. Viral marketing for the Real Word. Harvard BusinessReview,2007,10(1),22-23.[32] Wonyeol L.. CT-IC: Continuously Activated and Time-Restricted Independent Cascade Model for Viral Marketing. Data Mining (ICDM)，2012 IEEE 12thInternational Conference on. 2012,12(10),960-965.[33] Xiaxiu F. Mining Core Groups Based on Network-Influence Set for Web Viral Marketing. Business Computing and Global Informatization (BCGIN)，2012Second International Conference on. 2012,10(12),867-870.[34] Yang H., Zhou C..Extending TPB and TAM to mobile viral marketing: Anexploratory study on American young consumers' mobile viral marketing attitude,intent and behavior, Journal of Targeting. Measurement and Analysis forMarketing，2011，19(2),85-98.[35] Zhuoqi L.，How Well-Connected Individuals Help Spread Influences —AnalysesBased on Preferential Voter Model. Advances in Social Networks Analysis andMining (ASONAM), 2012 IEEE/ACM International Conference on.2012,08(26),674-678.。
英语论文参考文献(全英文版)
英语论文参考文献（全英文版）英语论文参考文献（全英文版）关键词：英文版，参考文献，英语论文英语论文参考文献（全英文版）简介：参考文献是英文类学术论文、研究报告中不可缺少的一部分，不可随意“从略”，更不可马虎了事或错误百出，很多作者在引用英文参考文献时，会出现引用不当、格式错误等问题，为大家分享正确的英语论文参考文献格式及范例。
一、英文论文参考文献格式要求英文参考文献与中文参考文献的格式英语论文参考文献（全英文版）内容：参考文献是英文类学术论文、研究报告中不可缺少的一部分，不可随意“从略”，更不可马虎了事或错误百出，很多作者在引用英文参考文献时，会出现引用不当、格式错误等问题，为大家分享正确的英语论文参考文献格式及范例。
一、英文论文参考文献格式要求英文参考文献与中文参考文献的格式要求基本相同，但写英文参考文献要注意一点，外文作者姓名的着录格式采用姓在前（全拼，首字母大写），名在后（缩写为首字母），中间用空格；着作类文献题名的实词首字母大写，期刊文献题名的首词首字母大写，期刊名称请用全称，勿用缩写。
具体如下：1、单一作者着作的书籍姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.如：Sheril, R. D.(1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego:Halstead.2、两位作者以上合着的书籍姓，名字首字母., 姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.如：Smith, J., Peter, Q. (1992).Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON:McMaster University Press.3、文集中的如：Mcdonalds, A.(1993). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment ofsupernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies:Case studies in application (pp. 42–64). London: OtherWorld Books.4、期刊中的(非连续页码)如：Crackton, P.(1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change?Canadian Change, 64(7), 34–37.5、期刊中的(连续页码)：姓，名字首字母.(年). 题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.如：Rottweiler, F. T., Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Narnia: Two foes on the brink ofdestruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54, 66–146.6、月刊杂志中的如：Henry, W. A., III.(1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.二、英文论文参考文献范例。
施工组织设计英文文献
- energy demand reductions due to insulation (GWh/year).
E. Tsioliaridou, G.C. Bakos / Energy and Buildings 38 (2006) 196–206
197
system with an adequate safety margin and using the most mature and cost-effective RES technologies.
E. Tsioliaridou *, C. Bakos
Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Energy Economics Laboratory, 12 Vas. Sofias Str, 67100 Xanthi, Greece
Keywords: Reference scenario; Renewable energy sources (RES); Rational use of energy (RUE)
1. Introduction
Renewable energy sources (RES) and rational use of energy (RUE) have been and are further supported in Europe in the last decades and a number of related research projects have been funded by EC [1,2]. The core objectives of these projects (Green-X and Green-Net) were to facilitate a significantly increased electricity generation from RES in a liberalised electricity market with minimal costs for European citizens. The major outcome of these two projects was a simulation software containing a comprehensive database with potentials and costs of different RES technologies in EU countries.
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涤纶阻燃技术研究进展张榕１，朱新生１，２＊，周舜华２，濮江２，路建美３（１．苏州大学材料工程学院，江苏苏州２１５０２１；２．吴江丝绸股份有限公司，江苏吴江２１５２２８；３．苏州大学化学化工学院，江苏苏州２１５０２３）摘要：综述了聚酯纤维阻燃化处理方法，分析了卤系和磷系阻燃剂及其对聚酯的阻燃改性作用，以及聚酯／无机纳米复合材料的热稳定性与阻燃性。
指出：磷系共聚阻燃改性技术辅以其它反应性单体、纳米添加剂等有利于改善涤纶的抗熔滴性和炭化阻燃作用。
关键词：阻燃；涤纶；阻燃剂；抗熔滴性中图分类号：ＴＱ３４２．２１文献标识码：Ａ文章编号：１００１－７０５４（２００６）０８－０００９－０４０前言涤纶是各种合成纤维中发展最快、产量最高、应用面最广的一种合成纤维［１］，其纤维纺织品大量用于衣料、窗帘、幕布、床上用品、室内装饰及各种特殊材料。
涤纶的极限氧指数（ＬＯＩ）在２１左右，随着纤维织物的广泛应用，其火灾的潜在危险也日益突出。
涤纶的阻燃研究始于２０世纪５０年代初期，经过几十年的发展，涤纶的阻燃技术已比较成熟，已经有许多商业化的阻燃涤纶，如日本东洋纺公司的Ｈｅｉｍ、意大利ＳｎｉａＶｉｓｃｏｓａ公司的ＷｉｓｔｅｌＦＲ和德国ＨｏｅｃｈｓｔＣｅｌａｎｅｓｅ公司的ＴｒｅｖｉｒａＣＳ等。
我国从上世纪８０年代初开始进行阻燃涤纶的研究，也取得了不少进展。
１阻燃涤纶改性方法按生产过程和阻燃剂的引入方式，涤纶的阻燃改性方法可归纳为以下五种：（１）在酯交换或缩聚阶段加入反应型阻燃剂进行共缩聚；（２）在熔融纺丝前向熔体中加入添加型阻燃剂；（３）以普通聚酯与含有阻燃成分的聚酯进行复合纺丝；（４）反应型阻燃剂在涤纶或织物上进行接枝共聚；（５）涤纶织物进行阻燃后处理［２］。
第（１）至（３）种方法属原丝的阻燃改性，第（４）和（５）种方法属表面处理改性。
共聚阻燃改性方法是在聚酯的合成阶段将阻燃单体与聚酯组分进行缩聚而合成的阻燃聚酯，进而纺制成阻燃纤维。
由于阻燃单体固定在聚酯大分子链上，在使用过程中不会发生溶解或渗析现象，因而这种阻燃涤纶具有相对的永久性，毒性较低。
国外已工业化的阻燃涤纶品种，主要是采用这种阻燃改性方法。
共混阻燃改性不改变聚酯生产工艺，品种更换灵活，适用面较广。
但是，共混阻燃改性需要解决其分散性、界面相容性和毒性等问题。
复合纺丝阻燃改性多采用皮－芯型结构，是以共聚型或共混型阻燃聚酯为芯，普通聚酯为皮层复合纺制而成。
对于那些耐水解性差，如部分膦共聚改性阻燃聚酯特别适合这种纺丝方法。
接枝阻燃改性是用紫外线、高能电子束辐射或化学引发剂使乙烯基型的阻燃单体与聚酯发生接枝共聚，是获得有效而持久的阻燃改性方法。
但复合纺和后接枝共聚收稿日期：２００６－０１－２６作者简介：张榕（１９８３￣），女，苏州大学材料工程学院材料学２００５级硕士研究生。
＊通讯联系人。
专题综述ＣｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｖｅＲｅｖｉｅｗDOI:10.16090/ki.hcxw.2006.08.003要求技术条件和生产成本都高，因而不易被普遍采用。
织物阻燃后整理具有工艺简单、成本低等优点，但缺乏阻燃持久性，且阻燃剂用量多，对织物的强度、手感、色泽、透气性等影响较大。
２卤系和磷系阻燃剂及其阻燃改性２．１共混型卤系阻燃剂用于涤纶阻燃处理的卤素化合物以溴代物为主。
溴类阻燃剂添加量小，阻燃效果好，是目前应用较为广泛的阻燃剂。
２０世纪６０￣７０年代开发了很多共混型芳香族溴系阻燃剂，如Ｆｉｒｅｍａｓｔｅｒ－９３５的阻燃聚酯纤维，它是以多溴二苯醚为阻燃添加剂与聚酯共混纺丝而成。
在溴系阻燃剂中，十溴二苯醚（ＤＢＤＰＯ）含溴量高，分解温度大于３５０℃，是一种纯度高、热稳定性极佳、燃烧时不会产生大量有毒气体的阻燃剂。
欧盟在２００６年７月后仍允许使用这种阻燃剂，目前为国内阻燃聚酯生产厂家广泛使用。
２．２共聚型卤系阻燃剂１９７４年美国ＤｕＰｏｎｔ公司生产的Ｄａｃｒｏ－９００Ｆ纤维，是以四溴双酚Ａ双羟乙基醚（ＴＢＡ－ＥＯ）作为聚酯的阻燃共聚单体，与ＤＭＴ、ＥＧ经酯交换共缩聚后熔融纺丝制得，其溴含量为６％左右，ＬＯＩ为２７￣２８。
但该阻燃剂的热稳定性不好，在２３５℃就容易分解，同时还由于生产成本和聚合物熔融性等问题，该纤维已停止生产。
卤素阻燃剂虽然阻燃效果令人满意，但也有一系列的缺陷：在涤纶纺丝过程中对设备和喷丝板有严重的腐蚀作用；常使涤纶的耐光牢度降低２￣３级，且当染料受光照作用后同溴化物反应，引起纤维变黄，颜色恶化［３，４］。
含卤素的阻燃材料在燃烧时易放出有刺激性和腐蚀性的卤化氢气体，特别是一些含卤素类阻燃体系在高温裂解及燃烧时，产生有毒的多溴代二苯并呋喃（ＰＢＤＦ）及多溴代二苯并噁烷（ＰＢＤＤ）［５］，这对生命与财产安全构成严重威胁，因此，阻燃材料的无卤化在全球的呼声甚高。
２．３共混型磷系阻燃剂随着人们对火灾和阻燃材料研究的深入以及环保意识的增强，特别是自上世纪９０年代以来，具有低烟、低毒的磷系阻燃剂受到普遍重视。
据报道［６］，使涤纶产生自熄行为所需的磷的质量百分含量为５％，而在同样的情况下所需的溴的质量百分含量在１７％左右。
就阻燃涤纶的综合性能而言，磷系阻燃剂不仅能克服卤素阻燃剂带来的纤维耐光牢度降低、颜色恶化和脆性增加等影响，通常还能改善纤维的色泽和染色性能。
目前磷系阻燃剂主要有磷酸酯、膦酸衍生物、膦酸酯类或氧化膦类。
早期磷系阻燃剂主要采用磷酸酯作为涤纶的阻燃剂，但是这类阻燃剂耐热性差，挥发性大，相容性差，在燃烧时有滴落物产生，其阻燃效果与阻燃剂含磷量大体成比例。
随着高相对分子质量磷系阻燃剂推广应用，这类高挥发性添加剂将会逐渐被淘汰。
日本的Ｈｅｉｍ阻燃纤维使用了相对分子质量高达８０００以上的聚苯基膦酸二苯砜酯齐聚物作阻燃剂，所制得的织物阻燃性良好。
另外，美国Ｍｏｎｓａｎｔｏ公司的Ｐｈｏｓｇａｒｄ２ＸＣ－２０是一种非挥发性磷酸酯阻燃剂［７］，Ｓｔａｕｆｆｅｒ公司的Ｆｙｒｏｌ９９也是一种高相对分子质量的磷酸氯乙烯聚合物［８］。
这类高分子量阻燃剂具有低挥发性、耐水、耐溶剂的特点，在涤纶阻燃改性中得到广泛应用。
国内马少君［９］报道了二氯磷酸苯酯和双酚Ｓ的溶液聚合，合成了可供聚酯纤维用的聚对二苯砜苯基磷酸酯，其分解温度为３２０℃，高于聚酯的合成与加工温度，所得阻燃聚酯的ＬＯＩ值大于２８。
青岛大学阻燃纤维研究所利用自制的二氯化苯氧膦与双酚砜合成了高分子量的磷－硫阻燃剂（ＳＦ－ＦＲＩ），它是一种相对分子质量为８０００￣１００００的浅黄色磷系聚合物，熔融温度为１８０￣２４０℃［１０］，热分解温度高于４００℃，可与常规聚酯切片共混纺丝，且不影响纺丝工艺。
当阻燃剂添加量为３．５％时，聚酯纤维的ＬＯＩ可达到３０。
据报道，这种阻燃剂已在济南化纤厂、淄博化纤厂和上海化纤公司等进行试用，生产出了高效的共混型阻燃聚酯纤维［１１］。
２．４共聚型磷系阻燃剂国外商品化磷阻燃共聚酯纤维主要有德国ＨｏｅｃｈｓｔＣｅｌａｎｅｓｅ公司的ＴｒｅｖｉｒａＣＳ、日本东洋纺ＧＨ等品牌。
ＴｒｅｖｉｒａＣＳ是当前国际市场上阻燃涤纶的主导产品，阻燃剂为３－苯基膦酸丙羧酸或其环状化合物。
纤维中磷含量为０．６％时就可以满足各种装饰纺织品的阻燃要求，并具有无卤、低毒，专题综述ＣｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｖｅＲｅｖｉｅｗ物理力学性能优良。
美国Ｓｏｌｕｔｉａ公司已推出了用于ＰＥＴ的共聚阻燃单体———ＰｈｏｓｇａｒｄＰＦ１００，当阻燃ＰＥＴ中磷含量达０．３％￣０．４％时，极限氧指数为３０￣３２。
近年来含磷共聚改性型阻燃涤纶已成为我国涤纶阻燃研究中的主要热点。
青岛大学阻燃纤维研究所成功研制并工业化生产了具有双反应性功能团的磷系反应型阻燃剂羧酸烷基膦酸（ＳＦ－ＦＲＩＩ）。
它是由苯基磷化物、不饱和脂肪酸等合成而得的白色晶体，熔点为１５６￣１５８℃，含磷量为１４．２％，其热稳定性较好，分解温度在２７５℃以上［１１］。
由于分解温度较低，需控制聚合温度在２７０℃以下，否则会影响聚酯的缩聚工艺和聚酯切片的质量。
由于ＳＦ－ＦＲＩＩ阻燃剂还存在重结晶时收率低、且易生成苯次膦酸副产物等［１２］，因此青岛大学阻燃纤维研究所又采用苯基二氯化膦、丙烯酸和甲醇等合成了一种共聚型阻燃剂３－［羟基（苯基）膦基］丙酸甲酯（ＳＦ－ＦＲＩＩＩ）。
这种阻燃剂可以直接加入到聚酯聚合釜中参与酯化、缩聚反应。
北京理工大学基于苯基二氯化膦（ＤＣＰＰ）合成了系列反应型有机膦阻燃剂，如２－羧乙基苯基次膦酸（ＣＥＰＰＡ）、［６－氧（６Ｈ）－二苯并－（ｃ，ｅ）（１，２）－氧磷杂己环－６－酮］甲基］－丁二酸（ＤＤＰ）和双（对－羧苯基）苯基氧化膦（ＢＣＰＰＯ）等［１３］。
在各种氧化膦类阻燃单体中，２－羧乙基苯基次膦酸（ＣＥＰＰＡ）颇引人注目。
ＣＥＰＰＡ是由苯和三氯化磷经催化反应制得苯基二氯化膦，再由苯基二氯化膦与丙烯酸反应制得。
它具有较好的热稳定性、氧化稳定性和耐水解性，反应活性高，阻燃效果可通过阻燃剂加入量调节，所得阻燃切片的热稳定性、耐氧化性和可纺性均好。
当ＣＥＰＰＡ添加量为５％时，阻燃涤纶ＬＯＩ达到３２以上。
国际上Ｈｏｅｃｈｓｔ、Ｅａｓｔｍａｎ等公司也使用了ＣＥＰＰＡ生产阻燃聚酯［１３］。
ＤＤＰ的合成要比ＣＥＰＰＡ复杂，但它应用于聚酯后具有优良的耐染色性和耐水解性能，在国际上已有东洋纺织和ＥＭＳ公司等用其生产高档的阻燃聚酯产品［１３］。
北京理工大学采用自主研制的工艺合成了ＢＣＰＰＯ。
首先利用苯基硫代膦酰二氯（ＤＣＰＰＳ）、甲苯和无水ＡｌＣｌ３合成中间产物双（对－甲苯基）苯基氧化膦（ＢＭＰＰＳ），然后以ＫＭｎＯ４为氧化剂将ＢＭＰＰＳ氧化成ＢＣＰＰＯ［１５］。
ＢＣＰＰＯ热分解温度在３５０℃以上，能与乙二醇和对苯二甲酸共聚合成共聚阻燃聚酯。
ＢＣＰＰＯ用量一般不宜超过１０％，这是由于有机膦无规地分布在大分子链上［１４］，破坏了大分子链的结构规整性，使阻燃聚酯的熔点、玻璃化温度和特性黏度迅速下降。
ＢＣＰＰＯ不仅具有优异的阻燃作用，而且赋予聚合物较好的抗静电性、染色性、热稳定性和氧化稳定性等，必将受到阻燃涤纶生产厂家的重视。
虽然磷系阻燃剂在使用过程中不会产生有毒物质，但是阻燃剂的各种中间体及生产过程都具有一定的毒性，人们也将逐渐重视硅系阻燃剂及其它无机阻燃剂的研究与应用。
无机阻燃剂具有无烟、无毒、无腐蚀性、安全和廉价等优点，如硼酸（或氧化硼）、云母、陶瓷和碳黑等无机物也被用于涤纶的阻燃改性［１６￣２１］。
３ＰＥＴ／无机纳米复合材料２０世纪８０年代末至９０年代初兴起的聚合物／无机物纳米复合材料开辟了阻燃高分子材料的新途径，被国外文献誉为塑料阻燃技术的革命［２２］。
与纯ＰＥＴ相比，ＰＥＴ／蒙脱土纳米复合材料在结晶速率、热变形温度、热分解温度、力学性能、气体阻隔性等方面都有提高［２３］，但也发现存在一些如纳米粒子分布不均的问题。