美国女性社会地位发展简史

英语论文二十世纪美国妇女的社会地位

山西师范大学本科毕业论文二十世纪美国妇女的社会地位张婧姓名系院外国语学院业专英语双学位0702班级班号学0619010219指导教师楠李答辩日期成绩内容摘要妇女在社会中扮演着十分重要的角色，但是由于各方面的原因，妇女的社会地位与其重要性却不对等。

作为一个移民国家，美国妇女由白人、黑人和华裔妇女组成。

鉴于美国这一国家自身的独特性，关于美国妇女的社会地位问题一直以来都是学者们研究的重点，尤其是二十世纪。

这一时期，美国社会发生了巨大的变化。

美国妇女的社会地位也随之发生了很大的变化。

这两种变化交互影响：社会的变化为妇女社会地位的改善创造了条件，反过来，妇女社会地位的改善有促进了社会的进步。

总体上来说，虽然期间有一些波折，但是二十世纪美国妇女的社会地位主要呈现一种上升的趋势。

本文主要是通过一些重要的数据对比和重大事件，从经济，高等教育和政治三方面研究妇女社会地位的提高，描述这种变化的表现，分析造成这种变化的原因，以及妇女社会地位改变对美国社会的影响，最后，呼吁人们为改善妇女的社会地位创造条件。

关键词：妇女社会地位；工作机会；高等教育；平等；政治参与AbstractWomen play an important role in the society, but for all kinds of reasons, their social status is out of proportion with their importance. As an immigrated country, the Americanwomen were mainly composed of the whites, the blacks and the Chinese women. Since theUnited States of America is distinct as an independent nation, the American women's social status has always been an important problem for researchers. The American societyth century. So did the American women's social status. witnessed a lot of changes in the 20These two changes also had an effect on each other: the social transitions provided someconditions for the improvement of the American women's social status, in reverse, theirstatus' improvement also promoted the social progress. In summary, although there wereth century, the American women's some setbacks during the 20social status presented anincreasing tendency.This paper mainly discussed the improvement of the American women's social status from the perspectives of economy, higher education and politics by comparing some important figures and significant events while describing the manifestations of the shifts.The paper studied the factors which had caused these shifts and these shifts' influence toAmerican society as well. At last, the author called on people to create someconditions toimprove women's social status.Key words: women's social status; employment opportunity; higher education; equity;political participationContents1.…………1. Introduction……………………………………………………th...1…………………………………century1.1 The American society in the 20……………..2social status American women's 1.2 The factors that influenced the...32. American Women's Economic Status……………………………………………………………..32.1 The American women's employment opportunity……………………………………….52.2 The working women's role in family.7………………………3. American Women's Status inHigher Education..7…………………………3.1 American women as students in higher education ..8…………………3.2 American women as faculty members in higher education ......................................................94. American Women's PoliticalStatu s....……………………………………….94.1 American women's effects in politics10…………………………………cipation4.2 American women's political parti………………………………………………………………5. Conclusion..12ReferencesAcknowledgementsThe American Women's Social Statusth in the 20 Century1.IntroductionWomen play a vital part both in family and social life, but their importance and value are always overlooked by the people and the society. So do the American women. For along time, the American women's social status was dramatically out of proportion withtheir importance. They suffered from the social prejudice and bias which providedthemwith only limited rights. This kind of unequal situation had not been greatly improved untilth century.the 20th century The American society in the 201.1th century had witnessed unprecedented changes The 20in the American society andthe American women's life.The development of industry which was known as the Industrial Revolution changed th century. As a result in the 20of the American the American society significantly Industrial Revolution, the labor market was greatly enlarged. Under the circumstances,only men couldn't meet the enlarging labor needs. This provided an employment opportunity for women to work outside the home. Especially in 1939, the Second WorldWar broke out. Almost all male workers were asked to join in the army. Women were encouraged to work in factories due to the severe labor shortages. Even though they returned home after the war, women still made a great contribution to American societyduring the war time. Besides, with the development of science and technology, many greatinventions were invented. These inventions such as tractors, mechanical cotton pickers,vacuum cleaners, washing machines affected not only the industry production but also thefamily life. Owing to these great inventions; women could free themselves from the heavyhousework and had more extra time to work outside their families. At the same time, manyregulations and laws about improving women's social status were proposed and put intoeffect. For example, the President John F. Kennedy organized an Advisory Commission onthe Status of Women to make some public policies which were of benefit to women (Conway, 1995:6). In the 1960s, in particular, the feminism movement gathered strength.And the total number of women organizations was increased drastically as well. These organizations were aimed at fighting for women's legal rights and improving women's social status. They also provided a stage for women to start a new life.All these social transitions contributed to the improvement of the American women's social status.1.2 The factors that influenced the American women's social statusThere were many factors that influenced the American women's social status in theth century. All these factors were not isolated; they were closely connected with each 20other. Based on the essence and category of the factors, we can classify these factors intotwo categories: the internal factors and the external factors.The internal factors were the arouse of women's self-consciousness and the desire for self-fulfillment. Women were not satisfy with their current conditions in the society, theybegan to place a great emphasis on achieving personal satisfaction and individual growthand struggled to fight for their own rights and benefits. Not only did they campaign womenmovement, they also established and developed lots of women organizations, for example,the National Organization for Women, General federation of Women's Club, the League ofWomen V oters (Rix, 1987: 29), to improve their social status. The movement and the organizations strengthened the American women's collective consciousness and encouraged them to work together to fight for their social status. They realizedself-valueand achieved accomplishments through the movement as well.th century, the In the 20of The external factors were the transitions the society. American society experienced the Great Depression, the World War Ⅱ, and the economicboom after the war. All these changes made it possible for women to step out of the domestic sphere and offered an opportunity to broaden their horizons. It is needless to saythat the American industrialization also played a key role in liberating women from thetraditional roles as full-time housewives. Furthermore, some great inventions such astractors, mechanical cotton pickers, vacuum cleaners, washing machines and the like solargely reduced the time which women devoted to housework that they had more sparetime to do what they favored. They participated in some voluntary associations: temperance societies, charitable associations, settlement houses and so on (Rix, 1987:39).In these associations, they realized their own value. They were not content with their current situations in the society. They wanted to improve their social status, they'd like towork outside the family, have access to higher education and take part in the political activities and what not. In addition, the legal guarantee such as the enforcements of theEqual Pay Act of 1963, Economic Equity Act, Higher Education Act, the Women's Educational Equal Act of 1974, Title Ⅶof the Civil Rights Act of 1964(Conway, 1995:6),and all played an important part in improving the women's social status ,too.All these factors caused the American women strive to improve their social status in th century.the 202.American Women's Economic Status2.1 The American women's employment opportunityThe American women's employment opportunity can be discussed from two aspects: the number of working women, the job they did and the pay they earned.For a long period, women were not allowed to work outside the home. Even if they could work outside the family, they just did some jobs which didn't need too many skills inlimited fields. They were denied access to many kinds of jobs. Their working choices wereoften confined to nurses, teachers, social workers or most commonly, domestic services.Only a few worked as the clerks in offices. What's more, women's work outside the homewas temporary, always ending with their marriages (Rix, 1987:41-42). In brief, their workoutside the families was not encouraged.th century, especially after the World War Ⅱ, because of the severe laborthe In 20shortages and some cultural and legal obstructions to the employment of the marriedwomen were eliminated, women were encouraged to work outside the home. On one hand,the number of working women increased significantly; on the other hand, a good manywomen's work shifted from farm, domestic and service work to skilled industrial jobswhich was previously closed to them and only opened to men (Rix, 1987:49). Even thoughthey returned home after the war, their devotions to the American society and economywere of great importance. And of course, this also paved the way for women to work outside the family. Since then, in several states, for example, major labor unions and stateslegislatures adopted the equal-pay-for-equal-work standard (Rix, 1987:51) .It was estimated that by 1980s, more than half of adult women worked outside the domestic th sphere, and by 1990s, the figure reached almost 60 percent. While in the middle ofthe 20century, there were less than 20 percent working women (Conway, 1995:4). From thesefigures, we can see that there had been an increasing number of women working outsideth century. the home and the ratio of working women had steadily increased in the 20 The increased proportion of women in the labor market aroused the concern of inequities in pay and employment opportunity and their status in the workplace (Conway,th 20half of the for equal-pay-for equal-work. In the early 1995:61).They started to ask century, women were only admitted to some less skilled jobs, such as clerical jobs, salesjobs, nursing and teaching and all that sort of thing. The higher paying or professional andmanagerial positions were only admitted to men workers (Conway, 1995:61). In the latterth century, with the implementation of the Title Ⅸlegislation and Title Ⅶhalf of the 20 ofthe Civil Rights Act in 1964, discriminations against women pursing advanced professionssuch as law, medicine, management, bank and so forth were abolished step by step. Women's proportion in the managerial and professional occupations had increased. But itwas an undeniable fact that although women had taken a footstep towards the formerlyman-dominated professions, they were less likely to be advanced to a higher position. Forone thing, from government civil service to university faculties, private companies andbanks, women were underrepresented at the top, however, overrepresented at the bottom,when compared with men (Rix, 1987:123). What they did was more auxiliary than specialized. For another, because they were considered as the primary care providers forboth children and elderly parents, it was impossible for women to be employed asfull-timeemployers. Women's average working time was less than men's. And also, the proportionsbetween men and women who worked in the formerly male-dominated professionswereunbalanced. Women only accounted for a small proportion.The wage-gap can not be overlooked, either. In the past, women's average earnings were substantially fewer than that of men. This was in part because that women's workwas less skilled than men's and their working time was also less than that of men. But when women worked in the male-dominated occupations, they still earned less than theirmen counterparts who did the same jobs. The situation was not improved until the passageof the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Conway,1995:63). This was a small but very significant step toward requiring equity between menand women in employment. Since the passage of the two acts, there have been supports oflegislative regulations for eliminating sex differences on wages. Ever since, the disparitiesbetween the earnings of men and women have been declining. But the laws' implementations were not the sole reason that narrowed the pay gap. There were other reasons that caused the pay-gap between men and women narrowing. For example, theydid more skilled jobs than before. More women were employed in the higher-paying professional, managerial, technical occupations. Furthermore, women worked more continuously than in the past (Conway, 1995:66). All these leaded to the narrowing of thepay-gap based on sexes.Although the wage-gap between male and female has been declining since the 1980s,the differences still existed. In order to get rid of the disparities on wages thoroughly, moreefforts and actions should be taken. Improving the women's access not only tomale-dominated but also to the higher-paying occupations and establishing comparableequal compensation in female-dominated professions were important ways to reduce thepay gap (Rix, 1987:126). What's more, the equal employment opportunity especially in thehigher-paying jobs between men and women was a more effective way to bridge the wage-gap and gain the real equality.2.2 The working women's role in familyThe working women played an increasingly important role in both economy andth century.family life in the 20Generally speaking, people always thought that men's earnings were the main financial resources in the families while working women's income was secondary to men'sand even non-essential. Women's work was not worthy of any monetary reward comparingto that of men. And women were not financially responsible for their family (Rix, 1987:103). What's worse, women's jobs had always been undervalued and ignored sincetheir work was paid fewer than men's work and they were not seen as important economicproviders as men.th century, with the development of the society and the economy, aHowever, in the 20majority of women began to combine family life with work outside the home. Althoughwomen, on average, earned less than men, their contribution to the economic resources ofthe family was significant and could not be ignored any more. For example, in husband-wife families, a wife's earnings made a significant difference on the family livingstandards. Their family would be able to live a better life than the family with only a husband worked outside the home to support the whole family. The financial status of thattime's husband-wife families was also closely relevant to women's earnings. In a single-parent family, mother's income was more important because the mother's wage wasthe only economic resources. Without the mother's income, they even could not make aliving. In summary, the working women's income played a critical part in family life. Andalso, the working women lessened their dependency on men, they were financially independent.In addition, women and men all worked outside the home to support the family, but women still had to bear the most responsibility of housework. The shift of women to paidemployment didn't mean a reduce in the number of hours most women spent in the household. They not only had to work outside the home to support the family but also theyhad to do most or even all of the housework such as cleaning, cooking, shopping, childcaring and so on after they returned home from workplace while men didn't (Conway,1995:80). Women devoted more total hours to the family economy than they didbefore the changes.th century as well. By 1960s,The working women gained more rights in family in the 20married women had the rights to deal with property. They acquired the right to own andcontrol the property they brought to the marriage and that which they acquired during themarriage while in the past the family property was controlled by men. Women were alsoentitled the right to decide the residents and equal guardian rights over the children. Moreover, it was a tradition that a woman should adopt the surname of her husband aftermarriage. But since then, the married women could keep their own name without adoptingtheir husband's surname (何家弘, 2001:248-249). All these were progresses which the th century. To some extent, the American women's statuAmerican women made in the 20sth century. in economy was upgraded in the 203.American Women's Status in Higher EducationSince both the individual and society attached great importance to education opportunity, the higher educational right was also one of the most important areas in whichwomen struggled for equal opportunity all around the time. The more education a womanreceived, the more likely she was to be employed or promoted.The American women's status in higher education can be analyzed from two aspects: women as students and women as faculty members (Conway, 1995:21).3.1 American women as students in higher educationIn American, for a long run, most women were excluded from the higher education. Only a small number of women had access to colleges and universities. In the earlyth century, on average, there were only about 40 20beginning of the percent of women students in higher education (Rix, 1987:240). The unequal situation hadn't been improveduntil the Title Ⅶof the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which was amended in 1972. Since then,more and more women had been allowed to higher education. In 1979, the number of women students was first exceeded the number of men students in the college enrollment.The percentage of college women students increased continuously. By 1990s, more thanhalf of women went into colleges and universities for further studies. Not all students inhigher education could earn degrees, however, women's proportion of earning degrees atevery level of higher education were increasing all the time. In 1974, women were awarded45 percent of all bachelors' degrees; in 1982, the figure reached 51 percent (Conway, 1995:24). And the percentage of women who received masters' and doctorates' degreeswas also increased. By 1990s, there were about half of women earned master's degreeswhile there were less than 35 percent in the 1960s. The proportion of doctorates earned bywomen also jumped from 16 percent of all doctorates awarded in 1972 to 35.4 percent ofthe total awarded in 1986. The proportion was still keeping increasing (Rix,1987:242).Women were making a slow but very steady strides at the higher educationallevel.Apart from the mentioned above，women's study fields were also amplified. For example, in the past, women were refused to study in military colleges for many years. In1976, military universities began to recruit women students as a consequence of the Congressional legislation. In the middle of the 1990s, there were nearly 13 percent of women students in military colleges. And the number of women who majored in fieldssuch as business, law, medicine which were traditionally thought of as the domain of menwas also increased significantly, though the proportion was very small (刘永涛, 2001:244).It was a step that had broad implications for the eliminations of the gender discriminationin the society as a whole, where the attitudes about the role of women and their relationships to society were developed and reinforced gradually. It was a success womenachieved in higher education.3.2 American women as faculty members in higher educationAs for women as faculty members in higher educational institutions, they also sufferedfrom unequal treatment. Not only did the average salaries of female faculty members wereless than those of male counterparts, but also the women faculty members were less likelyto be in leading positions such as department chiefs, deans and collegepresidents(Conway,1995:21).Usually the higher the rank is, the fewer the women there are. Women were always at the foot of the academic pyramids.It was after the passage of the landmark legislation known as Title Ⅸin 1972 that thepercentage of women in positions of authority and management in higher education beganto increase (Conway, 1995:21). There was a report that of the more than 400,000full-timefaculty members on college and university in the autumn of 1983, women accounted for27.3 percent, only increasing by 5 percent compared with 1972 (Rix, 1987:240). Because alarge proportion of women were promoted to professors in the 1940s, and they retired inthe 1980s, whereas newly employed women were not moving as quickly as men into higher faculty position; this caused a slow growth in the increase of women as full professors in the 1980s. In 1972, women constituted 9.8 percent of all full professors, while the figure had risen only to 10.7 percent by 1983. In addition, women's proportionamong senior administrators also had increased, although the increase was dismally small,from 0.6 percent in 1975 to 1.1 percent in 1983 (Rix, 1987:240). It was a progress compared with the past. To some extent, the small increase in the number of women holding executive positions in the educational establishment resulted in a lessening of institutional discrimination against women.th century, women had made 20end of the many achievements inIn a word, by thehigher education both as students and faculty members. Although women had made stridesin the efforts to eliminate gender discrimination in higher education, the tasks were far from completion. There was still a long way to go in some fields, in particular, women'sappointments to administrative-level positions in higher education.American Women's Political Status4.4.1 American women's effects in politicsSince the establishment of the United States of America, women had been precludedfrom the process of the public policy, though they accounted for a large number in the totalpopulation. Their ideas were always neglected. But with the social development, the American women also wanted a voice in the politics. And their effects in politics becameevident gradually.In the 1920s, the American women gained the suffrage right. It was a remarkable event. Since then, they had a great influence on the politics. For instance, because womenvoters outnumbered the men voters, for the reason, the views women hold on political views cannot be ignored by candidates for public offices. If the candidate wanted to winthe election, he couldn't neglect the women voters' anticipation. Once the candidates overlooked the women voters' voice, unexpected voting patterns and results would appear(Rix, 1987:181). And when the elected politicians were proved to be corrupted, womenmust vote them out by using their political rights.Women showed more sensible than perceptual in politics. Women were more likely than men to support candidates whom they perceive to be liberal. Liberal women officeholders might possibly be more supportive of policies that would enhance their statusfor women, while conservative women might be less likely to offer their encouragementand their votes. Once women voters were aware of this kind of situation, they were morelikely to support politically liberal men than their conservative female opponents (Rix, 1987:179-180). They considered suffrage right as a efficient and effective way to improvetheir status and get more opportunities.In order to increase the number of low-income women registering to vote, almost onehundred women's groups worked as a whole in the 1984 Women's V ote Project. And finally they succeeded. They not only fought for legislation, they also monitored the implementations of laws. By careful monitoring the implementation process of the lawsand regulations, in particular, the development of regulatory guidelines to carry out the law,the American women realized the greatest benefits from Title Ⅸ(Rix, 1987: 29). TheAmerican women began to exerted more effects on public legislations.th the 20effect on politics in American Whatever to say, the women posed more century than in the past.4.2 American women's political participationTraditionally, the political affairs have always been considered as men's patent and it was of no business with women. Women had rarely political rights. Even the First Ladies,Abigail Adams and Dolly Madison, playing important roles in their husbands' careers, didhelp to their husbands behind the scenes(徐鸿雁, 2006:51). They never touched the political affairs directly.With the development of the women's liberation movement and the feminism movement, the situation was changed. More and more women began to take interested inpolitics and set foot in politics in public. For instance, after the World WarⅡ, theAmerican women gradually realized the fact that political participation was a fundamentaland indispensable way to improve their social status in American society. Only when theytook part in the political affairs positively did the can have equal rights with men in education, economy, health, employment and so on. Their political participation consciousness and ideas were enhanced. Particularly, in the 1980s, the American womentook participate in the politics actively. Not only did their voting passion rose dramatically,they also brought their own political initiative into full play. According to the New YorkTimes, 53 percent of voters in the presidents' election campaigns in 1980 were women voters. The number of women voters who registered and voted firstly surpassed the number of men electors (Rix, 1987:174). The women voters devoted themselves to nearlyall kinds of election campaigns, such as the Congressional election, government officialelection, the mayor and the governor election. In 1984, Geraldine Ferraro voted for theAmerican vice president. Though it was a failure, it was a landmark achievement in women's political participation. On one hand, this event greatly encouraged American women's confidence in taking part in the national affairs. On the other hand, it changedpeople's bias about women's stereotyping images (李秋金, 2008:140). Since then, an increasing number of women dedicated themselves to the political activities and were enthusiastic about politics. As to the First Ladies, taking Eleanor Roosevelt andHillaryClinton for example, they stepped out of the scenes and took part in the political affairsdirectly and publicly. They made remarkable influence on public policies(徐鸿雁, 2006:52). The two First Ladies developed their careers in the course of helping their husbands.The increase in the number of women holding public office was becoming significant,especially in county and municipal governments. In the decades prior to 1984, the numberof women holding county office grew from 3 percent of elected officials to 8 percent. Andby 1985, four of the 100 largest cities in the United States had women mayors (Rix, 1987:178). Though these figures did not reflect the proportion of American women adultsin the government offices, they certainly reflected the fact that more and more women began to participate in the politics actively.In addition, the number of women who hold the position of Congresswomen and government officials in federal and state governments has been increasing dramaticallysince 1980 (李秋金, 2008:140). Even the proportion of women in American Congress wasstill very small; the number had increased in an immeasurable speed.th century.In a word, the American women made a great progress in politics in the 20Their political status had largely improved. They used their political rights to fight for other rights in economy, education and so on. Their political participation made contributions to the formulation of public policies as well. It promoted the social equity.5.Conclusionth century 20in the was , although the American women's social status In conclusionstill lower than that of the American men; their social status had improved a lot than in thepast. There was no doubt that the American women's status in economy, higher education,and politics had been dramatically improved. By women's own efforts and conveniencesocial conditions, they had won economic independent to some degrees, had more accessto higher education and political affairs. They played an increasingly important role in。

美国女性社会地位发展简史

Cult of Domesticity = Slavery
The 2nd Great Awakening inspired women to improve society.
Angelina Grimké
Sarah Grimké
Lucy Stone American Women’s Suffrage Assoc. edited Woman’s Journal
?colorado1893?idaho1896?washington1910?california1911?kansas1912?oregon1912?arizona1912?montana1914?nevada1917?northdakota1917?nebraska1917after1890increasingcompetitionamongpoliticalpartiesmade
Republican Motherhood
• The concept related to women's roles as mothers
in the emerging United States before and after the American Revolution (c. 1760 to 1800). • It centered around the belief that children should be raised to uphold the ideals of republicanism, making them the perfect citizens of the new nation.
Early 19th century Women
1. Unable to vote. 2. Legal status of a minor. 3. Single could own her own property. 4. Married no control over her property or her children. 5. Could not initiate divorce. 6. Couldn’t make wills, sign a contract, or bring suit in court without her husband’s permission.

华裔美国妇女社会地位的变化上升历程.

华裔美国妇女社会地位的变化上升历程摘要：从19世纪30年代至今．华裔妇女移民美国已有一百七十多年的历史。

在经历了漫长而艰辛的挣扎之后．她们依靠着自己的努力逐渐由社会边缘跻身主流社会。

本文借鉴令狐萍在其著作《金山谣：美国华裔妇女史》中将华裔美国妇女的移民史划分为三个时期的方法。

将华裔美国妇女从社会边缘到开始跻身主流社会的历程也划分为三个时期．并着重从女性主体意识和美国多元文化的发展过程等方面来阐释这一历程。

关键词：华裔美国妇女主流社会女性主体意识多元文化美国是一个移民国家，华人是众多移民群中的一支。

华人移民美国的历史一般被划分为三个时期：从 1848年至 1882年的自由移民时期；从 1882年至 l943年的禁止移民时期；从 1943 年至今为战后时期。

中国妇女移民美国也有一个多世纪的历史。

令狐萍在其著作《金山谣：美国华裔妇女史》中对华裔美国妇女的移民阶段做了如下的划分：从 l9世纪中期到l943年为早期中国妇女移民时期；从 1943年到 l965年为战后中国妇女的移民时期；从 1965年至今为当代中国妇女的移民时期。

令狐萍的划分方法如实准确地反映了华裔美国妇女一个半世纪的移民历史，尤其突出了她们从 20世纪 60年代以来在社会、政治、经济、文化和心理等方面发生的深刻变化[1]。

本文将借鉴这种划分方法探讨华裔美国妇女从社会的边缘跻身主流社会的历程：从 l9 世纪 30年代到 1943年为华裔美国妇女处在社会的边缘时期；从 l943年到 l965年为华裔美国妇女社会地位的提高时期，从 1965年至今为华裔美国妇女开始跻身主流社会期。

华裔美国妇女从社会边缘跻身主流社会的历程，既是其主体意识不断增强的过程，又是美国多元文化不断发展的过程。

本文将结合华裔女性主体意识的增强和美国多元文化的发展来阐释华裔美国妇女是如何从美国社会的边缘跻身主流社会的。

一、华裔美国妇女处于美国社会的边缘 (19 世纪 3O年代一1943年 )美国华裔妇女是当时西方世界中的中国人，又是男性占主导地位的世界中的妇女。

从文化角度研究美国黑人女性社会地位的演变

四川省教育厅青年科研项目。

摘要：论文从文化角度探究美国黑人女性社会地位的演变。

通过分析研究不同时期美国黑人女性的生存现状，参与的各种社会活动，黑人女性创作的文学作品，近些年在不同领域的成功黑人女性以及她们带来的深远影响等，总结概况出美国黑人女性的成功演变史，以期对美国黑人研究作出补充和完善，同时使美国黑人和白人群体均明确黑人女性作为独立个体应该享有的平等地位和权力并可以获得同等的成功，有助于构建平等和谐的美国社会。

关键词：文化角度;美国黑人女性;社会地位作者简介：程垫丰，女，1978年1月出生，四川重庆人，成都信息工程学院银杏酒店管理学院讲师，研究方向：英美文学。

[中图分类号]：i106[文献标识码]：a[文章编号]：1002-2139（2016）-02--02非裔美国人是美国社会和历史的一个重要组成部分，随着历史的发展他们的生存状况发生着巨大的改变。

长期以来，非裔美国人一直受到以白人为主的美国社火主流群体的歧视和压迫。

20世纪50年代开始，非裔美国人开始寻求独立和解放，各种形式的黑人运动随之兴起。

这些运动为他们赢得了平等和权力，他们的生活也逐渐得到改善，渐渐拥有了自由平等的社会地位。

非裔美国人社会地位的改善引起了世界的广泛关注。

研究者们纷纷开始探讨非裔美国人生存状况的改变。

在这些研究中，关于美国黑人女性的研究占据了重要的比例。

在美国历史上，美国黑人女性不仅遭受着和美国黑人男性一样的种族歧视，同时也遭受着黑人男权社会对女性的压迫，甚至有来至与黑人男性对她们的压迫。

在以白人为主体的男权性质的美国社会，黑人女性要获得真正的自由，就必须同时破除白人社会的种族压迫和男权社会的父权压迫。

20世纪60年代在美国社会兴起的黑人女权运动是美国黑人妇女奋斗史的开端，随着半个世纪的不断努力，美国黑人女性最终成功争取到了平等自由的权利，如今的美国社会已经涌现出像康多莉扎.赖斯和惠特曼休斯顿等优秀的美国黑人女性。

她们的成功说明黑人女性已经在美国社会的不同领域实现了突破，也说明了如今的美国社会已经真正平等地接纳和认可了美国黑人女性，这是美国黑人女性历史乃至于美国历史上的一个重要的里程碑。

美国种族简史读书笔记

美国种族简史读书笔记第一章主要内容：1. "非州裔奴隶贸易"和殖民时期：本章主要讲述了16世纪到19世纪初期黑奴贸易在美洲地区的展开、种植园和殖民地的建立以及当时的种族观念和文化。

讲述了非洲奴隶的遭遇，包括失去自由、人身买卖和强制雇佣等方面的剥削和压迫。

2. "真理和公义的危机"：本章主要讲述了美国独立战争期间与种族问题有关的事件，如1775年黑人参军、1787年宪法制定期间反奴隶制度的辩论以及1808年禁止奴隶贸易法的制定。

讲述了当时奴隶制度面临的两难选择：是保持这种残忍的制度并且保持美国的经济利益，还是废除奴隶制度并放弃经济利益。

3. 黑人自由与种族抵抗：本章主要讲述了19世纪初黑人对奴隶制度的反抗和斗争，包括逃跑和起义，以及零星的废奴运动和黑人自由的争取。

4. 内战的生产和否定：本章主要讲述了内战期间南北方对奴隶制度的不同态度和反应。

南方坚持奴隶制度，认为这是其独立性的基础，而北方则支持废奴。

最终，北方打败了南方，放弃了奴隶制度。

5.种族重建和反动时期：本章主要讲述了内战后种族问题的转变和南方种族恐惧与排斥的兴起。

随着南方奴隶主政权的垮台，北方人试图将黑人融入美国的主流社会，但南方白人对此感到愤怒，并采取了各种手段来迫使黑人失去民权。

例如，制定了黑人法律，如“大卡修斯堡原则”，禁止黑人投票或拥有财产等。

第二章主要内容：6. 黑色命案本章主要讲述了1877年到1950年代期间，美国南部发生的对黑人的暴力行为，包括恐吓、强奸、谋杀和家庭破坏等。

这些暴力行为的目的是为了维持种族隔离和白人至上主义。

同时，本章也着重介绍了黑人领袖和组织的反抗和抵制行动，如Booker T. Washington、W. E. B. Du Bois和NAACP等。

7. 黑人的新自由主义本章主要探讨了二战后期和战后初期，黑人社区不满足于旧体制所提供的种族歧视和不平等待遇，逐渐形成了对于民主和公正的追求，这种追求在当时被称为“新自由主义”。

美国历史上的妇女(4)

美国历史上的妇女（4）──女权运动第三次浪潮陈其一、第三次浪潮的起源20世纪80年代中后期至21世纪最初10年间,一些出类拔萃的美国妇女在国家政治、军事和文化教育等领域中占据了显要地位。

这一现象令人鼓舞。

但不为外人注意的是,在此时段内的90年代，美国女权运动兴起了第三次浪潮。

与前两次浪潮相比，第三次浪潮的内容要丰富得多，复杂得多, 甚至可以说混乱得多。

如前所述，美国女权运动的第一次浪潮，虽然总体上涉及妇女的各种权利，但基本上聚焦于妇女的选举权；第二次浪潮的主要关注点是妇女的就业机会平等和报酬平等，以及有关生育的各项权利，特别是自主堕胎的问题; 为妇女和儿童设立了家庭暴力避难所；要求公开报告对妇女的暴力行为和强暴；开辟避孕和其他生育服务的渠道；为妇女在工作场所制定和推行反性骚扰政策；养育儿童服务；为年轻女性提供平等的、更多的教育资助；开设妇女研究课程。

这些进展都为第三次浪潮提供了基础。

第三次浪潮的主体是新一代女性。

根据某些学者的总结，第二次浪潮的女权主义者是“在政治和文化相互结合的地方成长起来的”，是“肯尼迪时代、越战、民权运动和妇女权利运动”的产物；第三次浪潮则孕育于朋克摇滚、嘻哈音乐、科幻小说作品、消费主义和互联网的时代氛围中。

这些新女权主义者是1972年《教育法第九修正案》(Title IX)颁布后，与女性文化和女权主义一同成长起来的。

作为女性，她们在入学、经济资助、应聘、提升和工资待遇等方面的待遇得到改善，在获得教育机会平等方面取得了巨大进展，文化素质和接受教育的程度普遍提高。

她们与上世纪70年代的女权主义者截然不同，不再仅满足于获得局部的解放，也不止步于复制过去，而是要发现自己的道路。

她们提出多方面、多层次、非单一的诉求，以实现完全属于自己一代的全新理想。

作为对第二次浪潮中忽视问题的回应和反弹，第三次浪潮在20世纪90年代早期兴起。

成长于第二次浪潮中的新领袖，如黑人妇女贝尔·胡克斯（Bell Hooks）[1]和其他许多有色人种女权主义者，试图在女权主义思想内部开拓新空间，把问题集中在种族与性别的交叉点上。

二战后美国妇女地位的转变

学术研究与探讨
Ａｅａｄｅｍｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈａｎｄｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎ
战后美国妇女地位 ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้转变
凌丽
（成都理工大学外国语学院四川成都６１００５９）［摘要】虽然美国一贯提倡自由和民主，但是性别歧视这个社会问题仍然存在多年，这使得女权运动的兴起成为一个必然。二战后美国妇女的社会地位开始逐渐转变，例如外出工作扶持家庭，争取投票权利而获得政治上的一席之地，投身于妇女解放运动等。［关键词］女权运动妇女地位转变［中图分类号】Ｄ４４１．９［文献标识码】Ａ［文章编号】１００２ — ２５６２（２０１４）一８ — ２１２ — １济基础，大量家庭妇女涌入劳动市场。在工作中，妇女成为了经济社会的一份子，越发感到不平等的待遇，她们迫切需求改男性，是男性的附属。《圣经》中就有记载：上帝创造了亚变这种不公的现状。鉴于美国第一次妇女运动所积累的经验，当，又取其一根肋骨创造了夏娃。传统的价值观念要求女性以越来越多的美国妇女投入到这场运动之中，为男女平等而战。
二传统的社会价值观念认为男性是社会的主宰，女性从属于
０引言
家庭为核心，相夫教子。然而随着社会的进步，女性不再满足
于从家庭所得到的自我满足感与成就感，她们开始关注自己的利益，开始为自我价值的实现而斗争。尤其是二战的爆发，使得美国妇女地位发生了巨大的转变。二战为美国妇女提供了就业机会，她们开始走出家庭从事社会工作。１９世纪美国第二次妇女运动更是解放了广大美国妇女的思想，使她们投入到争取男女权利平等的斗争中。经过艰苦的斗争，她们逐渐取得了在政治、经济、家庭。婚姻方面的平等权利。美国妇女的地位发生了翻天覆地的变化。１就业机会的增加二战的爆发，美国大批男性劳动力投入战争，战斗在第一前线，生产第一线的劳力迅速短缺。为了补给战争物资，大量的家庭妇女走出家庭，投入到生产大军中来。美国政府和许多

美国国家简史

哥伦布1492年到达美洲时，北美洲是印第安人聚居地。

15世纪末，西班牙、荷兰、法、英等国开始向北美移民。

到1733年，英国人在北美东海岸建立了13个殖民地，他们奴役来自非洲的黑奴，从事商业和小型制造业，并生产大米和烟草等。

到1760年，殖民地人口达150万，其中20％为奴隶。

英国人向西部扩张，导致了1756年－1763年与法国人的冲突。

1775年爆发了北美人民反对英国殖民者的独立战争。

1776年7月4日，13个殖民地的代表在费城召开了第二次大陆会议，通过了《独立宣言》，正式宣布建立美利坚合众国。

1 783独立战争结束，英国承认它在北美的13个殖民地独立。

1787年制定了宪法草案，1789年宪法生效。

1788年乔治·华盛顿当选为美国第一任总统。

到19世纪中叶，美国北部工业化发展迅速，南部则发展以奴隶劳动为主的棉花种植业。

此后，南、北部之间的分歧日益加剧。

1860年，反对黑奴制度的共和党人亚伯拉罕·林肯当选总统，继而南部奴隶主发动叛乱，1861年4月12日爆发南北战争。

1862年9月林肯宣布《解放黑奴宣言》。

战争持续了4年，造成60万人丧生，南部的大片土地和建筑惨遭破坏。

1865年战争以北方获胜而结束。

南北战争的结束标志着美国经济和工业飞猛发展时期的开始。

南北战争后的35年，美国工业化发展突飞猛进。

到1900年，美国已成为世界上最大经济强国之一。

从1870年到1 916年，大约2000万移民涌入美国，其中半数以上来自东欧和南欧，使美国人口增至7500万。

19世纪初，随着资本主义的发展，美国开始对外侵略、扩张。

美国先后获得了包括得克萨斯、加利福尼亚、亚利桑那和犹他州在内的35个州的大片领土。

1959年，阿拉斯加和夏威夷相继成为美国的第49个州和第50个州。

在1776年后的100年内美国领土几乎扩大了10倍。

1917年，美国参加第一次世界大战。

战后美国经济繁荣，同时限制了移民。

1929年1 0月，爆发了空前的经济危机，到1932年中期，失业率达25％。

《女权主义简史》读后感

《女权主义简史》读后感说是女权主义简史，其实只是英国的女权主义历史，讲述了从16世纪起到20世纪末〔英国为主的〕女某ing对自身的权利要求从萌芽、觉醒到全面兴起的过程。

这其中，最初是借助宗教，寻求信仰的同等权利；随着资产阶级革命席卷欧洲，人权得到解放，妇女开始接受教育，由知识女某ing群体开始审视女某ing自身的权利；工业革命极大地提高了生产力，女某ing在参加工作后，开始在公共领域要求自身权利；20世纪后，在两次世界大战、无产阶级革命、文化的多元化等因素助推下，发生了三次主要的女权主义运动，这才有了今天。

看这种书，目的不是去记忆历史条目，而是去明白，在过去曾经发生了什么。

如今的女某ing地位已经提高了很多，许多人包括很多的年轻女某ing，因为从没有过体验，所以往往把女权主义当作一种一勺勺灌输给她们的学术学科，觉得无比枯燥，甚至有一些反感。

但实际上，妇女处于严重不平等的日子并不遥远，在20世纪50年代的美国，女某ing无论有多优秀，a href='/zhuanti/jiazuo)不应该谴责不法分子，而是要归咎于女某ing不去专用车厢？这种行为将女某ing 划分成异类，只会让人们将女某ing划为异类，就像当初只能进有色人种车厢的黑人，名曰保护，其实是作为异类被歧视。

再说了，今天为了保护设置车厢，明天会不会为了保护设置面罩，后天会不会为了保护干脆不让出门呢？作为行政机关竟然在这种问题上觉得自身无问题，这说明什么呢？还有个事是最近马云干的，给淘宝的女企业家召集在一起开了个大会，他上去讲话，我想总应该说女企业家怎么创业，怎么坚忍，怎么聪明吧，结果他讲了半天女人怎么在家里付出，怎么脾气好适合干客服，你是真的把她们当作企业家看待？？还是当家庭妇女呢？这就是典型的看似理解女某ing，实际上完全是站在男某ing视角，这种事情在近期频发，说明了社会整体风气的问题。

为什么要支持女权？因为女权同时也是人权。

琳恩-西格尔说：一个不仅是某些女人、而是所有女人都能更好地生活的世界....这对男人来说同样是一个美好百倍的世界。

从文化角度研究美国黑人女性社会地位的演变

从文化角度研究美国黑人女性社会地位的演变作者：程垫丰来源：《青年文学家》2016年第02期四川省教育厅青年科研项目。

摘 ;要：论文从文化角度探究美国黑人女性社会地位的演变。

通过分析研究不同时期美国黑人女性的生存现状，参与的各种社会活动，黑人女性创作的文学作品，近些年在不同领域的成功黑人女性以及她们带来的深远影响等，总结概况出美国黑人女性的成功演变史，以期对美国黑人研究作出补充和完善，同时使美国黑人和白人群体均明确黑人女性作为独立个体应该享有的平等地位和权力并可以获得同等的成功，有助于构建平等和谐的美国社会。

关键词：文化角度;美国黑人女性;社会地位作者简介：程垫丰，女，1978年1月出生，四川重庆人，成都信息工程学院银杏酒店管理学院讲师，研究方向：英美文学。

[中图分类号]：I106 ;[文献标识码]：A[文章编号]：1002-2139（2016）-02--02非裔美国人是美国社会和历史的一个重要组成部分，随着历史的发展他们的生存状况发生着巨大的改变。

长期以来，非裔美国人一直受到以白人为主的美国社火主流群体的歧视和压迫。

20世纪50年代开始，非裔美国人开始寻求独立和解放，各种形式的黑人运动随之兴起。

这些运动为他们赢得了平等和权力，他们的生活也逐渐得到改善，渐渐拥有了自由平等的社会地位。

非裔美国人社会地位的改善引起了世界的广泛关注。

研究者们纷纷开始探讨非裔美国人生存状况的改变。

在这些研究中，关于美国黑人女性的研究占据了重要的比例。

在美国历史上，美国黑人女性不仅遭受着和美国黑人男性一样的种族歧视，同时也遭受着黑人男权社会对女性的压迫，甚至有来至与黑人男性对她们的压迫。

在以白人为主体的男权性质的美国社会，黑人女性要获得真正的自由，就必须同时破除白人社会的种族压迫和男权社会的父权压迫。

20世纪60年代在美国社会兴起的黑人女权运动是美国黑人妇女奋斗史的开端，随着半个世纪的不断努力，美国黑人女性最终成功争取到了平等自由的权利，如今的美国社会已经涌现出像康多莉扎.赖斯和惠特曼休斯顿等优秀的美国黑人女性。

十九世纪中后期欧美文学中女性意识的觉醒--以《简爱》《嘉莉妹妹》中的女性形象对比为视角

十九世纪中后期欧美文学中女性意识的觉醒--以《简爱》《嘉莉妹妹》中的女性形象对比为视角翟宇星【摘要】《简爱》和《嘉莉妹妹》分别是各自作者的代表作,它们都以塑造勇于追求自我、主动掌握自己命运的女性形象体现了对女性命运的思考,是十九世纪中后期西方女性主义运动在文学上的生动反映.本文从三个方面对上述作品中的两位主人公进行对比分析,认为与《简爱》相比,《嘉莉妹妹》塑造的女主角在生活追求、爱情观和事业观上都体现了更强的独立性和主体性,这反映了十九世纪后半叶英美文学中女性意识觉醒的不断深化.【期刊名称】《辽宁广播电视大学学报》【年(卷),期】2018(000)001【总页数】3页(P68-70)【关键词】《简爱》;《嘉莉妹妹》;女性意识;女性形象【作者】翟宇星【作者单位】对外经济贸易大学,北京 100000【正文语种】中文【中图分类】I106十九世纪中后期，对欧美主要资本主义国家来说都是生产力高速发展、社会剧烈变革的时期，不断向纵深展开的产业革命直接冲击了家庭、社区、种族等领域的旧有秩序。

在这一进程中，女性的经济独立和受教育水平的提高也使得她们的社会地位和心态悄然发生着变化，曾经长期支配欧美女性的父权观念和男性中心观念，逐渐被追求平等、独立、自尊的个性解放思潮取代。

这些影响深远的变化直接反映在当时的欧美文学中，夏洛蒂·勃朗特的《简爱》和西奥多·德莱赛的《嘉莉妹妹》正是突出反映这一时期女性意识觉醒的典范。

对比这两部极具代表性的文学作品的女主角，可以清晰地勾勒出十九世纪中后期欧美国家女性意识觉醒的大致图景。

一、生活追求——从“离经叛道”到勇于自我否定在女性缺乏独立地位和自我意识的漫长的“前现代”中，无论东方还是西方，女性形象的构建是从属于男性的，对女性形象的评价是正面还是负面，也往往取决于其是否服膺男性的秩序和审美，是否服从和服务于以男性为中心的“生活”和“事业”。

从这个角度看，《简爱》和《嘉莉妹妹》两部作品主人公尽管所处的时空背景不同，但她们都对自己的生活有着独立思考、独立追求，不再附属于男性。

美国简史笔记

你在不知道的地方我在无聊的想你，那是注定的无缘，看天空，云朵告诉你是分离的象征，而我始终不相信，——缘分是天生的。

因为我是上天的主宰。

相信命运的人都是懦夫。

而我不是理想中的那种懦夫。

懦夫通常都是苟且的，好像我还没达到那程度。

总有一天我会追求到你，我坚信有这么一天。

拥有你我会守候一辈子，钱——你在那？我爱你！！！遇事虚怀观一是，与人和气察群言。

——<明>杨淑明当我们想象这世界的时候，我们错了。

那只是我们的想象预言而已。

那是我们年少轻狂。

我们都必须经过之后才知道，我们的青年是那么的无知和愚昧。

看到之后，才知道那是错误的。

偶尔的错误是必须的，经常的无知是不需的。

无知的敌人是不学。

我有多久没学东西了。

那是错误的，那样会增加我们生活的的悲剧的发生。

学习是生命的根本，知识生命周期是在缩短的而我们的学习能力是在显著的跟不上。

二十多岁的男人是人生中最迷茫的时候，最蹉跎的时候，最无奈的时候。

而就在这时候是我们的人生最需要帮助的时候。

我们顶着孤寂，无知，对生活的不理解去奋斗。

而我们现在的得到的东西却是那么的少，或者是根本就没有收获。

就像一个勤劳的农夫在沙漠上耕作样，那是愚蠢的勤劳吗？不是，因为他在等待，等待沙漠上下雨的机会。

难熬啊。

下雨的话那就可以在里面掏出金子啊。

我们的勤劳者就是这样练成的吗？不是，那是姜太公钓鱼——愿者上钩。

姜太公是胸怀大志的人，但是他不会把自己的一切轻易的表露出来，把自己的一切出卖的那些大人物。

等待啊，等待啊。

机会来了。

老了也可以一展抱负啊。

老当益壮嘛。

高筑墙，广积粮，缓称王的成功战略。

学明成祖朱元璋的成功战略。

我们是该等待的因为我们是一无所有的。

前途是光明的，道路是曲折的。

相信自己啊。

别悲观。

我必须用信心来度过我人生中最迷茫的时代。

失去信念就会失去我的前途，甚至生命的一部分意义。

我的生活一部分的意义。

那是我们男人命中注定的，那是我们必须去尝试的人生经过。

如果我一出生什么都有那我可能就是生活的残疾。

美国女性主义发展历程

美国女性主义进展历程女性主义(Feminism)，原意为“妇女解放”，产生于法国，后传人欧美，并渐渐进展成为一股不行阻挡的潮流和运动。

女性主义思想产生的缘由和前提就是女性处于相对受压迫和受卑视的地位。

在父权制社会中，女性长期处于政治上受压迫、社会上受排挤、经济上受贫困，文化上受男性专制训练、思想上受压抑的状态。

随着女性主义的快速进展和集中，各国的女性文学应运而生，同时在肯定程度上也促进了该国女性主义的进程。

美国，作为女性主义进展的典型性代表国家，依据女性主义的阶段划分标准，也可以分为三个进展阶段，并且其进展历程伴随着不同的阶段特征。

本文以不同阶段的经典女性文学作品为视角，分析美国女性主义进展的三个阶段的特征，以及女性主义思潮和女性主义文学是如何相辅相成，相互进展的。

一、美国女性主义进展的第一阶段：觉醒女性主义进展的初级阶段为19世纪中叶到2O世纪20年月，这是妇女解放运动的第一次浪潮，其阶段特征主要表现为女性主义思想意识的觉醒。

随着时代的进展，女性开头渐渐意识到自己低下而屈从的地位。

当时，论辩主要聚焦在两性公平和公民基本权利公平的层面上，受压迫的女性纷纷与男权社会抗争，要求享受与男性一样公平的社会、政治、经济等基本权利。

同时，其他受压迫的社会群体也奋起抗争，同样争取公平的权利。

于是，各国的女权运动与反封建运动相结合，在19世纪中叶开头渐渐进展和壮大起来。

其最终的标志是妇女争取选举权的成功。

这一时期，女性文学作品打上了时代的烙印，也明显地突出了女性思想的觉醒。

有名女作家凯特肖邦作为这一时期美国女性作家的代表人物，其作品通常探讨女性的爱情、婚姻、独立、自由等主题，同时抨击男权社会下的美国的对女性的不公的道德规范。

她在其作品中塑造的女性人物形象通常包括传统和反传统两类。

传统女性形象温婉贤淑，而反传统的女性形象则更加叛逆觉醒。

她通过这两类女性形象在作品中的猛烈对比，向读者表达了新时代女性应当在意识觉醒后实现完整自我。

人类学的女性研究或性别研究_提纲

女性研究
概念定义女性主义人类学feminism anthropology：随20世纪60年代欧美妇女运动及妇女研究（妇女学 women's studies）的开展而于70年代产生的。研究对象：女性研究内容：不限于对女性的研究，而包括男性在内的社会性别研究。
女性人类学发展简史研究主题
生物决定论和文化决定论社会性别及两性关系研究
《女性人类学》第一部
《性别与文化：客家妇女研究的新视野》《华南婚姻制度与妇女地位》参考书《第二性》_[法]西蒙娜·德·波伏娃《女性的奥秘》_[美]贝蒂·弗里丹《社会性别研究选择》_王政《西方女性主义研度、婚姻家庭、亲属关系的地位的质疑语言行为与社会性别妇女与国家的关系女性社会地位研究女性主义民族志的研究理论研究殖民地/后殖民地妇女研究第三世界的妇女人类学研究妇女与发展 WID
：妇女参与发展 WAD
：妇女与发展 GAD
社会性别与发展性别劳动分工二元论及女性主义的理论纷争中国的妇女研究禹燕

英语论文二十世纪美国妇女的社会地位

山西师范大学本科毕业论文二十世纪美国妇女的社会地位张婧姓名系院外国语学院业专英语双学位0702班级班号学0619010219指导教师楠李答辩日期成绩内容摘要妇女在社会中扮演着十分重要的角色，但是由于各方面的原因，妇女的社会地位与其重要性却不对等。

作为一个移民国家，美国妇女由白人、黑人和华裔妇女组成。

鉴于美国这一国家自身的独特性，关于美国妇女的社会地位问题一直以来都是学者们研究的重点，尤其是二十世纪。

这一时期，美国社会发生了巨大的变化。

美国妇女的社会地位也随之发生了很大的变化。

这两种变化交互影响：社会的变化为妇女社会地位的改善创造了条件，反过来，妇女社会地位的改善有促进了社会的进步。

总体上来说，虽然期间有一些波折，但是二十世纪美国妇女的社会地位主要呈现一种上升的趋势。

本文主要是通过一些重要的数据对比和重大事件，从经济，高等教育和政治三方面研究妇女社会地位的提高，描述这种变化的表现，分析造成这种变化的原因，以及妇女社会地位改变对美国社会的影响，最后，呼吁人们为改善妇女的社会地位创造条件。

关键词：妇女社会地位；工作机会；高等教育；平等；政治参与AbstractWomen play an important role in the society, but for all kinds of reasons, their social status is out of proportion with their importance. As an immigrated country, the Americanwomen were mainly composed of the whites, the blacks and the Chinese women. Since theUnited States of America is distinct as an independent nation, the American women's social status has always been an important problem for researchers. The American societyth century. So did the American women's social status. witnessed a lot of changes in the 20These two changes also had an effect on each other: the social transitions provided someconditions for the improvement of the American women's social status, in reverse, theirstatus' improvement also promoted the social progress. In summary, although there wereth century, the American women's some setbacks during the 20social status presented anincreasing tendency.This paper mainly discussed the improvement of the American women's social status from the perspectives of economy, higher education and politics by comparing some important figures and significant events while describing the manifestations of the shifts.The paper studied the factors which had caused these shifts and these shifts' influence toAmerican society as well. At last, the author called on people to create someconditions toimprove women's social status.Key words: women's social status; employment opportunity; higher education; equity;political participationContents1.…………1. Introduction……………………………………………………th...1…………………………………century1.1 The American society in the 20……………..2social status American women's 1.2 The factors that influenced the...32. American Women's Economic Status……………………………………………………………..32.1 The American women's employment opportunity……………………………………….52.2 The working women's role in family.7………………………3. American Women's Status inHigher Education..7…………………………3.1 American women as students in higher education ..8…………………3.2 American women as faculty members in higher education ......................................................94. American Women's PoliticalStatu s....……………………………………….94.1 American women's effects in politics10…………………………………cipation4.2 American women's political parti………………………………………………………………5. Conclusion..12ReferencesAcknowledgementsThe American Women's Social Statusth in the 20 Century1.IntroductionWomen play a vital part both in family and social life, but their importance and value are always overlooked by the people and the society. So do the American women. For along time, the American women's social status was dramatically out of proportion withtheir importance. They suffered from the social prejudice and bias which providedthemwith only limited rights. This kind of unequal situation had not been greatly improved untilth century.the 20th century The American society in the 201.1th century had witnessed unprecedented changes The 20in the American society andthe American women's life.The development of industry which was known as the Industrial Revolution changed th century. As a result in the 20of the American the American society significantly Industrial Revolution, the labor market was greatly enlarged. Under the circumstances,only men couldn't meet the enlarging labor needs. This provided an employment opportunity for women to work outside the home. Especially in 1939, the Second WorldWar broke out. Almost all male workers were asked to join in the army. Women were encouraged to work in factories due to the severe labor shortages. Even though they returned home after the war, women still made a great contribution to American societyduring the war time. Besides, with the development of science and technology, many greatinventions were invented. These inventions such as tractors, mechanical cotton pickers,vacuum cleaners, washing machines affected not only the industry production but also thefamily life. Owing to these great inventions; women could free themselves from the heavyhousework and had more extra time to work outside their families. At the same time, manyregulations and laws about improving women's social status were proposed and put intoeffect. For example, the President John F. Kennedy organized an Advisory Commission onthe Status of Women to make some public policies which were of benefit to women (Conway, 1995:6). In the 1960s, in particular, the feminism movement gathered strength.And the total number of women organizations was increased drastically as well. These organizations were aimed at fighting for women's legal rights and improving women's social status. They also provided a stage for women to start a new life.All these social transitions contributed to the improvement of the American women's social status.1.2 The factors that influenced the American women's social statusThere were many factors that influenced the American women's social status in theth century. All these factors were not isolated; they were closely connected with each 20other. Based on the essence and category of the factors, we can classify these factors intotwo categories: the internal factors and the external factors.The internal factors were the arouse of women's self-consciousness and the desire for self-fulfillment. Women were not satisfy with their current conditions in the society, theybegan to place a great emphasis on achieving personal satisfaction and individual growthand struggled to fight for their own rights and benefits. Not only did they campaign womenmovement, they also established and developed lots of women organizations, for example,the National Organization for Women, General federation of Women's Club, the League ofWomen V oters (Rix, 1987: 29), to improve their social status. The movement and the organizations strengthened the American women's collective consciousness and encouraged them to work together to fight for their social status. They realizedself-valueand achieved accomplishments through the movement as well.th century, the In the 20of The external factors were the transitions the society. American society experienced the Great Depression, the World War Ⅱ, and the economicboom after the war. All these changes made it possible for women to step out of the domestic sphere and offered an opportunity to broaden their horizons. It is needless to saythat the American industrialization also played a key role in liberating women from thetraditional roles as full-time housewives. Furthermore, some great inventions such astractors, mechanical cotton pickers, vacuum cleaners, washing machines and the like solargely reduced the time which women devoted to housework that they had more sparetime to do what they favored. They participated in some voluntary associations: temperance societies, charitable associations, settlement houses and so on (Rix, 1987:39).In these associations, they realized their own value. They were not content with their current situations in the society. They wanted to improve their social status, they'd like towork outside the family, have access to higher education and take part in the political activities and what not. In addition, the legal guarantee such as the enforcements of theEqual Pay Act of 1963, Economic Equity Act, Higher Education Act, the Women's Educational Equal Act of 1974, Title Ⅶof the Civil Rights Act of 1964(Conway, 1995:6),and all played an important part in improving the women's social status ,too.All these factors caused the American women strive to improve their social status in th century.the 202.American Women's Economic Status2.1 The American women's employment opportunityThe American women's employment opportunity can be discussed from two aspects: the number of working women, the job they did and the pay they earned.For a long period, women were not allowed to work outside the home. Even if they could work outside the family, they just did some jobs which didn't need too many skills inlimited fields. They were denied access to many kinds of jobs. Their working choices wereoften confined to nurses, teachers, social workers or most commonly, domestic services.Only a few worked as the clerks in offices. What's more, women's work outside the homewas temporary, always ending with their marriages (Rix, 1987:41-42). In brief, their workoutside the families was not encouraged.th century, especially after the World War Ⅱ, because of the severe laborthe In 20shortages and some cultural and legal obstructions to the employment of the marriedwomen were eliminated, women were encouraged to work outside the home. On one hand,the number of working women increased significantly; on the other hand, a good manywomen's work shifted from farm, domestic and service work to skilled industrial jobswhich was previously closed to them and only opened to men (Rix, 1987:49). Even thoughthey returned home after the war, their devotions to the American society and economywere of great importance. And of course, this also paved the way for women to work outside the family. Since then, in several states, for example, major labor unions and stateslegislatures adopted the equal-pay-for-equal-work standard (Rix, 1987:51) .It was estimated that by 1980s, more than half of adult women worked outside the domestic th sphere, and by 1990s, the figure reached almost 60 percent. While in the middle ofthe 20century, there were less than 20 percent working women (Conway, 1995:4). From thesefigures, we can see that there had been an increasing number of women working outsideth century. the home and the ratio of working women had steadily increased in the 20 The increased proportion of women in the labor market aroused the concern of inequities in pay and employment opportunity and their status in the workplace (Conway,th 20half of the for equal-pay-for equal-work. In the early 1995:61).They started to ask century, women were only admitted to some less skilled jobs, such as clerical jobs, salesjobs, nursing and teaching and all that sort of thing. The higher paying or professional andmanagerial positions were only admitted to men workers (Conway, 1995:61). In the latterth century, with the implementation of the Title Ⅸlegislation and Title Ⅶhalf of the 20 ofthe Civil Rights Act in 1964, discriminations against women pursing advanced professionssuch as law, medicine, management, bank and so forth were abolished step by step. Women's proportion in the managerial and professional occupations had increased. But itwas an undeniable fact that although women had taken a footstep towards the formerlyman-dominated professions, they were less likely to be advanced to a higher position. Forone thing, from government civil service to university faculties, private companies andbanks, women were underrepresented at the top, however, overrepresented at the bottom,when compared with men (Rix, 1987:123). What they did was more auxiliary than specialized. For another, because they were considered as the primary care providers forboth children and elderly parents, it was impossible for women to be employed asfull-timeemployers. Women's average working time was less than men's. And also, the proportionsbetween men and women who worked in the formerly male-dominated professionswereunbalanced. Women only accounted for a small proportion.The wage-gap can not be overlooked, either. In the past, women's average earnings were substantially fewer than that of men. This was in part because that women's workwas less skilled than men's and their working time was also less than that of men. But when women worked in the male-dominated occupations, they still earned less than theirmen counterparts who did the same jobs. The situation was not improved until the passageof the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Conway,1995:63). This was a small but very significant step toward requiring equity between menand women in employment. Since the passage of the two acts, there have been supports oflegislative regulations for eliminating sex differences on wages. Ever since, the disparitiesbetween the earnings of men and women have been declining. But the laws' implementations were not the sole reason that narrowed the pay gap. There were other reasons that caused the pay-gap between men and women narrowing. For example, theydid more skilled jobs than before. More women were employed in the higher-paying professional, managerial, technical occupations. Furthermore, women worked more continuously than in the past (Conway, 1995:66). All these leaded to the narrowing of thepay-gap based on sexes.Although the wage-gap between male and female has been declining since the 1980s,the differences still existed. In order to get rid of the disparities on wages thoroughly, moreefforts and actions should be taken. Improving the women's access not only tomale-dominated but also to the higher-paying occupations and establishing comparableequal compensation in female-dominated professions were important ways to reduce thepay gap (Rix, 1987:126). What's more, the equal employment opportunity especially in thehigher-paying jobs between men and women was a more effective way to bridge the wage-gap and gain the real equality.2.2 The working women's role in familyThe working women played an increasingly important role in both economy andth century.family life in the 20Generally speaking, people always thought that men's earnings were the main financial resources in the families while working women's income was secondary to men'sand even non-essential. Women's work was not worthy of any monetary reward comparingto that of men. And women were not financially responsible for their family (Rix, 1987:103). What's worse, women's jobs had always been undervalued and ignored sincetheir work was paid fewer than men's work and they were not seen as important economicproviders as men.th century, with the development of the society and the economy, aHowever, in the 20majority of women began to combine family life with work outside the home. Althoughwomen, on average, earned less than men, their contribution to the economic resources ofthe family was significant and could not be ignored any more. For example, in husband-wife families, a wife's earnings made a significant difference on the family livingstandards. Their family would be able to live a better life than the family with only a husband worked outside the home to support the whole family. The financial status of thattime's husband-wife families was also closely relevant to women's earnings. In a single-parent family, mother's income was more important because the mother's wage wasthe only economic resources. Without the mother's income, they even could not make aliving. In summary, the working women's income played a critical part in family life. Andalso, the working women lessened their dependency on men, they were financially independent.In addition, women and men all worked outside the home to support the family, but women still had to bear the most responsibility of housework. The shift of women to paidemployment didn't mean a reduce in the number of hours most women spent in the household. They not only had to work outside the home to support the family but also theyhad to do most or even all of the housework such as cleaning, cooking, shopping, childcaring and so on after they returned home from workplace while men didn't (Conway,1995:80). Women devoted more total hours to the family economy than they didbefore the changes.th century as well. By 1960s,The working women gained more rights in family in the 20married women had the rights to deal with property. They acquired the right to own andcontrol the property they brought to the marriage and that which they acquired during themarriage while in the past the family property was controlled by men. Women were alsoentitled the right to decide the residents and equal guardian rights over the children. Moreover, it was a tradition that a woman should adopt the surname of her husband aftermarriage. But since then, the married women could keep their own name without adoptingtheir husband's surname (何家弘, 2001:248-249). All these were progresses which the th century. To some extent, the American women's statuAmerican women made in the 20sth century. in economy was upgraded in the 203.American Women's Status in Higher EducationSince both the individual and society attached great importance to education opportunity, the higher educational right was also one of the most important areas in whichwomen struggled for equal opportunity all around the time. The more education a womanreceived, the more likely she was to be employed or promoted.The American women's status in higher education can be analyzed from two aspects: women as students and women as faculty members (Conway, 1995:21).3.1 American women as students in higher educationIn American, for a long run, most women were excluded from the higher education. Only a small number of women had access to colleges and universities. In the earlyth century, on average, there were only about 40 20beginning of the percent of women students in higher education (Rix, 1987:240). The unequal situation hadn't been improveduntil the Title Ⅶof the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which was amended in 1972. Since then,more and more women had been allowed to higher education. In 1979, the number of women students was first exceeded the number of men students in the college enrollment.The percentage of college women students increased continuously. By 1990s, more thanhalf of women went into colleges and universities for further studies. Not all students inhigher education could earn degrees, however, women's proportion of earning degrees atevery level of higher education were increasing all the time. In 1974, women were awarded45 percent of all bachelors' degrees; in 1982, the figure reached 51 percent (Conway, 1995:24). And the percentage of women who received masters' and doctorates' degreeswas also increased. By 1990s, there were about half of women earned master's degreeswhile there were less than 35 percent in the 1960s. The proportion of doctorates earned bywomen also jumped from 16 percent of all doctorates awarded in 1972 to 35.4 percent ofthe total awarded in 1986. The proportion was still keeping increasing (Rix,1987:242).Women were making a slow but very steady strides at the higher educationallevel.Apart from the mentioned above，women's study fields were also amplified. For example, in the past, women were refused to study in military colleges for many years. In1976, military universities began to recruit women students as a consequence of the Congressional legislation. In the middle of the 1990s, there were nearly 13 percent of women students in military colleges. And the number of women who majored in fieldssuch as business, law, medicine which were traditionally thought of as the domain of menwas also increased significantly, though the proportion was very small (刘永涛, 2001:244).It was a step that had broad implications for the eliminations of the gender discriminationin the society as a whole, where the attitudes about the role of women and their relationships to society were developed and reinforced gradually. It was a success womenachieved in higher education.3.2 American women as faculty members in higher educationAs for women as faculty members in higher educational institutions, they also sufferedfrom unequal treatment. Not only did the average salaries of female faculty members wereless than those of male counterparts, but also the women faculty members were less likelyto be in leading positions such as department chiefs, deans and collegepresidents(Conway,1995:21).Usually the higher the rank is, the fewer the women there are. Women were always at the foot of the academic pyramids.It was after the passage of the landmark legislation known as Title Ⅸin 1972 that thepercentage of women in positions of authority and management in higher education beganto increase (Conway, 1995:21). There was a report that of the more than 400,000full-timefaculty members on college and university in the autumn of 1983, women accounted for27.3 percent, only increasing by 5 percent compared with 1972 (Rix, 1987:240). Because alarge proportion of women were promoted to professors in the 1940s, and they retired inthe 1980s, whereas newly employed women were not moving as quickly as men into higher faculty position; this caused a slow growth in the increase of women as full professors in the 1980s. In 1972, women constituted 9.8 percent of all full professors, while the figure had risen only to 10.7 percent by 1983. In addition, women's proportionamong senior administrators also had increased, although the increase was dismally small,from 0.6 percent in 1975 to 1.1 percent in 1983 (Rix, 1987:240). It was a progress compared with the past. To some extent, the small increase in the number of women holding executive positions in the educational establishment resulted in a lessening of institutional discrimination against women.th century, women had made 20end of the many achievements inIn a word, by thehigher education both as students and faculty members. Although women had made stridesin the efforts to eliminate gender discrimination in higher education, the tasks were far from completion. There was still a long way to go in some fields, in particular, women'sappointments to administrative-level positions in higher education.American Women's Political Status4.4.1 American women's effects in politicsSince the establishment of the United States of America, women had been precludedfrom the process of the public policy, though they accounted for a large number in the totalpopulation. Their ideas were always neglected. But with the social development, the American women also wanted a voice in the politics. And their effects in politics becameevident gradually.In the 1920s, the American women gained the suffrage right. It was a remarkable event. Since then, they had a great influence on the politics. For instance, because womenvoters outnumbered the men voters, for the reason, the views women hold on political views cannot be ignored by candidates for public offices. If the candidate wanted to winthe election, he couldn't neglect the women voters' anticipation. Once the candidates overlooked the women voters' voice, unexpected voting patterns and results would appear(Rix, 1987:181). And when the elected politicians were proved to be corrupted, womenmust vote them out by using their political rights.Women showed more sensible than perceptual in politics. Women were more likely than men to support candidates whom they perceive to be liberal. Liberal women officeholders might possibly be more supportive of policies that would enhance their statusfor women, while conservative women might be less likely to offer their encouragementand their votes. Once women voters were aware of this kind of situation, they were morelikely to support politically liberal men than their conservative female opponents (Rix, 1987:179-180). They considered suffrage right as a efficient and effective way to improvetheir status and get more opportunities.In order to increase the number of low-income women registering to vote, almost onehundred women's groups worked as a whole in the 1984 Women's V ote Project. And finally they succeeded. They not only fought for legislation, they also monitored the implementations of laws. By careful monitoring the implementation process of the lawsand regulations, in particular, the development of regulatory guidelines to carry out the law,the American women realized the greatest benefits from Title Ⅸ(Rix, 1987: 29). TheAmerican women began to exerted more effects on public legislations.th the 20effect on politics in American Whatever to say, the women posed more century than in the past.4.2 American women's political participationTraditionally, the political affairs have always been considered as men's patent and it was of no business with women. Women had rarely political rights. Even the First Ladies,Abigail Adams and Dolly Madison, playing important roles in their husbands' careers, didhelp to their husbands behind the scenes(徐鸿雁, 2006:51). They never touched the political affairs directly.With the development of the women's liberation movement and the feminism movement, the situation was changed. More and more women began to take interested inpolitics and set foot in politics in public. For instance, after the World WarⅡ, theAmerican women gradually realized the fact that political participation was a fundamentaland indispensable way to improve their social status in American society. Only when theytook part in the political affairs positively did the can have equal rights with men in education, economy, health, employment and so on. Their political participation consciousness and ideas were enhanced. Particularly, in the 1980s, the American womentook participate in the politics actively. Not only did their voting passion rose dramatically,they also brought their own political initiative into full play. According to the New YorkTimes, 53 percent of voters in the presidents' election campaigns in 1980 were women voters. The number of women voters who registered and voted firstly surpassed the number of men electors (Rix, 1987:174). The women voters devoted themselves to nearlyall kinds of election campaigns, such as the Congressional election, government officialelection, the mayor and the governor election. In 1984, Geraldine Ferraro voted for theAmerican vice president. Though it was a failure, it was a landmark achievement in women's political participation. On one hand, this event greatly encouraged American women's confidence in taking part in the national affairs. On the other hand, it changedpeople's bias about women's stereotyping images (李秋金, 2008:140). Since then, an increasing number of women dedicated themselves to the political activities and were enthusiastic about politics. As to the First Ladies, taking Eleanor Roosevelt andHillaryClinton for example, they stepped out of the scenes and took part in the political affairsdirectly and publicly. They made remarkable influence on public policies(徐鸿雁, 2006:52). The two First Ladies developed their careers in the course of helping their husbands.The increase in the number of women holding public office was becoming significant,especially in county and municipal governments. In the decades prior to 1984, the numberof women holding county office grew from 3 percent of elected officials to 8 percent. Andby 1985, four of the 100 largest cities in the United States had women mayors (Rix, 1987:178). Though these figures did not reflect the proportion of American women adultsin the government offices, they certainly reflected the fact that more and more women began to participate in the politics actively.In addition, the number of women who hold the position of Congresswomen and government officials in federal and state governments has been increasing dramaticallysince 1980 (李秋金, 2008:140). Even the proportion of women in American Congress wasstill very small; the number had increased in an immeasurable speed.th century.In a word, the American women made a great progress in politics in the 20Their political status had largely improved. They used their political rights to fight for other rights in economy, education and so on. Their political participation made contributions to the formulation of public policies as well. It promoted the social equity.5.Conclusionth century 20in the was , although the American women's social status In conclusionstill lower than that of the American men; their social status had improved a lot than in thepast. There was no doubt that the American women's status in economy, higher education,and politics had been dramatically improved. By women's own efforts and conveniencesocial conditions, they had won economic independent to some degrees, had more accessto higher education and political affairs. They played an increasingly important role in。

美国的女性地位

双语阅读：在美国女人为何没有地位摘要：全世界的企业都需要进一步对女性敞开大门。

美国企业本应在这方面发挥带头作用。

但它们并没有做到这一点。

U.S. companies are lagging behind not just progressive Scandinavians but also businesses in emerging markets. Companies in countries just now shaping their economies have higher percentages of women business leaders than in the U.S.Not only does the U.S. lag behind several emerging market countries in terms of female leadership on company boards, but the gap extends to other executive roles. According to a 2013 report by Grant Thornton, only 20% of senior corporate leaders in the U.S. are women. Other G7 countries didn't fare so well either -- take Japan (7%) and the United Kingdom (19%).The country with the most women in high places? China. Over half of corporate leaders in China are women. Estonia (40%), Vietnam (33%), and Botswana (32%) rank in the top 10."I'm surprised that they're making as much progress as they are, " says Erica O'Malley, a partner at Grant Thornton.How are these nations making such progress?First off, national cultures that may appear conservative on the surface are in fact more complex. In a 2012 paper called "Cultural constraints on the emergence of women as leaders, " authors Geoffrey Leonardelli and Soo Min Toh, both associate professors at the University of Toronto, explore the effects of cultural rigidity related to female leadership. So-called '"tight" cultures punish members of the group from deviating from cultural norms. In general, culturally inflexible countries do not support women leaders.But there are exceptions to this tendency. Namely, when countries with traditional gender norms implement government mandates or top-down rules about gender equity in business, they tend to take hold. For example, in 2011, Malaysia's cabinet approved a law mandating that companies based in the country include one-third female representation on corporate boards within the next five years. The punishment for failure is harsh: Companies that don't make the cut risk being delisted.But this is America. U.S. companies don't respond well to government mandates to change the status quo. And that status was solidified in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. America's second industrial revolution was fueled by steel, coal, and oil and designed by men.The world has since changed, but cultural norms stick around long after they're relevant, especially given the tendency of people in power to surround themselves with people who think like them.Emerging markets don't face that problem in the same way. Many are undergoing their very own industrial revolutions right now, and even culturally conservative countries by 2013 standards probably look like socially progressive free-love fests compared to the buttoned-up division of labor prevalent in turn-of-the-century America.Emerging market economies also have more opportunities to hire women since they are growing, O'Malley says. "If you look at more traditional-valued countries who you think would struggle with putting women in leadership rules, they're also the growth countries, so they're creating new jobs." As these nations are developing their business cultures, women are entering the workforce in high places from the get-go.The U.S. has less of a clean slate, and will have to quickly come up with an alternative to top-down government mandates to encourage the appointment of senior-level women at corporations. "It would not be a good business strategy to sit and wait," O'Malley says.双语阅读：在美国女人为何没有地位摘要：全世界的企业都需要进一步对女性敞开大门。

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