Chapter Eight Time as communication

Chapter Eight Time as communicationLearning objective:.By the end of the chapter, you should be able to understand time is a personal phenomenon, and how we perceive and treat it that expresses our character..How members of different cultures value and respond to time..Understand the three perspectives (informal time, perceptions of past, present, and future and Hall’s monochronic and polychronic classifications) and their reflection in different cultures and learn to determine a culture’s conception of time from three different perspectives mentioned above.Warm-up activitiesIn a small group, read the following paragraph and explain what went wrong, have a discussion on the questions.Jan was in Brazil on business. Ciro a Brazilian associate, invited her to a dinner party he and his wife were giving. The invitation was for “around 8, this Friday night.”Jan arrived at Ciro’s house at exactly 8:00. Ciro and his wife were still dressing and had not even begun to prepare the food.Why did these problems take place?What are some common problems when treating appointment?What do you think theCiro and his wife’s time concept?ReadingReading1 Time OrientationWhen Shakespeare wrote “The inaudible and noiseless foot of Time,’’ we cannot hold or see time, we respond to it as if it had command over our lives. Because time is such a personal phenomenon, all of us perceive and treat it in a manner that expresses our character. If we arrive thirty minutes late for an important appointment and offer no apology, we send a certain message about ourselves. Telling someone how guilty we feel about our belated arrival also sen ds a message. A culture’s use of time can also provide valuable clues to how members of that culture value and respond to time. In America, we hear people saying, “Time is money” and “He who hesitates is lost.” All Chinese know the Confucian proverb, “Think three times before you act.” Reflect for a moment on how differently each of these cultures perceives time. A culture’s conception of time can be examined from three different perspectives:(1) informal time; (2) perceptions of past, present, and future; and (3) Hall’s monochronic and polychronic classifications.Informal Time:Most of the rules for informal time, such as pace and tardiness, are not explicitly taught. Like most of culture, these rules usually function below the level of consciousness. Argyle makes much the same point when he compares cultural differences in punctuality standards: How late is “late”? This varies greatly. In Britain and America only maybe 5 minutes late for a business appointment, but not 15 and certainly not 30 minutes late, which is perfectly normal in Arab countries. On the other hand in Britain it is correct to be 5-15 minutes late for an invitation to dinner. An Italian might arrive 2 hours late, an Ethiopian after, and a Javanese not at all—he had accepted only to prevent his host from losing face.Our reaction to punctuality is rooted our cultural experiences. In the United States, we haveall learned that the boss can arrive late for a meeting without anyone raising an eyebrow; if the secretary is late, he or she may receive a reprimand in the form of a stern glance. A rock star or a doctor can keep people waiting for long period of time, but the warm-up band and the nurse had better be on time. In Latin America, one is expected to arrive late to appointments as a sign of respect. This same tardiness would be perceived as rudeness in Germany. According to Hall and Hall, “Promptness is taken for granted in Germany—in fact, it’s almost an obsession.”We can ascertain a culture’s attitude toward time by examining the pace at which members of that culture perform specific acts and respond to certain events. Americans, because of the pace of life in the United States, always seem to be in a hurry—for them, there is always one more thing to do. Conveniences—from fast-food restaurants, one-stop gas station, and microwave ovens—help most of us get things done quickly. We find the “fast lane” most appealling. We grow up hearing people say, “Don’t waste so much time.” We are impatient when things take too long, and we act as if we believe the French proverb “Patience is the virtue of asses.” Other cultures see time differently and hence live life at a pa ce different from that of most people in the United States. The Japanese, Arab, and Chinese cultures, for example, treat time in ways that often appear at cross-purposes with American goals. Drawing on the Japanese culture for his example, Brislin illustrates how pace is reflected in the negotiation process: When negotiating with the Japanese, Americans like to get right down to business. They were socialized to believe that “time is money.” They can accept about 15 minutes of “small talk” about the weather, their trip, and baseball, but more than that becomes unreasonable. The Japanese, on the other hand, want to get to know their business counterparts. They feel that the best way to do this is to have long conversations with Americans about a wide variety of topics. The Japanese are comfortable with hours, and even days and days, of conversation.Indonesians are yet another group that do not want to be pressured or hurried. They perceive time as a limitless pool. According to Harris and Moran, there is even “a phrase in Indonesia describing this concept of time. People from England and the United States move much faster than people from Indonesia.Past, Present, and FutureAs a species, our fixation with time and the power we give it are rather obvious. Over two thousand years ago, the Greek philosopher Sophocles observed, “Time is a kindly God.” As is the case with most of the issues discussed this book, cultures vary widely in their conceptions of time. Where they differ is in the value placed on the past, present, and future and how each influences interaction.Past-orientated culture believe strongly in the significance of prior events. History, established religion, and traditon are extremely important to these cultures, so there is a strong belief that the past should be the guide for making decisiond and determining truth. We see this orientation in China , which because of its long and resplendent history continues to respect the past. Even today, Chinese historical dramas lead box-office sales. And, as Adler notes, “Chinese children have no space-age superman to emulate. Even at play they pretend to be on the Monkey King, the supernaturl hero of a medieval epic.” In Japan, where Shintoism is strong and ancestor worship important, the past remains paramount. Gtreat Britain, because of its extensive devotion to tradition, continues to resist change as it attempts to cling to the past.Present-orientated cultures hold that the moment has the most significance. For them, the future is vague, ambiguous, and unknown and what is real exists in the here and now. For thesecultures, enjoyment comes in the present. People of the Philippines, Mexico, and Latin American usually have these beliefs.Future-oriented cultures, such as the one found in the United States, emphasize the future and expect it to be grander and nicer than the present. What is coming next holds the greatest attraction for most Americans because whatever we are doing is not quite as good as what we could be doing. The “next” thing can happen in one minute, one week, one month, one year, or in heaven, but the future is where happiness is to be found. Many cultures believe that most Americans are always planning for the future instead of experiencing the moment. This does not mean that Americans have no regard for the past or no thought of the present, but it is certainly true that most of us, in thought or action, do not want to be “left behind”. We al l want to wear the most current fashions and to drive a brand new car.Like many other orientations, our view of time is related to a host of other values. For example, Americans’ view of the future mekes them optimistic. This is reflected in the common proverb “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try, and try again.”Reading2 Monochronic Time and Polychronic TimeAnthropologist Hall advanced another classification of time as a form of communication. Hall proposed that cultures organize time in one of two ways: either monochronic (M-time) or polychronic (P-time). Although he did not intend these as either/or categories, they do represent two distinct approaches to time.M-time is characteristic of people from Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and America. As Hall explains, “People of the Western world, particularly Americans, tend to think of time as something fixed in nature, something around us and from which we cannot escape; an ever-present part of the environment, just like the air we breathe.’’ As the word monochronic implies, this approach sees time as lineal, segmented, and manageable. Time is something we must not waste; we must be doing something or we feel guilty. We behave as if time were tangible: we talk of “ saving time,” “losing time,” or “killing time.” The time clock records the hours w must work, the school bell moves us from class to class, and the calendar marks imoortant days and events in our lives. Appointments and schedules are very important to members of monochronic cultures.People from cultures on P-time live their lives quite differently. P-time cultures, for example, deal with time holistically. They can interact with more than one person or do more than one thing at a time. According to Dressere, this multidimensional approach to the moment “explains why there is more interrupting in conversations carried on by people from Arabic, Asian, and Latin American cultures.’’ They also take great stock in the activity that is occurring at the moment and emphasize people more than schedules. They do not preceive appointments as iron-clad commitments and therefore often break them. For P-time cultures, time is less tangible; hence, feelings of watsed time are not as prevalent as in M-time cultures. This leads, of course, to a lifestyle that is more spontaneous and unstructured—characteristics that often confuse and frustrate Americans and other Westerners.In Table 2 and 3, Hall and Hall summarize the basic aspects of both approaches. Their condensation takes many of the ideas we have mentioned and translates them into specific behaviors.Within the United States, there are co-cultures that use time differently from the dominantculture. Mexican Americans freguently speak of “Chicago time” when their timing varies from that of the dominant culture. Burgoon and Saine have observed that the Polynesian culture of Hawaii has “Hawaii time,” a concept of time that is very relaxed and reflects the informal lifestyle of the Native Hawaii people. And among Samoans, there is a time perspective referred to as “coconut time”, which is derived from the notion that it is not necessary to pick coconuts because they will fall when time is right. African Americans often use what is referred to as “BPT” (Black People’s Time) or “hang-loose time.” This concept, which has its roots in the P-time cultures of Africa, maintains that priority belongs to what is happening at that instant. Statements such as “Hey, man, what’s happenin’?’’ reflect the importance of the here and now.I.The comparison between Monochronic and PolychronicPeopleII. Time as communication1. A culture’s conception of time can be examined from three different perspectives:(1) informal time;(2) perceptions of past, present, and future;(3) Hall’s monochronic and polychronic classifications.2. Past-orientated culture believes strongly in the significance of prior events.3. Present-orientated cultures hold that the moment has the most significance. Forthesecultures, enjoyment comes in the present.4. Future-oriented culturesemphasize the future and expect it to be grander and nicer thanthe present.Summary of the Chapter1.We can understand a culture’s sense of time by learning about how members of thatculture view informal time.2.Attitudes toward time also appear in the ways people conceive of the past, presentand future.3.Cultural orientations toward time can be classified as monochronic or polychronic.Key tremsVerbal communication 言语交际linear language 线性语言Denotational meaning 概念意义Monochronic Time单向时间观Discourse pattern 语篇思维模式nonlinear language 非线性语言iron-clad commitments铁一般的承诺Polychronic Time多元时间观Words & Expressionsfaculty n.才能, 全体教员excursion n. 远足; 短程旅行; 游览schedule v.将...列表; 安排, 预定courtesy n.礼貌; 谦恭有礼的言辞monochromic vt.使单色化perceive v.察觉; 意识到; 理解tangible adj.实体的, 有形的prevalent adj.普遍的, 流行的inaudible adj.听不见的; 不可闻的punctuality n.准时worship v.崇拜, 尊敬;reprimand v.谴责, 严责, 惩戒counterparts n.副本, 配对物, 复本Promptness n.敏捷; 迅速Notes1.Michael Argyle, “Inter-cultural Communication,”in Cultures in Contact: StudiesCross-Cultural Interaction. Stephen Bochner, Ed.2.R. Levine, “Social Time: The Heartbeat of Culture,” Psychology Today, March 1985,35.3.P.R.Harris＆R.T.Moran, Managing Cultural Differences, 4th ed.(Houston TX:Gulf1996),266.ExercisesI.Questions for Discussion1.How late can you be for the following: a class? Work?a job interview? A dinner party?A date with a friend? Now ask these same questions of members of Latin Americanand Asian cultures.2.How much do you know about monochronictime and polychronictime?3.Have you ever experienced troubles because of the different concepts of time?II.Multiple Choices1.Which of the followings are present-orientated cultures______?A. PhilippinesB. ChineseC. Mexico,D. Latin American2. In , arrive late to appointments is strictly not expected.A. JapaneseB. ChineseC. Latin AmericaD. German3. The culture/cultures of _______treat time in opposite ways with American.A. the Japanese,B. the Arab,C. the ChineseD. the German4. Past-orientated culture is reflected in_______.A. Chinese historical dramas draw a large audience.B. Hi-tech hero is rarely seen in the world of Chinese children without the consideration ofimport heroes.C.The characters of Japanese cartoon with many traditional features.D. Great Britain continues to resist change as it attempts to cling to the past.5. What is true about future-oriented cultures?A. It is found in the United States.B. Future holds the greatest attraction for most AmericansC. Americans have no regard for the past or no thought of the presentD. Americans’ view of the future makes t hem optimistic.6. P-time is different from M-time in that P-time ______ .A. deals with time as a wholeB. emphasizes schedules more than people.C. perceives appointments as iron-clad commitments and therefore never break them.D. feels wasted time not as prevalent as in M-time culturesIII. Fill in the blanks1.Our reaction to () is rooted our cultural experiences.2.The Japanese, Arab, and Chinese cultures, for example, treat time in ways that oftenappear () with American goals.3.We see this orientation in China, which because of its long and () history continues torespect the past.4.“Chinese children have no space-age superman to (). Even at play they pretend to beon the Monkey King, the supernatural hero of a medieval epic.”5.Hall proposed that cultures organize time in one of two ways: either () or ().6.P-time cultures, for example, deal with time (). They can interact with more than oneperson or do more than one thing at a time.Case StudyCase1Kevin has taught in a Chinese university for about 3 months. He has had a hard time developing new friendships and starting a new life in China .While he keeps busy during the week with his job,weekends are difficult times for him. He would make plans for all the weekends so that he would not feel lonely.On one Thursday,Kevin was told that the Foreign Affairs Office would organize an excursion for international faculty on the coming Saturday to visit a nearby garden and teahouse. However,Kevin said"no"to the organizer because,he had arranged to do something with one of his few friends."But didn't you tell us that you wanted to be able to find interesting things to do on weekends?",asked one of the organizers."Yes,but this is a very short notice. I already made plans." "Today is only Thursday!",said the organize."But Saturday is only two days away,"said Kevin.As a result,Kevin could not make the trip that he would have liked to.Question:Please analysis the case both from Chinese perspective and from American perspectivewith conception of time?Case 2Finding an Interested BuyerGeorge Hall was in Beijing attending a trade fair and looking for an opportunity to do business in China. He had been very successful in his business dealings in the US and prided himself on his ability “to get things moving.” His first day was going we ll .He looked around at the displays of sporting equipment to get some idea of whom he might approach. He was sure that his products, tennis rackets with an unusual new design, would arouse some interests. On the second day he approached the company which he felt would be most responsive to his products. He introduced himself to the general, a Mr. Li. Since he had read that Chinese find getting down to business immediately too abrupt and rude, he began a casual conversation, eventually leading up to the top ic of his products and suggesting how Mr. Li’s company might benefit from using them. George then suggested that he could arrange to get together with Mr. Li and provide more specifics and documentation on his products.Mr. Li responded in fairly good E nglish,” That would be interesting.”Knowing that he had only a few days left in Beijing, George wanted to nail down a time,” When can we meet?” asked George.“Ah. This week is very busy,” replied Mr. Li.“It sure is,” said George,” How about 10 o’clock? Meet you here. “Tomorrow at 10 o’clock?” asked Mr. Li thoughtfully.“Right,” said George, “I’ll see you then?”“Hmm, yes; why don’t you come by tomorrow,” was the reply.“OK,” responded George,” It was nice meeting you.”The next day at 10 o’clock he approached Mr. Li’s company’s exhibit only to find that Mr. Li had some important business and was not able to meet with George. He called back later in the day and was told that Mr. Li was not available.Question:Why did these problems take place?George is from a M-time culture orP-time culture?。