制药工程 专业英语 Unit 21
制药工程专外
制药工程专业英语Unit 1production of drugs P1单词Compound 化合物intermediate 中间产物alkaloids 生物碱enzymes酶peptide 肽hormones 荷尔蒙modification 修饰chloramphenicol 氯霉素metabolites 代谢物substitute 替代品derivative衍生物active 活性absorption 吸收extraction 提取Recombinant 重组insulin 编码neuroactive 神经活性start materials 起始原料recrystallization 重结晶methanol 甲醇Ethanol 乙醇isopropanol 异丙醇butanol 丁醇benzene 苯翻译Known examples are the enzymatic cleavage of racemates of N-acetyl-D, L-amino acids to give L-amino acids, the production of 6-aminopenicillanic acid from benzylpenicillin by means of penicillinamidase and the aspartase-catalysed stereospecific addition of ammonia to fumaric acid in order to produce L-aspartic acid.著名的例子是对N -乙酰- D，L -氨基酸消旋给予L -氨基酸酶裂解，从青霉素生产8 -氨基青霉烷酸的青霉素酰胺酶手段和天冬氨酸酶，催化氨立体除了富马酸为了酸生产L -天门冬氨酸。
Reading material 1 p7Antagonist 抑制剂receptor 受体clinical investigation 临床研究antibacterial抗菌的inhibition 抑制mercurial 水银dominate 占主导Unit 3 chemotherapy: an introduction P29单词chemotherapy化学治疗superstition 迷信pathogenic 致病的翻译The activity of the arsenical drugs is explained as due to a blocking of essential thiol groups.For example, lipoic acid dehydrogenase contains two cysteine molecules, while are kept near each other by folding of the molecule. As a result, an arsenical can react with these thiol groups and inactivate the molecule, as show in equation.对含砷药物活性被解释为由于阻塞必不可少的巯基。
制药工程专业英语课后练习题含答案 (2)
制药工程专业英语课后练习题含答案题目一：Drug Substance Manufacturing1.What is Drug Substance Manufacturing?–A. It is the process of producing a finished drug product.–B. It is the process of producing the activeingredient or drug substance used in a drug product.–C. It is the process of packaging and labeling a finished drug product.–D. It is the process of performing clinical trials ona drug product.Answer: B. It is the process of producing the active ingredient or drug substance used in a drug product.2.What are the steps involved in Drug Substance Manufacturing?–A. Synthesis, isolation, and purification.–B. Packaging, labeling, and testing.–C. Clinical trials, manufacturing, and distribution.–D. None of the above.Answer: A. Synthesis, isolation, and purification.3.What is the mn purpose of Drug Substance Manufacturing?–A. To produce a finished drug product for human use.–B. To provide the active ingredient or drug substance used in a drug product.–C. To test and validate the safety and efficacy of a drug product.–D. To distribute a drug product to consumers.Answer: B. To provide the active ingredient or drug substance used in a drug product.题目二：Pharmaceutical Formulation1.What is Pharmaceutical Formulation?–A. It is the process of producing a finished drug product.–B. It is the process of selecting and combining ingredients to produce a drug product.–C. It is the process of packaging and labeling a finished drug product.–D. It is the process of performing clinical trials ona drug product.Answer: B. It is the process of selecting and combining ingredients to produce a drug product.2.What are the key considerations in PharmaceuticalFormulation?–A. Safety, efficacy, and stability.–B. Cost, avlability, and taste.–C. Appearance, texture, and smell.–D. None of the above.Answer: A. Safety, efficacy, and stability.3.What is the role of excipients in Pharmaceutical Formulation?–A. They are the active ingredients in a drug product.–B. They are the inactive ingredients in a drug product that help to improve its properties.–C. They are the ingredients in a drug product that are responsible for the color and flavor.–D. None of the above.Answer: B. They are the inactive ingredients in a drug product that help to improve its properties.题目三：Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)1.What is Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)?–A. It is a set of regulations and guidelines that ensure the quality and safety of pharmaceutical products.–B. It is a set of regulations and guidelines that ensure the efficacy of pharmaceutical products.–C. It is a set of regulations and guidelines that ensure the affordability of pharmaceutical products.–D. None of the above.Answer: A. It is a set of regulations and guidelines that ensure the quality and safety of pharmaceutical products.2.What are the key components of Good Manufacturing Practice(GMP)?–A. Quality control, documentation, and facility design.–B. Clinical trials, manufacturing, and distribution.–C. Cost control, inventory management, and customer service.–D. None of the above.Answer: A. Quality control, documentation, and facility design.3.Why is Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) important?–A. It helps to ensure the quality and safety ofpharmaceutical products.–B. It helps to reduce the cost of producingpharmaceutical products.–C. It helps to increase the avlability ofpharmaceutical products.–D. None of the above.Answer: A. It helps to ensure the quality and safety of pharmaceutical products.总结本文介绍了制药工程专业英语中的几个重要概念和术语，包括Drug Substance Manufacturing（药品物质制造）、Pharmaceutical Formulation（制剂开发）以及Good Manufacturing Practice（良好生产规范）。
制药工程专业英语Unit
丹宁是分子量在500至3000之间的酚类化合物。它们被广泛用于“鞣制”皮革。他们能将生物碱和蛋白质从水溶液中沉淀析出。丹宁通常分为两类：能被水解的丹宁和不能被水解的丹宁。
Tannins are phenolic compounds having molecular weights between 500 and 3000. They are widely used to “tan” leather. They precipitate alkaloids and proteins from aqueous solutions. Tannins are usually divided into two classes: those which can be hydrolyzed and those which cannot.
free catechin aqueous bp (boiling point) mp (melting point) fp (flashing point) match coincidence base (basic) residue sink drain waste container beaker fluted filter condenser reflux stopper vial
The professional English of pharmaceutical engineering
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Wang East China University of Science and Technology
分子式
01
咖啡因属于甲基黄嘌呤的生物碱。纯的咖啡因是白色的，强烈苦味的粉状物。它的化学式是C8H10N4O2。它的化学名是1,3,7-三甲基黄嘌呤或3,7-二氢-1,3,7三甲基-1H-嘌呤-2,6-二酮。分子量，194.19 。
制药工程专业英语课文翻译
Unit 1 Production of Drugs
Depending on their production or origin pharmaceutical agents can be split into three groups:
I .Totally synthetic materials (synthetics)，
不顾来自某些微生物，大肠杆菌粘膜生产的葡聚糖克明串珠mesenteroides，2和3级是毒品有关的准备工作。葡聚糖本身5万〜10万分子量，是用作血浆代用品。其中主要来自谷氨酸棒杆菌代谢产物和黄色短杆菌突变体的L -氨基酸特别有趣。从这些味精约35万吨L -谷氨酸（食品添加剂）生物体和L -赖氨酸（用于植物蛋白补充）约70,000吨的生产。此外重要的初级代谢产物的普瑞纳核苷酸，有机酸，乳酸，柠檬酸和维生素，例如维生素B，从丙酸shermanii 2。
vitamins A, E，and K)
2.2 Animal organs一enzymes;peptide hormones;cholic acid from gall; insulin) from the
pancreas;sera and vaccines
1. cell material (single cell protein)，
2. enzymes，
3. primary degradation products (primary metabolites)，
4. secondary degradation products (secondary metabolites).
其中几个重要的治疗作用最初是从天然产品天然来源获得更有效的今天，我。大肠杆菌更经济的准备..由全合成。这样的例子包括L-氨基酸，氯霉素，咖啡因，多巴胺，肾上腺素，左旋多巴，肽类激素，前列腺素，D -青霉胺，长春胺，以及几乎所有的维生素。
制药工程专业英语翻译
Distillation columns are vertical, cylindrical vessels containing devices that provide intimate contacting of the rising vapor with the descending liquid.蒸馏塔是垂直的，可以提供给上升的蒸汽与下降的液体直接接触的圆柱形容器控制设备。
This contacting provides the opportunity for the two streams to achieve some approach to thermodynamic equilibrium.这种接触为两个流体实现热力学平衡提供了机会。
Depending on the type of internal devices used, the contacting may occur in discrete steps, called plates or trays, or in a continuous differential manner on the surface of a packing material.取决于使用的内部设备的类型，能使接触出现分离的叫塔板或者分流塔盘，或者是在一个能连续差分方式的包装材料的表面上。
The fundamental requirement of the column is to provide efficient and economic contacting at a required mass-transfer rate.蒸馏塔的根本要求，是为客户提供高效和经济的同时要与必要的质量传输速率相联系。
Individual column requirements vary from high vacuum to high pressure, from low to high liquid rates, from clean to dirty systems, and so on.个人塔的要求各不相同从高真空至高压力，从低到高的液率，从清洁到不清洁的系统，等等。
制药工程专业英语考试题目与答案
专业英语考试内容：单词10分句子翻译24分根据课文回答问题24分英译汉药品说明书21分翻译汉译英摘要21分Unit 11 Tablet (The Pharmaceutical Tablets Dosage Form)药片（医药片剂剂型）Role in TherapyA: The oral route of drug admininistration is the most important method of administering drugs ofr systemic effects.Except in cases of Insulin therapy.the parenteral route is not routinely used for self-administration of medication.The topical route of administration has only recently been employed to deliver drugs to the body for systemic effects,with two classes of marketed products:Nitroglycerin for the treatmint of angina and scopolamine for the treatment of motion sickness.Other drugs are certain to follow,but the topical route of administration is limited in its ability to allow effective drug absorption for systemic drug action.A:口服给药是全身效应用药方法中最为重要的。
除了胰岛素治疗，非肠道药途径不常用在自我服药方面。
制药工程专业英语考试题目及答案
专业英语考试内容：单词10分句子翻译24分根据课文回答问题24分英译汉药品说明书21分翻译汉译英摘要21分Unit 11 Tablet (The Pharmaceutical Tablets Dosage Form)药片（医药片剂剂型）Role in TherapyA: The oral route of drug admininistration is the most important method of administering drugs ofr systemic effects.Except in cases of Insulin therapy.the parenteral route is not routinely used for self-administration of medication.The topical route of administration has only recently been employed to deliver drugs to the body for systemic effects,with two classes of marketed products:Nitroglycerin for the treatmint of angina and scopolamine for the treatment of motion sickness.Other drugs are certain to follow,but the topical route of administration is limited in its ability to allow effective drug absorption for systemic drug action.A:口服给药是全身效应用药方法中最为重要的。
除了胰岛素治疗，非肠道药途径不常用在自我服药方面。
制药工程专业英语词汇
medicinal药品,药物, 药的,药用的，治疗的medical 医学的，医术的pharmaceutical 药学的，制药的，药品be split into 分成，分为alkaloid 生物碱enzyme 酶polysaccharide 多糖，多聚糖precursor 前体steroid甾体peptide 肽hormone 激素gall 胆汁insulin 胰岛素pancreas胰腺serum/sera血清，浆液vaccine 疫苗cholesterol 胆固醇gelatine 骨胶，明胶antibiotic 抗生素，抗菌的interferon 干扰素antibody 抗体fermentation 发酵therapy 治疗/ therapeutic治疗的therapeutic margin caffeine咖啡因dopamine多巴胺yeast 酵母mucous membrane粘液的，分泌粘液的plasma 血浆，淋巴液，等离子体penicillin 青霉素penicillium 青霉菌derivative衍生物sterile无菌的，不能生育的aerobic 需氧的oxygen feedstuff 饲料lymph淋巴，淋巴液starch 淀粉regiospecific reaction区域专一性反应stereospecific reaction立体专一性反应glucose葡萄糖immobilize 固定heterogeneous 不均匀的，多相的contamination污染genetic 创始的，遗传学的hygienic 卫生学的，卫生的intermediate中间体extraction 萃取recrystallization 重结晶/ crystal 晶体，晶体的xylene 二甲苯toluene 甲苯ether 醚synthesize 综合，合成benzene苯/ chlorobenzene氯苯synthetic, 合成的，人造的；化学合成品synthesis [复syntheses] 综合,综合物，合成(法)semisynthetic, lead structure先导结构preparation 制备，制剂isolate使分离，使离析/ isolation heart glycoside tocopherol 生育酚hydrolysis水解/hydrolysate水解产物/hydrolyze水解hydroxylation 羟基化dextran 葡聚糖，代血浆wool 羊毛 ーlactamβ-内酰胺amino acid 氨基酸/ amino 氨基的penicilamine 青霉胺ammonia 氨ammonium 铵/ ammonium sulfate硫酸铵amine 胺amide酰胺microorganism 微生物microbiological微生物学的mutant 变异的；突变型，突变体starting material 起始原料natural source天然来源organ器官/target organ 靶器官pancreas 胰腺natural product 天然产物mould 霉，霉菌；发霉high performance 高效bacterial 细菌的protein 蛋白质degradation 降解metabolism新陈代谢/ metabolize metabolite代谢物molecule /molecular weight food additive organiclactic acid乳酸citric acid 柠檬酸tetracycline 四环素carbon dioxide 二氧化碳carbohydrate 碳水化合物saccharide 糖/多糖polysaccharide nitrogen 氮urea 尿素phosphate 磷酸盐optimal 优化的，最佳的separate vt 分离absorption 吸收absorb vt. 吸收filtration 过滤filtrate 滤液filte 过滤（vt），过滤器（n）recombinant 重组的，重组子purification 纯化encode把(电文等)译成电码(或密码), 编码calcium 钙chromatographic procedure 色谱操作步骤isomerization异构化/isomeric phenol 酚fructose 果糖fumaric acid 富马酸countless test 非计数的diagnose诊断diagnostic analysis分析/analyze 分析vt / analyst分析家/ analytical分析的protease 蛋白酶Ingredient 成分in combination with 结合Digestion 消化。
制药工程专业英语
制药工程专业英语Chap7.1over three quarters of the world's population relies mainly onplants and plant extracts for health care.Approximately one third of the prescription drugs in the US contain plant components,and more than 120 important prescription drugs are derived from plants.Most of these drugs were developed because of their use in traditional medicine.Economically this represents $8000~10000M of annual consumer spending. Recent World Health Organization studies indicate that over 30 per cent of theworld's plant species have at one time or another been used for medicineal purposes. of the 250000 higher plant species on Earth, more than 80000 species are medicinal.Although traditional medicine is widespread throughout the world,it is an integral part of eachindividual culture. Its practice is based mainly on traditional beliefs handed down from generation to generation for hundreds or even thousands of years.Unfortunately,much of this ancient knowledge and many valuable plants are being lost at an alarming rate.the scientific study of traditional medicines and the systematic preservation of medicinal plants are thus of great importance.For quite a long time, the only way to use plant medicines waseither direct application or the use of crude plant extracts.With the development of organic chemistry at the beginning of thiscentury,extraction and fractionation techniques improvedsignificantly.It became possible to isolate and identify many of the active chemicals from plants.In the 1940s,advances in chemical synthesis enabled the synthesis of many plant components and their derivatives.In western countries, it was thought that chemical synthesis of drugs would be more effective and economical than isolation from naturalsources.indeed,this is true in many cases.however,in many othercases,synthetic analogues are not as effective as their natural counterparts.In addition,some synthetic drugs cost many times more than natural ones. 在世界上有四分之三的人口主要依靠植物和植物提取物的保健作用。
制药工程专业英语考试题目及答案
专业英语考试内容：单词10分句子翻译24分根据课文回答问题24分英译汉药品说明书21分翻译汉译英摘要21分Unit 11 Tablet (The Pharmaceutical Tablets Dosage Form)药片（医药片剂剂型）Role in TherapyA: The oral route of drug admininistration is the most important method of administering drugs ofr systemic effects.Except in cases of Insulin therapy.the parenteral route is not routinely used for self-administration of medication.The topical route of administration has only recently been employed to deliver drugs to the body for systemic effects,with two classes of marketed products:Nitroglycerin for the treatmint of angina and scopolamine for the treatment of motion sickness.Other drugs are certain to follow,but the topical route of administration is limited in its ability to allow effective drug absorption for systemic drug action.A:口服给药是全身效应用药方法中最为重要的。
除了胰岛素治疗，非肠道药途径不常用在自我服药方面。
制药工程专业英语翻译吴达俊
Unit 1 Production of DrugsDepending on their production or origin pharmaceutical agents can be split into three groups:I .Totally synthetic materials (synthetics)，Ⅱ.Natural products，and Ⅲ.Products from partial syntheses (semi-synthetic products).The emphasis of the present book is on the most important compounds of groups I and Ⅲ一thus Drug synthesis. This does not mean，however，that natural products or other agents are less important. They can serve as valuable lead structures，and they are frequently needed as starting materials or as intermediates for important synthetic products.Table 1 gives an overview of the different methods for obtaining pharmaceutical agents.1单元生产的药品其生产或出身不同药剂可以分为三类：1。
完全（合成纤维）合成材料，Ⅱ。
天然产物，和Ⅲ。
产品从（半合成产品）的部分合成。
本书的重点是团体的最重要的化合物Ⅰ和Ⅲ一所以药物合成。
这并不意味着，但是，天然产品或其他代理人并不太重要。
它们可以作为有价值的领导结构，他们常常为原料，或作为重要的合成中间体产品的需要。
制药工程专业英语Unit21
Interpretation of important policies and regulations: Detailed interpretation of important policies and regulations in the field of drug supervision, such as the Drug Administration Law and the Drug Registration Management Measures.
Conduct in vitro and in vivo pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and safety evaluations to provide data support for clinical trials.
Clinical trial application
Raw material control: Strictly control the quality of raw materials to ensure their quality and stability.
Intermediate control: Quality control of intermediates generated during the production process to ensure their quality and stability.
《制药工程专业英语》_10388395
Unit 19 Water and Air in the Chemical Process
Industries
Reading Material 19 Chemical Process Industrie
s and Environmental Pollution Abatement
Reading Material 16 Fermentation
Unit 17 Distillation
Reading Material 17 Supercritical Fluid Extrac
tion
Unit 18 Crystalization
Reading Material 18 Drying
Reading Material 6 Medicinal of Plant Origin:H
istorical Aspects
Unit 7 Developing Drugs from Traditional Medic
inal Plants
Reading Material 7 Naturally Occurring Flavans
ic Chemistry
Unit 25 Principles of Drug Design
Reading Material 25 On Computer-Aided Drug Des
ign
APPENDIXES
Appendix 1 The General Principles for Nomencla
Unsubstituted in the Heterocyclic Ring
Unit 8 The Chemistry of Insulin
制药工程 专业英语 Unit 21
尽管如此，一个不争的事实是：进入开发的药品中大约80 ％的是手性的，而现在则全为单一异构体形式；为了临床和商 业利益开发单一异构体并不是其唯一的理由。
Rather this is a consequence of the increased complexity of drug structures today as greater selectivity of action is sought. As an indication of this increased complexity, a drug today will typically need around a dozen steps for its synthesis from basic organic chemicals. About ten years ago, only half this number would, on average, have been required. 相反，这是一个为了寻找到更大特异性的相互作用而日益增 加药物结构的复杂性的结果。作为这种日益增加的复杂性的一个 标志，现在的药物合成从基本有机化学品开始，通常需要大约12 步。而大约十年前，平均而言，则合成步骤的数字只需要一半。
While in the past many drugs developed synthetically have not been chiral, those derived from natural products almost always are (for example, the penicillins). It is obvious that single-isomer drugs are more specific in mode of action compared with the corresponding racemates.
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作用。一对对映体的手性药物在手性结构上的差异往往会导致它们在药 理活性、药物代谢及毒性等方面产生不同的体内的药理活性。
根据一对对映体的手性药物药理作用和药效，可分为：
一个有药理活性，而它的对映体没有药理活性；
一对对映体有相反的药理活性，一个有活性，对映体甚至可能显毒性； 一对对映体药理活性相同，但有差别； 一对对映体有迥乎不同的药理活性； 一对对映体药理活性完全相同。
Chiral technology has progressed a long way. This article is confined to its most visible application in pharmaceuticals, but its role extends well into other fields. It has found applications in biochemicals, pesticides, aroma and flavour chemicals, dyes and pigments, liquid crystals, non-linear optical materials, and polymers. In fact, chiral technology represents a huge commercial business opportunity that has yet to be fully realized.
While in the past many drugs developed synthetically have not been chiral, those derived from natural products almost always are (for example, the penicillins). It is obvious that single-isomer drugs are more specific in mode of action compared with the corresponding racemates.
2
Words
encompass chirality (a. chiral) enantiomer diastereomer mesomer racemate unwanted clear-cut tolerability impetus building block cholesterol menthol stationary/mobile phase assay chiral selector tartaric acid ensuing embryos counterclockwise vt. 包含；包围，环绕 n. 手(征)性 (a. 手(征)性的) n. 对映(异构)体 n.非对映(异构)体 n. 内消旋体 n. 外消旋体(化合物) a. 有害的；不需要的 a.清晰的；轮廓鲜明的 n.耐受性; 容忍度 n. 动力；促进；冲力 n. 砌块；积木；构件 n.胆固醇；胆甾醇 n. 薄荷醇，薄荷脑 固定相/流动相 n.化验，试验；vt. 分析，测试 手性选择试剂 酒石酸 a. 跟着发生的 n. 胚胎；晶胎 adv. 逆时针地
如果某一药物是手性的，在生物学范畴里其对映体总具有不 同的活性。一种药物可能会与细胞受体发生特异性的相互作用而 产生期望的结果，而另外一种药物则可能产生无用的作用，或通 过某些其他的相互作用而可能导致有害的作用。
In the clear-cut example where one isomer of a chiral compound is ‘good’ and the other ‘bad’, there is obvious benefit from developing the drug as the single isomer to enhance its safety and tolerability. In addition, this can also speed the progress of the drug through regulatory channels, thereby saving R&D costs. 在明确的例子中，手性化合物的一个异构体是“对人体有益的 ”，而另一个异构体则是“对人体有害的”，发展单一异构体的 药物以加强其安全性和耐受性，可以获得显而易见的利润。此外 ，这也可以通过监管渠道加快药品的发展，从而节省研发成本。
手性技术已走过了很长的发展历程。本文不仅限于它在药 物方面有着最显著的应用，其作用也扩展到其他领域中。它已 应用于生化药剂，农药，芳香和香料化学品，染料及颜料，液 晶，非线性光学材料和聚合物。事实上，手性技术显示出一个 巨大的尚未得到充分实现的商业机遇。
A summary of available chiral technology for obtaining singleisomers is listed below. Some of these, such as fermentation and crystallisation, have long been available to chemists but their successful application required specialist expertise (for example, microbiology for the former, physical chemistry for the latter). Their use has also been patchy, as experience indicated that they could only address some chiral problems. 获得单一异构体的实用手性技术总结如下。其中的一些方法， 如发酵和结晶，长期以来一直被化学家所采用，但它们的成功应 用需要专门的技术（例如，发酵需要微生物学知识，而结晶需要 物理化学知识）。但它们的作用是补缀的，因为经验表明，它们 只能解决某些手性问题。
虽然过去的许多已开发的合成药物并不是手性的，但那些来 自天然产物的药物则几乎总是手性的（例如，青霉素类）。很显 然，单一异构体药物比相应的外消旋体具有更特效的作用模式。
However this, together with the incentives for developing singleisomers for clinical and commercial benefits, does not solely account for the fact that around 80% of drugs entering development are chiral, exclusively now in single-isomer form.
手性几乎并不是化学中的新概念，但在过去的几年里手性技 术的进步已对制药研究和开发产生了越来越大的影响。如今，手 性技术对合理的药物设计正起着强大的影响。
It aids the conception and discovery of new receptor-based or enzyme-inhibiting small molecule drugs, especially where high selectivity of action is sought. Its acceptance is largely because there is now an abundance of technology in place for the manufacture of single-enantiomer chiral drugs.
The professional English of pharmaceutical engineering
Wang Xinliang
East China University of Science and Technology
概念简介
手性药物: 具有手性结构及药理活性的具有治疗疾病作用的手性化合物。
Chirality is hardly a new concept in chemistry, yet advances in chiral technology have had a growing impact on pharmaceutical research and development over the past few years. Chiral technology now exerts a strong influence on rational drug design.
对那些不熟悉手性技术的人们而言，该术语包括生产单一手 性形式(对映体)化合物的技术，具有足够复杂性的分子结构的化 合物是手性的；也就是说，这时分子不能与其镜像叠加(重合)。 随着分子变得更加复杂，药品的特异作用性增加；对更具特异性 作用的药品的追求将导致更大比例的药品为手性。
If a drug is chiral, then in biological terms the enantiomers invariably differ in activity. One may specifically interact with a cell receptor to produce the desired outcome while the other might have no useful application or might have an unwanted effect through some other interaction.
尽管如此，一个不争的事实是：进入开发的药品中大约80 ％的是手性的，而现在则全为单一异构体形式；为了临床和商 业利益开发单一异构体并不是其唯一的理由。
Rather this is a consequence of the increased complexity of drug structures today as greater selectivity of action is sought. As an indication of this increased complexity, a drug today will typically need around a dozen steps for its synthesis from basic organic chemicals. About ten years ago, only half this number would, on average, have been required. 相反，这是一个为了寻找到更大特异性的相互作用而日益增 加药物结构的复杂性的结果。作为这种日益增加的复杂性的一个 标志，现在的药物合成从基本有机化学品开始，通常需要大约12 步。而大约十年前，平均而言，则合成步骤的数字只需要一半。