【威学教育】王鑫托福阅读TPO23-3阅读文本
【威学教育】王鑫托福阅读TPO27-3阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO 全集之TPO27-3TPO 27TPO27-3 Predator Prey Cycles1. In paragraph 1, why does the author discuss the moose and wolves on Isle Royale?A To provide an example of predators moving to new habitats by following migrating preyB To show that the interactions between predator populations and prey populations are not always might be expectedC To suggest that prey populations are more influenced by predation than food availability and diseaseD To argue that studies of geographically isolated populations tend not to be useful to naturalists2. The word “rebound” in the passage is closest in meaning to A escapeB recoverC surviveD resist3. Paragraph 2 implies which of the following about experimental environments in which predators become extinct?A They may yield results that do not accurate predict changes of populations in the wild.B In these environments, the prey species is better adapted than the predator species.C These environments are appropriate only for studying small populations of predators and prey.D They are unrealistic because some predators are also the prey of other predators.4. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraphs 2 and 3 about the small mammals that experience population cycles? A Their population cycles are not affected by predators.B Their predators' populations periodically disappear.C They typically undergo ten-year cycles.D They have access to places safe from predators.How do predators affect populations of the prey animals? The answer is not as simple as might be thought. Moose reached Isle Royale in Lake Superior by crossing over winter ice and multiplied freely there in isolation without predators. When wolves later reached the island, naturalists widely assumed that the wolves would play a key role in controlling the moose population. Careful studies have demonstrated, however, that this is not the case. The wolves eat mostly old or diseased animals that would not survive long anyway. In general, the moose population is controlled by food availability, disease and other factors rather than by wolves.When experimental populations are set up under simple laboratory conditions, the predator often exterminates its prey and then becomes extinct itself, having nothing left to eat. However, if safe areas like those prey animals have in the wild are provided, the prey population drops to low level but not extinction. Low prey population levels then provide inadequate food for the predators, causing the predator population to decrease. When this occurs, the prey population can rebound. In this situation the predator and prey population may continue in this cyclical pattern for some time.Population cycles are characteristic of small mammals, and they sometimes appear to be brought about by predators. Ecologists studying hare populations have found that the North American snow shoe hare follows a roughly ten-year cycle. Its numbers fall tenfold to thirty in a typical cycle, and a hundredfold change can occur. Two factors appear to be generating the cycle: food plants and predators.5. The word “roughly” in the passage is closest in meaning toA usuallyB repeatingC approximatelyD observable6. The word “generating” in the passage is closest in meaning toA producingB changingC speeding upD smoothing out7. to paragraph 4, all of the following are true of the food of snowshoe hares EXCEPT A The preferred food fore hares consists of willow and birch twigs.B High fiber food is the most nutritious for hares.C Depletion of the supply of willow and birch twigs cause low birth and growth rates.D The food supply takes two or three years to recover8. The word “conjunction” in the passage is closest in meaning to A determinationB combinationC alternationD transformation9. According to paragraph 5, which of the following statements best characterizes the abundance cycle of the Canada lynx?A It closely follows the cycle the snowshoe hare.B When the numbers of lynx fall, the numbers of snowshoe hares soon decrease.The preferred foods of snowshoe hares are willow and birch twigs. As hare density increases, the quantity of these twigs decreases, forcing the hares to feed on low-quality high-fiber food. Lower birth rates, low juvenile survivorship, and low growth rates follow, so there is a corresponding decline in hare abundance. Once the hare population has declined, it takes two to three year for the quantity of twigs to recover.A key predator of the snowshoe hare is the Canada lynx. The Canada lynx shows a ten-year cycle of abundance that parallels the abundance cycle of hares. As hare numbers fall, so do lynx numbers, as their food supply depleted.What causes the predator-prey oscillations? Do increasing number of hares lead to overharvesting of plants, which in turn results in reduced hare populations, or do increasing numbers of lynx lead to overharvesting hares? Field experiments carried out by Charles Krebs and coworkers in 1992 provide an answer. Krebs investigated experimental plots in Canada's Yukon territory that contained hare populations. When food was added to those plots (no food effect) and predators were excluded (no predator effect) from an experimental area, hare numbers increased tenfold and stayed there—the cycle was lost. However, the cycle was retained if either of the factorsC When hare numbers decrease, lynx numbers increase.D It is not clearly related to the availability of lynx food.10. According to paragraph 6, which of the following was true of the hare population cycle in Krebs's experiment?A The effects of providing food while at the same time introducing predators cancelled each other, so there was no cycle.B The cycle existed when either the food supply was limited or there were predators.C There was a cycle when there were no predators and food was supplied.D If the hares had places to hide from the lynx, the hare population increased tenfold and then remained at that level.11. According to paragraph 7, which of the following statements correctly characterizes the effect of sea stars on the ecosystem in which they are predators of bivalves?A Bivalve population are kept low, allowing species that compete with bivalves to survive.B The numbers of most species of bivalves are greatly reduced, leaving the bivalve species that is the strongest competitor to dominate among the survivors.C Biological diversity begins to decrease because many bivalve species disappear.D Sea stars dominate at first but then die off because of the depleted food supply.12. According to paragraph 7, which of the following is true of the phenomenon of competitor exclusion?A It results in more diverse communities.B It requires the presence of predators.C It affects all competitions equally.D It happens only when there is a dominant competitor.was allowed to operate alone: if predators were excluded but food was not added (food effect alone), or if food was added in the presence of predators (predator effect alone). Thus both factors can affect the cycle, which, in practice, seems to be generated by conjunction of the two factors.K作义/ 产Predators are an essential factor in maintaining communities that are rich and diverse in species. Without predators, the species that is the best competitor for food, shelter, nesting sites, and other environmental resources tends to dominate and exclude the species with which it competes. This phenomenon is known as “competitor exclusion”. However, i f the community contains a predator of the strongest competitor species, then the population of that competitor is controlled. Thus even the less competitive species are able to survive. For example, sea stars prey on a variety of bivalve mollusks and prevent these bivalves from monopolizing habitats on the sea floor. This opens up space for many other organisms. When sea stars are removed, speciesdiversity falls sharply. Therefore, from the stand point of diversity, it is usually a mistake to eliminate a major predator from a community.Predators are an essential factor in maintaining communities that are rich and diverse in species. Without predators, the species that is the best competitor for food, shelter, nesting sites, and other environmental resources tends to dominate and exclude the species with which it competes. (This phenomenon is known as “competitor exclusion”. (However, if the community contains a predator of the strongest competitor species, then the population of that competitor is controlled. (Thus even the less competitive species are able to survive. (For example, sea stars prey on a variety of bivalve mollusks and prevent these bivalves from monopolizing habitats on the sea floor. This opens up space for many other organisms. When sea stars are removed, species diversity falls sharply. Therefore, from the stand point of diversity, it is usually a mistake to eliminate a major predator from a community.13. Look at the four squares [(] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?As a result, there are not enough of the strong competitions to monopolize the environment’ s resources.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The relationships between predators and prey are complex.A. Studies of the interactions between wolves and moose on Isle Royale in Lake Superior reveal that wolf predation is not the primary factor controlling the moose population.B. Ecologists are interested in studying predator-prey population cycles because understanding how predators and prey interact will allow better wildlife management programs.C. Predators help maintain biological diversity by limiting populations of a dominant competitor species, thereby preventing that species from excluding others.D. In predator-prey population cycles, predator populations increase or decrease following similar population changes in the species they prey on.E. A species’ population tends to rise and falls in a cycle pattern if the food supply for the population is limited, or if the population has a major predator.F. The removal of sea stars reduces the diversity of the community in which they are predators, and is therefore a bad idea.。
【托福写作备考】TPO23综合写作文本及解析
【托福写作备考】TPO23综合写作文本及解析TPO 23综合写作的阅读材料：Populations of the yellow cedar, a species of tree that is common innorthwestern North America, have been steadily declining for more than a centurynow, since about 1880. Scientists have advanced several hypotheses to explainthis decline.译文：黄杉是北美西北部常见的树木。
但是从1880年开始的一个多世纪以来，黄杉的数量在逐渐减少。
目前，科学家提出了几个假说来解释黄杉数量的下降。
One hypothesis is that the yellow cedar decline may be caused by insectparasites, specifically the cedar bark beetle. This beetle is known to attackcedar trees; the beetle larvae eat the wood. There have been recorded instancesof sustained beetle attacks overwhelming and killing yellow cedars, so thisinsect is a good candidate for the cause of the tree’s decline.译文：其中一个假说认为黄杉数量下降是由以衫皮甲虫为代表的寄生害虫导致。
这种甲虫据了解是以杉树皮为食，而其幼虫则以木质部分为食。
史上不乏对于甲虫侵蚀和导致黄杉大量死亡的记录。
因为，这种甲虫很可能是黄杉数量减少的原因。
【威学教育】王鑫托福阅读TPO24-3阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO 全集之TPO24-3TPO 24TPO24-3 Moving into Pueblos1. The word traumatic meaning to A Essential B highly stressful C highly unusual D unwise2. The word intense in the passage is closest in meaning to A strongB questionableC obviousD deliberate3. According to paragraph 1, before the thirteenth century the people of southwestern North America lived in households that A shared daily chores with neighboring households B occupied dwellings that were built into the sides of cliffsC were largely free to conduct their lives as they pleasedD enforced mon standards of behavior and cooperative conduct within their munitiesIn the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large munal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people wasprobably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these people accustomedto household autonomy and the ability to move around the landscape almost at will. And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic.4. Which of the following best indicates the organization of paragraph 1?A It presents the conditions that caused a change in a population' s living patterns and then explains why those conditions got worse.B It identifies certain present-day cultural traditions and rules and then traces them to their roots in the thirteenth century.C It casts doubt on one explanation of the move to pueblos and then introduces an alternative explanation that the passage will defend.D It describes a major change in a population's living patterns and then presents a number of problems that resulted from that change.5. According to paragraph 3, which of the following Given all the disadvantages of living in aggregated was one of the consequences of increasing population towns, why did people in the thirteenth century move densities?A People were increasingly crowded into into these closely packed quarters? For transitions of collections of large housing units. such suddenness, archaeologists consider either pullB People stopped planting crops that have relatively factors (benefits that drew families together) or push low yields. factors (some external threat or crisis that forcedC Domestic buildings were pushed beyond the canyonpeople to aggregate). In this case, push explanationslimits. dominate.D The natural landscape was destroyed.6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the♦Population growth is considered a particularlyessential information in the highlighted sentence ininfluential push. After several generations ofthe passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning inpopulation growth, people packed the landscape inimportant ways or leave out essential information.densities so high that munal pueblos may haveA Some scholars even claim that the intensification ofbeen a necessary oute. Around Sand Canyon, forfarmers' various efforts during the 1200s led to furtherexample, populations grew from 5 -12 people perpopulation growth and the consequent need for more arable land.square kilometer in the tenth century to as many as 30 -50 by the 1200s. As densities increased, domesticB Evidence of intensifying agriculture in the 1200sarchitecture became larger, culminating in crowdedindicates a need to feed a larger population and so pueblos. Some scholars expand on this idea byextends the argument that a growing population wasemphasizing a corresponding need for arable land tothe cause of the move to pueblos.feed growing numbers of people: construction oiC During the 1200s, farmers met the demand for moresmall dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field housesarable land, but they also succeeded in cultivatingindicates that farmers were intensifying their effortsexisting land more intensively with the help ofduring the 1200s. petition for good farmland mayagricultural construction projects.also have prompted people to bond together to assertD Some scholars feel strongly that the construction ofrights over the best fields.small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses in the thirteenth century is independent evidence for growth in the number of people.7. The word transition in the passage is closest in meaning toA changeB climateC declineD problem8. Why does the author state that "Growing food at these elevations is always difficult because of the short growing season"?A To explain why the higher elevations were always relatively sparsely populatedB To suggest that any worsening of conditions would have significant consequencesC To emphasize how resourceful the people growing food at these elevations wereD To argue that farming was not the primary source of food at high elevationsAnother important push was the onset of the Little Ice Age, a climatic phenomenon that led to cooler temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. Although the height of the Little Ice Age was still around the corner, some evidence suggests that temperatures were falling during the thirteenth century. The environmental changes associated withthis transition are not fully understood, but people living closest to the San Juan Mountains, to the northeast of Mesa Verde, were affected first. Growing food at these elevations is always difficult because of the short growing season. As the Little Ice Age progressed, farmers probably moved their fields to lower elevations, infringing on the lands of other farmers and pushing people together, thus contributing to the aggregations. Archaeologists identify a corresponding shift in populations toward the south and west toward Mesa Verde and away from higher elevations.9. the Little Ice發According to paragraph 4, what did farmers do in response to falling temperatures during t卜 Age?A Moved to areas away from Mesa VerdeB Moved closer to the northeastern part of Mesa VerdeC Began to cultivate crops adapted to a short growing seasonD Gave up the cultivation of the highest-lying lands10. According to paragraph 5, major ceremonial events we「e occasions forA leaders to persuade people from the countryside to move into a puebloB farmers to collect information about where crops could be reliably grownC people to develop better techniques for producing pottery and craftsD people in the early Puebloan era to share farm and craft products11. According to paragraph 5, which of the following was a reason people in the Mesa Verde area formed munal villages in the thirteenth century?A The climate in the Mesa Verde area became more locally diverse.B Individuals were no longer interested in exchanging pottery and food.C Cooperation between people became more important for survival.D Bad years of farming began to occur more frequently.12. Paragraph 5 supports which of the following statements about cooperation among the people in the Mesa Verde area from the eleventh through the thirteenth century? A Cooperation allowed many households to give up farming and to specialize in making pottery and crafts.B People went from exchanging food and crafts they individually produced to sharing in a cooperative effort to produce as much food as possible.C Overtime there was less cooperation as farmers peted with each other for trade with distant areas.D Individuals stopped cooperating with each other because they did not have enough food for themselves.In the face of all these pushes, people in the Mesa Verde area had yet another reason to move into munal villages: the need for greater cooperation.Sharing and cooperation were almost certainly part of early Puebloan life, even for people living in largely independent single-household residences scattered across the landscape. Archaeologists find that even the most isolated residences during the eleventh and twelfth centuries obtained some pottery, and probably food, from some distance away, while major ceremonial events were opportunities for sharing food and crafts. Scholars believe that this cooperation allowed people to contend with a patchy environment in which precipitation and other resources varied across the landscape: if you produce a lot of food one year, you might trade it for pottery made by a distant ally who is having difficulty with crops—and the next year, the flow of goods might go in the opposite direction. But all of this appears to have changed thirteenth century. Although the climate remained as unpredictable as ever between one year and the next, it became much less locally diverse. In a bad year for farming, everyone was equally affected. No longer was it helpful to share widely. Instead, the most sensible thing would be for neighbors to bine efforts to produce as much food as possible, and thus aggregated towns were a sensible arrangement.In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large munal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was probably traumatic. Few of the culturaltraditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these people accustomed tohousehold autonomy and the ability to move around the landscape almostat will. | And besides theawkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated1 pueblos introduced otherproblems. | For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food totheir homes was a majorchore. | The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, wasparticularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic. |13. Look at the four squares [| ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.Performing everyday household tasks required more effort.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth 2 points. In the thirteenth century, the people in the Mesa Verde area went from living in scattered independent households to living in large pueblos. A. Because the thirteenth-century inhabitants of the Mesa Verde area did not have the cultural expectations of today's city dwellers, they easily adapted to munal life.A. Even though living in pueblos had disadvantages, the population of the area had grown so large that there may have been no other arrangement that would have met its needs.B. From the eleventh century onward, farmers began to increase food production on existing farmland and started bringing more land under cultivation.C. A development that contributed to increasing population densities was a cooling climate that led many people to leave the coldest areas and crowd into climatically more favorable areas.D. The primary reason for moving to pueblos was the social benefits associated with munal life.E. People were brought together by the need to produce food cooperatively, as the use of food surpluses in one place to relieve shortages in another ended due to a change in climate.。
【威学教育王鑫整理出品】托福TPO8-3阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO 8-3阅读文本TPO 8TPO8-3 Running Water on Mars1. The word “merge” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. expandB. separateC. straighten outD. combine2. What does the discussion in paragraph 1 of runoff channels in the southern highlands suggest about Mars?A. The atmosphere of Mars was once thinner than it is today.B. Large amounts of rain once fell on parts of Mars.C. The river systems of Mars were once more extensive than Earth's.D. The rivers of Mars began to dry up about 4 billion years ago.3. The word “relics” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. remainsB. sitesC. requirementsD. sources4. The word “miniature” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. temporaryB. smallC. multipleD. familiarPhotographic evidence suggests that liquid water once existed in great quantity on the surface of Mars. Two types of flow features are seen: runoff channels and outflow channels. Runoff channels are found in the southern highlands. These flow features are extensive systems—sometimes hundreds of kilometers in total length—of interconnecting, twisting channels that seem to merge into larger, wider channels. They bear a strong resemblance to river systems on Earth, and geologists think that they are dried-up beds of long-gone rivers that once carried rainfall on Mars from the mountains down into the valleys. Runoff channels on Mars speak of a time 4 billion years ago (the age of the Martian highlands), when the atmosphere was thicker, the surface warmer, andliquid water widespread.Outflow channels are probably relics of catastrophic flooding on Mars long ago. They appear only in equatorial regions and generally do not form extensive interconnected networks. Instead, they are probably the paths taken by huge volumes of water draining from the southern highlands into the northern plains. The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands” (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels. Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must have been truly enormous—perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by the great Amazon river. Flooding shaped the outflow channels approximately 3 billion years ago, about the same times as the northern volcanic plains formed.5.In paragraph 2, why does the author include the information that 105 tons of water flow through the Amazon river per second?A. To emphasize the great size of the volume of water that seems to have flowed through Mars' outflow channelsB. To indicate data used by scientists to estimate how long ago Mars' outflow channels were formedC. To argue that flash floods on Mars may have been powerful enough to cause tear-shaped “islands” to formD. To argue that the force of flood waters on Mars was powerful enough to shape the northern volcanic plains6. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of the outflow channels on Mars EXCEPT:A. They formed at around the same time that volcanic activity was occurring on the northern plains.B. They are found only on certain parts of the Martian surface.C. They sometimes empty onto what appear to have once been the wet sands of tidal beaches.D. They are thought to have carried water northward from the equatorial regions.7. All of the following questions about geological features on Mars are answered in paragraph 3 EXCEPT:A. What are some regions of Mars that may have once been covered with an ocean?B. Where do mission scientists believe that the river forming the delta emptied?〔.Approximately how many craters on Mars do mission scientists believe may once have been lakes filled with water?D. During what period of Mars' history do some scientists think it may have had large bodies of water?Some scientists speculate that Mars may have enjoyed a n extended ear ly Pe riod dur ing wh ich rive rs, lakes , and perhaps even oceans adorned its surface. A 2003 Mars Global Surveyor image shows what mission specialists think may be a delta —a fan-shaped network of channels and sediments where a river once flowed into a larger body of water, in this case a lake filling a crater in the southern highlands. Other researchers go even further, suggesting that the data provide evidence for large open expenses of water on the early Martian surface. A computer-generated view of the Martian north polar region shows the extent of what may have been an ancient ocean covering much of the northern lowlands. The Hellas Basin, which measures some 3,000 kilometers across and has a floor that lies nearly 9 kilometers below the basin’ s rim, is another candidate for an ancient Martian sea.8. According to paragraph 3, images of Mars' surface have been interpreted as support for the idea thatA. the polar regions of Mars were once more extensive than they are nowB. a large part of the northern lowlands may once have been under waterC. deltas were once a common feature of the Martian landscapeD. the shape of the Hellas Basin has changed considerably over time9. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. But detractors argue that geological activity may be responsible for the water associated with the terraces.B. But detractors argue that the terraces may have been formed by geological activity rather than by the presence of water.C. But detractors argue that the terraces may be related to geological forces in the Northern Hemisphere of Mars, rather than to Martian water in the south.D. But detractors argue that geological forces depressed the Northern Hemisphere so far below the level of the south that the terraces could not have been formed by water.10. According to paragraph 4, what do the 2003 Global Surveyor data suggest about Mars?A.Ancient oceans on Mars contained only small amounts of carbon.A. The climate of Mars may not have been suitable for the formation of large bodies of water.B. Liquid water may have existed on some parts of Mars' surface for long periods of time.These ideas remain controversial. Proponents point to features such as the terraced “beaches” shown in one image, which could conceivably have been left behind as a lake or ocean evaporated and the shoreline receded. But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water. Furthermore, Mars Global Surveyor data released in 2003 seem to indicate that the Martian surface contains too few carbonate rock layers—layers containing compounds of carbon and oxygen—that should have been formed in abundance in an ancient ocean. Their absence supports the picture of a cold, dry Mars that never experienced the extended mild period required to form lakes and oceans. However, more recent data imply that at least some parts of the planet did in fact experience long periods in the past during which liquid water existed on the surface.C. The ancient oceans that formed on Mars dried up during periods of cold, dry weather.(hints” in the passage is closest in11.The word meaning toA. cluesB. featuresC. argumentsD. effectsAside from some small-scale gullies (channels) found since 2000, whi ch are inconclusive, astronomers have no direct evidence for liquid water anywhere on the surface of Mars today, and the amount of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere is tiny. Yet even setting aside the unproven hints of ancient oceans, the extent of the outflow channels suggests that a huge total volume of water existed on Mars in the past. Where did all the water go? The answer may be that virtually all the water on Mars is now locked in the permafrost layer under the surface, with more contained in the planet’ s polar caps.Outflow channels are probably relics of catastrophic flooding on Mars long ago. ■They appear only in equatorial regions and generally do not form extensive interconnected networks. ■Instead, they are probably the pathstaken by huge volumes of water draining from the southern highlands into the northern plains. ■The onrushingwater arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped "islands” (resembling t he miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close tothe ends of the outflow channels. ■Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must havebeen truly enormous—perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by the great Amazon river. Flooding shaped the outflow channels approximately 3 billion years ago, about the same times as the northern volcanic plains formed.1. Look at the four s quares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?These landscape features differ from runoff channels in a number of ways.2. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. There is much debate concerning whether Mars once had water.A. Mars' runoff and outflow channels are large-scale, distinctive features that suggest that large quantities of liquid water once flowed on Mars.B. Although some researchers claim that Mars may once have had oceans, others dispute this, pointing to an absence of evidence or offering alternative interpretations of evidence.C. Various types of images have been used to demonstrate that most of Martian surface contains evidence of flowing water.D. The runoff and outflow channels of Mars apparently carried a higher volume of water and formed more extensive networks than do Earth's river systems.E. There is very little evidence of liquid water on Mars today, and it is assumed that all the water that once existed on the planet is frozen beneath its surface.F. While numerous gullies have been discovered on Mars since 2000, many astronomers dismiss them as evidence that Mars once had liquid water.。
【威学教育】王鑫托福阅读TPO33-1阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO全集之TPO33-1TPO33TPO33-1 The First Civilizations1. The phrase “culminated in” in the passage is closest in meaning toA reached a high point withB logically followed fromC partly contributed toD marked2. According to paragraph 2, which of the following statements is true of early farmers?A They used farming to supplement other food sources.B They were driven out of small communities.C They were victims of flooding.D They farmed several plots of land at once.3. The word “undoubtedly” in the passage is closest in meaning toA increasinglyB certainlyC in generalD apparently4. According to paragraph 2, what are TWO reasons why farmers chose river valleys for cultivation? To receive credit you must select TWO answer choices.A The soils in river valleys were rich in nutrients.B The crops grown in river valleys were not completely dependent on rainwater.C Farming techniques could not be easily applied to soils far from rivers.D The heavier weight of river soil resulted in more reliable harvests.5. The word “enhance” in the passage is closest in meaning to A serveEvidence suggests that an important stimulus behind the rise of early civilizations was the development of settled agriculture, which unleashed a series of changes in the organization of human communities that culminated in the rise of large ancient empires.The exact time and place that crops were first cultivated successfully is uncertain. Many prehistorians believe that farming may have emerged in dependently in several different areas of the world when small communities, driven by increasing population and a decline in available food resources, began to plant seeds in the ground in an effort to guarantee their survival. The first farmers, who may have lived as long as 10,000 years ago, undoubtedly used simple techniques and still relied primarily on other forms of food production, such as hunting, foraging, or pastoralism. The real breakthrough took place when farmers began to cultivate crops along the floodplains of river systems. The advantage was that crops grown in such areas were not as dependent on rainfall and therefore produced a more reliable harvest. An additional benefit was that the sediment carried by the river waters deposited nutrients in the soil, thus enabling the farmer to cultivate a single plot of ground for many years without moving to a new location. Thus, the first truly sedentary (that is, nonmigratory) societies were born. As time went on, such communities gradually learned how to direct the flow of water to enhance the productive capacity of the land, while the introduction of the iron plow eventually led to the cultivation of heavy soils not previously susceptible to agriculture.6. B improve C control D protectThe word “provoked” in the passage is closest in meaning toA securedB coordinatedC modeledD brought about7. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is NOT a reason why governments first arose among agricultural communities?A A significant increase in populationB The desire to control water resources for irrigationC The need for protection from outside forcesD The demand for organized communication with other communities8. According to paragraph 4, what is not known about the rise of the first civilizations?A Where the first steps toward civilization took placeB Who was allowed to replac e “big men” after the “big men” diedC Why some individuals became recognized as leadersD How governments emerged9. What is the relationship between paragraphs 3 and 4 in the passage?A Paragraph 3 explains why a need for leadership arose in early civilizations, and paragraph 4 describes how that leadership developed.B Paragraph 3 suggests that agriculture was first practiced in Asia and Africa, and paragraph 4 discusses how it might have later spread to the rest of the world.C Paragraph 3 describes several methods of early government, and paragraph4 gives an extended example of one of them.D Paragraph 3 discusses a cause of the spread of river valley agriculture in early civilizations, and paragraph 4 discusses a门 effect.The spread of this river valley agriculture in various parts of Asia and Africa was the decisive factor in the rise of the first civilizations. The increase in food production in these regions led to a significant growth in population, while efforts to control the flow of water to maximize the irrigation of cultivated areas and to protect the local inhabitants from hostile forces outside the community provoked the first steps toward cooperative activities on a large scale. The need to oversee the entire process brought about the emergence of an elite that was eventually transformed into a government.The first clear steps in the rise of the first civilizations took place in the fourth and third millennia B.C. in Mesopotamia, northern Africa, India,and China. How the first governments took shape in these areas is not certain, but anthropologists studying the evolution of human communities in various parts of the world have discovered that one common stage in the process is the emergence of what are called “big men” within a single village or a collection of villages. By means of their military prowess, dominant personalities, or political talents, these people gradually emerge as the leaders of that community. In time, the “big men” become formal symbols of authority and pass on that authority to others within their own family. As the communities continue to grow in size and material wealth, the “big men” assume hereditary status, and their allies and family members are transformed into a hereditary monarchy.10.of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A Some cities were associated with economic activities, while others were government or religious centers.B Emerging cities generally served strategic administrative, economic, and religious purposes.C The creation of an economic or administrative activity led to the emergence of a city for its proper supervision.D Some cities emerged as economic centers and later became the sites of administrative or religious activities.11. Paragraph 5 suggests that which of the following was a consequence of the emergence of cities?A The decentralization of authorityB An increase in religious activityC The emergence of service- and production-related jobsD A decreased reliance on mineral resources12. According to paragraph 5, why were huge walls built around early royal palaces?A To protect the inhabitants from invadersB To mark the urban areasC To separate the ruling class from the rest of the populationD To represent the prosperity of a cityThe appearance of these sedentary societies had a major impact on the social organizations, religious beliefs, and way of life of the peoples living within their boundaries. With the increase in population and the development of centralized authority came the emergence of the cities. While some of these urban centers were identified with a particular economic function, such as proximity to gold or iron deposits or a strategic location on a major trade route, others served primarily as administrative centers or the site of temples for the official cult or other ritual observances. Within these cities, new forms of livelihood appeared to satisfy the growing need for social services and consumer goods. Some people became artisans or merchants, while others became warriors, scholars, or priests. In some cases, the physical division within the first cities reflected the strict hierarchical character of the society as a whole, with a royal palace surrounded by an imposing wall and separate from the remainder of the urban population. In other instances, such as the Indus River Valley, the cities lacked a royal precinct and the ostentatious palaces that marked their contemporaries elsewhere.The appearance of these sedentary societies had a major impact on the social organizations, religious beliefs, and way of life of the peoples living within their boundaries. ■With the increase in population and the development of centralized authority ca me the emergence of the cities. ■While some of these urban centers were identified with a particular economic function, such as proximity to gold or iron deposits or a strategic location on a major trade route, others served primarily as administrative centers or the site of temples for the official cult or other ritual observances. ■Within these cities, new forms of livelihood appeared to satisfy the growing need for socialservices and consumer goods. ■Some people became artisans or merchants, while others became warriors, scholars, or priests. In some cases, the physical division within the first cities reflected the strict hierarchical character of the society as a whole, with a royal palace surrounded by an imposing wall and separate from the remainder of the urban population. In other instances,such as the Indus River Valley, the cities lacked a royal precinct and the ostentatious palaces that marked their contemporaries elsewhere.13. Look at the four squares [| ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?This was accompanied by increased professional specialization.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This questions is worth 2 points. The practice of settled agriculture in some areas of Asia and Africa was crucial to the development of early civilizations.Answer ChoicesA. Prehistorians disagree as to whether early farmers first cultivated crops along floodplains or first tried cultivating crops in less successful environments.B. Cultivation in fertile river valleys resulted in predictable harvests, which meant that farmers no longer needed to migrate constantly in search of food.C. Because crops could be cultivated more successfully where farmers were not completely dependent on rainfall, hostilities between groups arose over control of the river systems.D. The need to organize the effort to ensure the food supply and defend the land led to the formation of elite supervising groups that eventually became the first governments.E. Increasingly centralized forms of administration resulted in the emergence of social classes and in the development of cities as trade, administration, or religious centers.F. Unlike other early civilizations, those that developed in the Indus River Valley did not have any spectacular palaces or areas for exclusive use by the authorities.。
【威学教育王鑫】托福阅读TPO2-1文本
【王鑫托福阅读】TPO2-1阅读文本TPO2TPO2-1 Desert Formation1. The word threatened in the passage is closest in meaning toA. RestrictedB. EndangeredC. PreventedD. Rejected2. According to paragraph 3, the loss of natural vegetation has which of the following consequences for soil?A. Increased stony contentB. Reduced water absorptionC. Increased numbers of spaces in the soilD. Reduced water runoffThe deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth's land surface, have in recent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. The expansion of desert like conditions into areas where they did not previously exist is called desertification. It has been estimated that an additional one-fourth of the Earth's land surface is threatened by this process.Desertification is accomplished primarily through the loss of stabilizing natural vegetation and the subsequent accelerated erosion of the soil by windand water. In some cases the loose soil is blown completely away, leaving a stony surface. In other cases, the finer particles may be removed, while the sand-sized particles are accumulated to form mobile hills or ridges of sand.Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typically results in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established.In some regions, the increase in desert areas is occurring largely as the result of a trend toward drier climatic conditions. Continued gradual global warming has produced an increase in aridity for some areas over the past few thousand years. The process may be accelerated in subsequent decades if global warming resulting from air pollution seriously increases.3. The word delicate in the passage is closest in meaning toA. FragileB. PredictableC. ComplexD. Valuable4. According to paragraph 5, in dry periods, border areas have difficultyA. Adjusting to stresses created by settlementB. Retaining their fertility after desertificationC. Providing water for irrigating cropsD. Attracting populations in search of food and fuel5. The word progressively in the passage is closest in meaning toA. OpenlyB. ImpressivelyC. ObjectivelyD. Increasingly6. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is often associated with raising crops?A. Lack of proper irrigation techniquesB. Failure to plant crops suited to the particular areaC. Remova丨 of the original vegetationD. Excessive use of dried animal waste;mlluwmg isThere is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results primarily from human activities rather than natural processes. The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results.Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering, and overirrigation. The cultivation of crops has expanded into progressively drier regions as population densities have grown. These regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop failures are common. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removalof the natural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover and susceptible to wind and water erosion.7.The phrase devoid of in the passage is closest in meaning to A Consisting of B Hidden by C Except for D Lacking inThe raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation.The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion.Firewood is the chief fuel used for cooking and heating in many countries. The increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants so that many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs. The increasing use of dried animal waste as a substitute fuel has also hurt the soil because this valuable soil conditioner and source of plant nutrients is no longer being returned to the land.D.Bring salts to the surfaceThe final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization resulting from overirrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks down into the water table. If no drainage system exists, the water table rises, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the salts are left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from reaching the underlying soil.9. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as contributing to desertification EXCEPTA. Soil erosionB. Global warmingC. Insufficient irrigationD. The raising of livestock10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard to reverse and affects large areas of land and great numbers of people.B. Slowing down the process of desertification is difficult because of population growth that has spread over large areas of land.C. The spread of deserts is considered a very serious problem that can be solved only if large numbers of people in various countries are involved in the effort.D. Desertification is extremely hard to reverse unless the population is reduced in the vast areas affected.The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process.Once the soil has been removed by erosion, only the passage of centuries or millennia will enable new soil to form. In areas where considerable soil still remains, though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface.11. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most likely believes which of the following about the future of desertification?A. Governments will act quickly to control further desertification.B. The factors influencing desertification occur in cycles and will change in the future.C. Desertification will continue to increase.D. Desertification will soon occur in all areas of the world■The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation.^The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. ■This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion._12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing.13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Many factors have contributed to the great increase in desertification in recent decades.A. Growing human populations and the agricultural demands that come with such growth have upset the ecological balance in some areas and led to the spread of deserts.B. As periods of severe dryness have become more common, failures of a number of different crops have increased.C. Excessive numbers of cattle and the need for firewood for fuel have reduced grasses and trees, leaving the land unprotected and vulnerable.D. Extensive irrigation with poor drainage brings salt to the surface of the soil, a process that reduces water and air absorption.E. Animal dung enriches the soil by providing nutrients for plant growth.F. Grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation in semiarid lands.。
威学教育王鑫托福阅读TPO33阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO3-3阅读文本TPO3TPO3-3 The Long Term Stability of Ecosystems1. The word “particular” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. naturalB. finalC. specificD. complex2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communitiesA. They occur at the end of a succession.B. They last longer than any other type of community.C. The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change.D. They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pondA. Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system.B. The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced.C. Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next.D. A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’ s propertiesPlant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year's time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystemsA. Pioneer communitiesB. Climax communitiesC. Single-crop farmlandsD. Successional plant communities5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear.B. Ecologists often confuse the word “stability” with the word“ resilience. ”C. The exact meaning of the word “ stability ” is debated by ecologists.D. There are many different answers to ecological questions.6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communitiesA. They are more resilient than pioneer communities.B. They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities.C. They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances.D. They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entirecrop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “ stability ” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forestsA. They become less stable as they mature.B. They support many species when they reach climax.C. They are found in temperate zones.D. They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.8. The word “guarantee” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. increaseB. ensureC. favorD. complicateparagraph 5, why does the author provide the information that “A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’ s tricycle”A. To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday exampleB. To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situationsC. To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversityD. To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystemsEven the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’ s tricycle.10. The word “pales” in the passage is closest in me aning toA. increases proportionallyB. differsC. loses significanceD. is common11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A. Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness.B. Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity.C. Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments.D. A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.12. The word “adjacent” in the passage is closest in meaning toEcologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world arebeing severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’ s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.B. stableC. fluidD. neighboring■Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities.■ The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. ■We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’ s resistance to destruction, as well as its13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following senten ce could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fitIn fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time.A. The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.B. A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.C. Disagreements over the meaning of the term "stability" make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.D. Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.E. The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.F. The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans.。
2021年托福阅读PASSAGE 23 试题及答案
2021年托福阅读PASSAGE 23试题及答案PASSAGE 23Although only 1 person in 20 in the Colonial period lived in a city, the cities had a disproportionate influence on the development of North America. They were at the cutting edge of social change. It was in the cities that the elements that can be associated with modern capitalism first appeared —the use of money and commercial paper in place of barter, open competition in place of social deference and hierarchy, with an attendant rise in social disorder, and theappearance of factories using coat or water power in place of independent craftspeople working with hand tools. "The cities predicted the future," wrote historian Gary. B. Nash, "even though they were but overgrown villages compared to the great urban centers of Europe, the Middle East and China."Except for Boston, whose population stabilized at about 16,000 in 1760, cities grew by exponential leaps through the eighteenth century. In the fifteen years prior to the outbreak of the War for independence in 1775, more than 200,000 immigrants arrived on North American shores.This meant that a population the size of Boston was arriving every year, and most of it flowed into the port cities in the Northeast. Philadelphia's population nearly doubted in those years, reaching about 30,000 in 1774, New York grew at almost the same rate, reaching about 25,000 by 1775.The quality of the hinterland dictated the pace of growth of the cities. The land surroundingBoston had always been poor farm country, and by the mid-eighteenth century it was virtually stripped of its timber. The available farmland was occupied, there was little in the region beyond the city to attract immigrants. New York and Philadelphia, by contrast, served a rich and fertile hinterland laced with navigable watercourses. Scots, Irish, and Germans landed in these cities and followed the rivers inland. The regions around the cities of New York and Philadelphia became the breadbaskets of North America, sending grain not only to other colonies but also to England and southern Europe, where crippling droughts in the late 1760's created a whole new market.1. Which of the following aspects of North America in the eighteenth century does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The effects of war on the growth of cities(B) The growth and influence of cities(C) The decline of farming in areas surrounding cities(D) The causes of immigration to cities2. Why does the author say that "the cities had a disproportionate influence on the development of North America" (lines 1-2)?(A) The influence of the cities was mostly negative(B) The populations of the cities were small, but their influence was great.(C) The cities were growing at a great rate.(D) Most people pretended to live in cities3. The phrase "in place of " in lines 4-5 is closest in meaning to(A) connected to(B) in addition to(C) because of(D) instead of4. The word "attendant" in line 6 is closest in meaning to(A) avoidable(B) accompanying(C) unwelcome(D) unexpected5. Which of the following is mentioned as an element of modern capitalism?(A) Open competition(B) Social deference(C) Social hierarchy(D) Independent craftspeople6. It can be inferred that in comparison with North American cities, cities in Europe, the Middle East, and China had(A) large populations(B) little independence(C) frequent social disorder(D) few power sources7. The phrase "exponential leaps" in line 12 is closest in meaning to(A) long wars(B) new laws(C) rapid increases(D) exciting changes8. The word "it" in line 15 refers to(A) population(B) size(C) Boston(D) Year9. How many immigrants arrived in North America between 1760 and 1775?(A) About 16,000(B) About 25,000(C) About 30,000(D) More than 200,00010. The word "dictated" in line 18 is closest in meaning to(A) spoiled(B) reduced(C) determined(D) divided11. The word "virtually" in line 20 is closest in meaning to(A) usually(B) hardly(C) very quickly(D) almost completely12. The region surrounding New York and Philadelphia is contrasted with the region surrounding Boston in terms of(A) quality of farmland(B) origin of immigrants(C) opportunities for fishing(D) type of grain grown13. Why does the author describe the regions around the cities of New York and Philadelphia as "breadbaskets"?(A) They produced grain especially for making bread.(B) They stored large quantities of grain during periods of drought(C) They supplied grain to other parts of North America and other countries.(D) They consumed more grain than all the other regions of North America.ANSWER KEYSPASSAGE 23 BBDBAACADC DAC。
托福阅读真题第223篇Crown...
托福阅读真题第223篇Crown...Crown of Thorns Starfish and Coral ReefsParagraph 1：The crown of thorns starfish, Acanthaster Tlanci, is large, twenty-five to thirty-five centimeters in diameter, and has seven to twenty-one arms that are covered in spines. It feeds primarily on coral and is found from the Indian Ocean to the west coast of Central America, usually at quite low population densities. Since the mid-1950s, population outbreaks at densities four to six times greater than normal have occurred at the same time in places such as Hawaii, Tahiti, Panama, and the Great Barrier Reef. The result has often been the loss of a fifty percent to nearly one hundred percent of the coral cover over large areas.1. According to paragraph 1 all of the following statements about crown of thorns starfish are true EXCEPTO Crown of thorns starfish usually have several arms covered in spines.O Crown of thorns starfish's main food is coral.O Crown of thorns starfish normally live in high population densities.O Crown of thorns starfish have caused a significant reduction in coral cover over large areas.Paragraph 2：A single Acanthaster can consume five to six square meters of coral polyps per year, and dense populations can destroy up to six square kilometers per year and move on rapidly. Acanthasters show a preference for branching corals, especially Acroporids. After an outbreak in a particular area, it is common to find that Acroporids have been selectively removed, leaving a mosaic of living and dead corals. In places whereAcroporids previously dominated the community devastation can be almost complete, and local areas of reefs have collapsed.2. What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about a coral reef that has a small number of Acroporids？O It will collapse completely after Acanthaster consumes the Acroporids.O It will lose the Acroporids before the other corals when Acanthaster attack it.O It will have a mixture of living and dead Acroporids after an Acanthaster attack.O It will have a dense population of Acanthaster for several years.Paragraph 3：Areas of dead coral are usually colonized rapidly by algae and often are later colonized by sponges and soft corals. Increases in abundance of plant-eating fish and decreases in abundance of coral-feeding fish accompany these changes. Coral larvae settle among the algae and eventually establish flourishing coral colonies. In ten to fifteen years the reefs often return to about the same percentage of coral cover as before. Development of a four-species diversity takes about twenty years.3. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 3 as a consequence of the destruction of an area of a coral by Acanthaster？O Algae colonize the dead area.O Plant-eating fish increase in number.O Coral larvae disappear.O Species diversity recovers fully over time.Paragraph 4：two schools of thought exist concerning the cause of these outbreaks. One group holds that they are naturalphenomena that have occurred many times in the past, citing old men’s recollections of earlier outbreaks and evidence from traditional cultures. The other group maintains that recent human activities ranging from physical coral destruction through pollution to predator removal have triggered these events.Paragraph 5：One theory, the adult aggregation hypothesis, maintains that most species is more abundant than we realize when a storm destroys coral and causes a food shortage. The adult Acanthasters converge on remaining portions of healthy coral and feed hungrily. Certainly there have been outbreaks of Acanthaster following large storms, but there is little evidence that the storms have caused the enough reef damage to create a food shortage for these starfish.4. According to paragraph 5, what is an important weakness of the adult aggregation hypothesis？O It is based on studies of the deeper parts of coral reefs.O It fails to explain the abundance of Acanthaster in the deeper parts of coral reefs.O It fails to explain why Acanthaster feed hungrily on healthy coral after a storm.O It is not supported by evidence that storms rusult in food shortages for Acanthaster.Paragraph 6：two other hypotheses attempt to explain the increased abundance of Acanthaster after episodes of high terrestrial runoff following storms. The first hypothesis is that low salinity and high temperatures favor the survival of the starfish larvae. The second hypothesis emphasizes the food web aspect, suggesting that strong fresh water runoff brings additional nutrients to the coastal waters, stimulating phytoplankton production and promoting more rapid development and bettersurvival of the starfish larvae.5. What can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the diet of Acanthaster larvae？O Phytoplankton is an important food source for them.O Storm water runoff washes away important nutrients they need.O When water temperature rises they have difficulty finding enough food.O Storms add needed salt to their diet.Paragraph 7：Those favoring anthropogenic (human influenced) causes have pointed to the large proportion of outbreaks that have been near centers of human populations. It has been suggested that coral polyps are the main predators of the starfish larvae. Destruction of coral by blasting and other bad land use practices would reduce predation on the starfish larvae and cause a feedback in which increases in Acanthaster populations cause still further coral destruction. Unfortunately, there are too few documented instances of physical destruction of coral being followed by outbreaks of Acanthaster for these hypotheses to be fully supported.6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.O Blasting and other bad land use practices would cause the destruction of coral and increase the number of predators that feed on Acanthaster larvae.O Bad land use practices would reduce predation on Acanthaster larvae and increase the starfish population which would cause more coral destruction.O A reduction of bad land use practices would reduce coral destruction by increasing the survival of Acanthaster larvae and their predators.O The destruction of coral through land use activities would cause a decrease in the number of predators that feed on Acanthaster larvae.Paragraph 8：Another group of hypothesis focuses on removal of Acanthaster's predators. Some have suggested that the predators might have been killed off by pollution whereas others have suggested that the harvesting of vertebrate and invertebrate predators of Acanthaster could have reduced mortality and caused increased abundance of adults. The problem with this group of hypothesis is that it is difficult to understand how reduced predation would lead to sudden increases in Acanthaster numbers in several places at the same time in specific years. It seems probable that there is no single explanation but that there are elements of the truth in several of the hypotheses. That is there are natural processes that have led to outbreaks in the past, but human impact has increased the frequency and severity of the outbreaks.7. Why does the author state that “it is difficult to understand how reduced predation would lead to sudden increases in Acanthaster numbers in several places at the same time in specific years”?O To indicate the difficulty in proving that increases in Acanthaster numbers occur at the same time in different areas of the world.O To identify a problem with a hypothesis that associates the increase in the population of Acanthaster with a removal of its predators.O To argue against the hypothesis that human activities cause sudden population outbreaks of Acanthaster in different places at the same time.O To argue against the view that the predators of Acanthaster decline because of pollution and harvesting by humans.8. What does the author conclude in paragraph 8 about the causes of sudden population increases of Acanthaster?O A sudden population increase in the Acanthaster population could be attributed to natural process as well as human activities.O There are no elements of truth in the hypothesis proposed to explain sudden population increases of Acanthaster.O It is possible to offer a single explanation for sudden population increases of Acanthaster.O Natural processes have been responsible for sudden population increases of Acanthaster in the past while present outbreaks are due to human activities.Paragraph 2：■A single Acanthaster can consume five to six square meters of coral polyps per year, and dense populations can destroy up to six square kilometers per year and move on rapidly. ■Acanthasters show a preference for branching corals, especially Acr oporids. ■After an outbreak in a particular area, it is common to find that Acroporids have been selectively removed, leaving a mosaic of living and dead corals. ■In places where Acroporids previously dominated the community devastation can be almost complete, and local areas of reefs have collapsed.9. Look at the four squares [■ ] that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage.The crown of thorns starfish is a coral reef predator that preys on coral polyps.Where would the sentence best fit?10. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Attempts have been made to explain the sudden increases in Acanthaster populations since the mid-1950s and their impact on coral reefs.Answer ChoicesO Larvae Acanthaster populations have preyed on coral reefs and caused the loss of coral cover over large areas and the collapse of some coral reef communities.O Acanthaster outbreaks have been attributed to natural phenomena such as stroms that have created favorable conditions for the rapid development of the starfish larvae.O Acanthaster outbreaks are the results of natural processes that have led to some increases in the past, as well as of human impact that has sped up the frequency and severity of the outbreaks.O There are several hypotheses trying to explain the Acanthaster outbreaks but none have elements of the truth because they contradict each other.O The crown of thorns starfish, Acanthaster Tlanci, is large, twenty-five to thirty-five centimeters in diameter, and has seven to twenty-one arms that are covered in spines.O The favorable anthropogenic causes, such as destruction of coral by blasting and other bad land use practices, have provided Acanthaster more food sources and therefore stimulate its population outbreaks.。
【威学教育】王鑫托福阅读TPO31-2阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO全集之TPO31-2TPO31TPO31-2 Early Childhood Education1. According to paragraph 1, parents in Japan tend to think of preschool primarily as a place where children canA. Get a good academic startB. Expand their emotional developmentC. Become more independentD. Experience being part of a group2. The word “whereas” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. AlthoughB. BecauseC. MoreoverD. already3. The word “focus” in the passage is closest in meaning to A.ConsiderB. RespectC. ConcentrateD. Advise4.It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that the Head Start program was designed to serve children whoA. Come from families that do not have a lot of moneyB. Are not doing very well in kindergartenC. Were born in the 1950sD. Need programs that focus primarily on social and emotional factorsPreschools 一 educational programs for children under the age of five - differ significantly from one country to another according to the views that different societies hold regarding the purpose of early childhood education. For instance, in a cross-country comparison of preschools in China, Japan, and the United States, researchers found that parents in the three countries view the purpose of preschools very differently. Whereas parents in China tend to see preschools primarily as a way of giving children a good start academically, Japanese parents view them primarily as a way of giving children the opportunity to be members of a group. In the United States, in comparison, parents regard the primary purpose of preschools as making children more independent and self-reliant, although obtaining a good academic start and having group experience are also important.While many programs designed for preschoolers focus primarily on social and emotional factors, some are geared mainly toward promoting cognitive gains and preparing preschoolers for the formal instruction they will experience when they start kindergarten. In the United States, the best-known program designed to promote future academic success is Head Start. Established in the 1960s when the United States declared the War on Poverty, the program has served over 13 million children and their families. The program, which stresses parental involvement, was designed to serve the “whole child”, including children's physical health, self-confidence, social responsibility, and social and emotional development.1. According to paragraph 3, the Head Start program had NOT been successful at which of the following?A. Helping children adjust to schoolB. Providing long-term increase in IQ scoresC. Improving school performance throughout high schoolD. Preventing children from being placed in special-education classes6.In paragraph 4, the author mentions the “results from other types of readiness programs ” toA. Provide support for the idea that preschool readiness programs have been somewhat successfulB. Question the idea that Head Start is more effective than other preschool readiness programsC. Indicate school completion is usually the most reliable indicator of success in most readiness programsD. Emphasize that participating in readiness programs can be increased if costs are reduced7. According to paragraph 4, a cost-benefit analysis of one preschool readiness program revealed that A Only one dollar's worth of benefit was gained for every seven dollars spent on the program B The benefits of the program lasted only until the participants reached age 27C Taxpayers saved seven dollars for every dollar spent on the programD To be successful, the program would need to receive about seven times as much money as it currently receivesWhether Head Start is seen as successful or not depends on the lens through which one is looking. If, for instance, the program is expected to provide long-term increases in IQ (intelligence quotient) scores, it is a disappointment. Although graduates of Head Start programs tend to show immediate IQ gains, these increases do not last. On the other hand, it is clear that Head Start is meeting its goal of getting preschoolers ready for school. Preschoolers who participate in Head Start are better prepared for future schooling than those who do not. Furthermore, graduates of Head Start programshave better future school grade. Finally, some research suggests that ultimately Head Start graduates show higher academic performance at the end of high school, although the gains are modest.In addition,results from other types of preschoolreadinessprogramsindicate that those whoparticipate and graduate are less likely to repeat grades, and they are more likely to complete school than readiness program, for every dollar spent on the program, taxpayers saved seven dollars by the time the graduates reached the age of 27.8. The word “ comprehensive ” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. Easily understoodB. ThoroughC. RespectableD. Objective9. Paragraph 5 mentions that participants in early intervention programs have been shown to do all of the following better than nonparticipants EXCEPTA. Take care of their healthB. Support themselves financiallyC. Take care of their own childrenD. Have increased emotional development10. According to paragraph 5, which of the following is true about the benefits of early intervention programs?A. These programs produce good short-term benefits but few long-term benefits.B. Only the most expensive programs provide substantial benefits.C. The Head Start program provides a range of benefits that no other program can provide.D. Some children benefit more than others do from these programs.11. The word “seek” in the passage is closest in meaning toA. ClaimB. ManageC. FailD. Attempt12. The passage mentions “ developmental psychologist David Elkind” in order toA. Give an example of an expert who has designed an effective early childhood education programB. Introduce an alternative view about the value of early childhood educationC. Explain why early childhood education programs are less effective in the United States than in other countriesD. Refute the claim that academic success is dependent on factors outside parents’ control.The most recent comprehensive evaluation of early intervention programs suggests that, taken as a group, preschool programs can provide significant benefits, and that government funds invested early in life may ultimately lead to a reduction in future costs. For instance, compared with children who did not participate in early intervention programs, participants in variousprograms showed gains in emotional or cognitive development, better educational outcomes, increased economic self-sufficiency, reduced levels of criminal activity, and improved health-related behaviors. Of course, not every program produced all these benefits, and not every child benefited to the same extent. Furthermore, some researchers argue that less-expensive programs are just as good as relatively expensive ones, such as Head Start. Still, the results of the evaluation were promising, suggesting that the potential benefits of early intervention can be substantial.Not everyone agrees that programs that seek to enhance academic skills during the preschool years are a good thing. In fact, according to developmental psychologist David Elkind, United States society tends to push children so rapidly that they begin to feel stress and pressure at a young age. Elkind argues that academic success is largely dependent upon factors out of parents’ control, such as inherited abilities and a child’s rate of maturation. Consequently, children of a particular age cannot be expected to master educational material without taking into account their current level of cognitive development. In short, children require development appropriate educational practice, which is education that is based on both typical development and the unique characteristics of a given child.Not everyone agrees that programs that seek to enhance academic skills during the preschool years are a good thing. _n fact, according to developmental psychologist David Elkind, United States society tends to push children so rapidly that they begin to feel stress and pressure at a young age. ■Elkind argues that academic success is largely dependent upon factors out of parents’ control, such as inherited abilities and a child’ s rate of maturation. ■Consequently, children of a part icular age cannot be expected to master educational material without taking into account their current level of cognitive development. _n short, children require development appropriate educational practice, which is education that is based on both typical development and the unique characteristics of a given child.13. Look at the squares [■] that indicate where following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?According to Elkind, not only does this cause the child emotional distress, it also fails to bring the intended cognitive gains.14. Prose Summary. Preschool programs provide opportunities for young children to develop socially, emotionally, and cognitively.Answer ChoicesA. In addition to stressing academic development, preschools should be enjoyable, since studies show that children benefit from programs they find fun.B. Preschool programs such as Head Start have been shown to help prepare children for school and may also have long-term benefits in helping children become effective adults.C. Studies have shown that preschool programs are most effective when they focus on only one area of development rather than trying to serve the “whole child” .D. The primary purpose of preschool programs varies by country, with some stressing the importance of group experience, and others self-reliance or getting a good academic start.E. Critics of preschool programs argue that these programs put undue pressure on children and may not be effective if children are not developmentally ready for academic work.F. David Elkind is a critic of publicly funded preschool programs, arguing that the parent cannot control their children’ s emotional development.。
TPO23阅读详细答案
ROCK ART OF THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINALS1.infrequent不常见的，所以正确答案是uncommon，单词是frequent加否定前缀构成的。
原文说最初encounter怎么样，从十九世纪晚期，awareness变多了，也就是原来很少，所以正确答案是B，其他选项都与多或者少不沾边2.以二十世纪做关键词定位至最后一句，说二十世纪的后几十年人们更多花功夫在理解和记录rock art的abundance上，所以正确答案是D，understanding and documenting。
其他选项都没说3.relatively相对地，相关地，所以正确答案是comparatively。
原文说对这种art的研究是一个怎么样新的学科在澳洲。
接着说在过去的四十年中，也就是说已经研究了四十年了，也不能算很新，只是时间相对短罢了，所以正确答案是B。
A全新C明显新和D特别新都不对4.discern辨别，察觉，所以正确答案是identity。
从单词本身看，dis有分开之意，cern有确定，弄清之意，想想concern，所以两者合在一起必然有区分、辨别之意。
原文说Australian rock art的stylic organization究竟是什么，是否有可能怎么样一个sequence或者一种pattern，所以答案是C。
repeat和apply不沾边，indicate有暗示，指明之意，而原文没有，不选5.revise修改，所以正确答案是change。
从单词本身看，re表示再次，vise是看，想想supervise和devise，所以两者合在一起必有改的意思。
原文说rock art的年龄一直在怎么样，接着又说因为有新发现，所以更早的定年出现了，所以年龄是被改变了，D正确。
raise错，年龄不能一直被提出；challenge和discuss都没提出结果，而且也跟再次没关系，不选6.原句的结构是frequency导致专家采用了一个term，lead to说明存在因果关系，正确答案是B。
托福阅读TPO23-3 Rock Art of the Australia Aborigines
Rock Art of the Australia AboriginesEver since European first explored Australia, people have been trying to understand the ancient rock drawings and cavings created by the Aborigines, the original inhabitants of the continent. Early in the nineteenth century, encounters with Aboriginal rock art tended to be infrequent and open to speculative interpretation, but since the late nineteenth century, awareness of the extent and variety of Australian rock art has been growing. In the latter decades of the twentieth century there were intensified efforts to understand and record the abundance of Australian rock art.The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible to discern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants?The age of Australia’s rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of generations, and one that makes Australia’s rock art the oldest continuous art tradition in the world.Although the remarkable antiquity of Australia’s rock art is now established, the sequences and meanings of its images have been widely debated. Since the mid-1970s, a reasonably stable picture has formed of the organization of Australian rock art. In order to create a sense of structure to this picture, researchers have relied on a distinction that still underlies the forms of much indigenous visual culture—a distinction between geometric and figurative elements. Simple geometric repeated patterns—circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-art sites found across Australia. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. Certain features of these engravings lead to the conclusion that they are of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish,” a glaze that develo ps on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago.In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear. Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition, tended to much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence?Paragraph 1: Ever since European first explored Australia, people have been trying to understand thein the nineteenth century, encounters with Aboriginal rock art tended to be and open to speculative interpretation, but since the late nineteenth century, awareness of the extent and variety of Australian rock art has been growing. In the latter decades of the twentieth century there were intensified efforts to understand and record the abundance of Australian rock art.○ puzzling○ uncommon○ questionable○ undocumented2. According to paragraph 1, the twentieth-century approach to studying Australian rock art was different from earlier approaches because the twentieth-century approach○ recognized that many different groups of Aborigines created Australian rock art○ concentrated on a limited range of Aboriginal rock art○ examined Aboriginal art from an Aboriginal rather than from a European perspective○ focused more intensely on understanding and documenting rock artfour decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data havestyles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants?○ completely○ comparatively○ apparently○ particularly4.○ indicate○ apply○ identify○ repeatproposed as the result of new discoveries. Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of generations, and one that makes Australia’s rock art th e oldest continuous art tradition in the world.○ discussed○ raised○ challenged○ changedParagraph 4: Although the remarkable antiquity of Australia’s rock art is now established, the sequences and meanings of its images have been widely debated. Since the mid-1970s, a reasonably stable picture has formed of the organization of Australian rock art. In order to create a sense of structure to this picture, researchers have relied on a distinction that still underlies the forms of much indigenous visual culture—a distinction between geometric and figurative elements. Simple geometric repeated patterns—circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish,” a glaze that develops on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago.the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave ways or leave out essential information○ The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North.○ Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type.○ Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively.○ The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia.7. According to paragraph 4, researchers have organized and structured Australian rock art by distinguishing between which of the following?○ Images found at Panaramitee North and images found in other parts of Australia○ Images found in a particular type of rock layer and images found in other types of rock layers○ Images that have geometric elements and images that have figurative elements○ Images that are typically found and image that are rarely found8. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are signs of the great age of the Panaramitee engravings EXCEPT:○ The engravings consisted of simple animal drawings.○ The engravings wer e covered with a layer of a substance known as “desert varnish”.○ Local Aborigines who were asked knew nothing about the origin of the engravings.○ Geologic changes had occurred after the engravings were made.9. Why does the author include information about Tasmania in paragraph 4?○ To provide evidence that the Panaramitee style is widespread and of great age○ To prove that Aboriginal Australians could not have made the carvings in Tasmania○ To indicate how researchers have determined how long ago Tasmania separated from the mainland○ To illustrate the importance of geometric rock art to tourism in TasmaniaParagraph 5: In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear. Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric tothe complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence?10. According to paragraph 5, the complex figurative style differs from the geometric style in that the complex figurative style○ varies significantly from region to region○ is more meaningful○ appears on only a few types of rocks○ has changed little overtime11. According to paragraph 5, Lesley Maynard made which of the following suggestions about Australian rock art?○ There were a pattern of human figures being represented in a more complex style than animal figures.○ Australian archaeology should concentrate on determining the sequence of styles that led up to the Panaramitee style.○ The great antiquity of Australian rock art would probably make it impossible to determine the ages of the various styles found in rock art.○ The geometric style of Australian rock art was replaced by increasingly complex figurative styles.12. In paragraph 5, the author indicates that twentieth century art has shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence in order to○ emphasize that it may not be possible to determine what the figures in ancient rock art represent ○ suggest a repl y to those who have questioned Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art○ provide a counterexample to Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art○ indicate that twentieth century art is more advanced than ancient rock artParagraph 2: The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible to discern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants? ■Paragraph 3: The age of Australia’s rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. ■Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. ■This in itself is analmost incomprehensible span of generations, and on e that makes Australia’s rock art the oldest continuousart tradition in the world. ■13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to thepassageWhile a great deal of information exists, the answers to these questions are not yet definitive.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Direction:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provides below.Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideasin the passage. Some sentences presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestion is worth 2 points.Interest in the rock art of the original inhabitants of Australia has grown over the last two centuries.●●●Answer Choices○ Late nineteenth century studies of Aboriginal rock art failed to recognize that a variety of stylesexisted.○ The extreme age of the earliest Aboriginal rock art has been established but the interpretation of rockart images is still debated.○ A sequence from geometric to more representative art fits many sites but does not necessarilyindicate a progression from simple to complex meaning.○ In determining the way in which Australian rock art was organized, archaeologists have made littledistinction between geometric and figurative elements.○ Older examples of rock art consist of simple, repeated geometric patterns while later rock art includesfigures and animals.○ Aboriginal informants were able to explain the meanings of ancient rock art symbols.参考答案:1. ○ 22. ○ 43. ○ 24. ○ 35. ○ 46. ○ 27. ○ 38. ○ 19. ○ 110. ○ 111. ○ 412. ○ 313. ○114. The extreme age…Older examples of…A sequence from…。
【威学教育】王鑫托福阅读TPO32-3阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO全集之TPO32-3TPO32TPO32-3 Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies1. The word “rival” in the passage is closest in meaning toA establishedB competingC nearbyD different2. According to paragraph 2, some species of stingless bees are aggressive mainly towardA nonaggressive bees that forage on the same flowersB aggressive bees of other speciesC bees from their own colonyD bees of their own species from different coloniesA3. According to paragraph 3, Hubbell and Johnson hypothesized thatA the distribution pattern of bee colonies determines the degree of aggressiveness the bees displayB nests of nonaggressive bees have either a random or a clumped distribution, while nests of aggressive bees have a regular distributionC nests of nonaggressive bees are generally both closer together and more regularly distributed than those of aggressive beesD nests of aggressive bees tend to be more regular in shape than those of nonaggressive beesIn 1977 ecologists Stephen Hubbell and Leslie Johnson recorded a dramatic example of how social interactions can produce and enforce regular spacing in a population. They studied competition and nest spacing in populations ofstingless bees in tropical dry forests in Costa Rica. Though these bees do no sting, rival colonies of some species fight fiercely over potential nesting sites.Stingless bees are abundant in tropical and subtropical environments, where they gather nectar and pollen from a wide variety of flowers. They generally nest in trees and live in colonies made up of hundreds to thousands of workers. Hubbell and Johnson observed that some species of stingless bees are highly aggressive to members of their species from other colonies, while other species are not. Aggressive species usually forage in groups and feed mainly on flowers that occur in high-density clumps. Nonaggressive species feed singly or in small groups and on more widely distributed flowers.Hubbell and Johnson studied several species of stingless bees to determine whether there is a relationship between aggressiveness and patterns of colony distribution. They predicted that the colonies of aggressive species would show regular distributions, while those of nonaggressive species would show random or closely grouped (clumped) distribution. They concentrated their studies on a thirteen-hectare tract of tropical dry forest that contained numerous nests of nine species of stingless bees.4. According to paragraph 4, why did Hubbell and Johnson begin their study by mapping all the potential nest sites?A To determine whether the availability of potential nest sites played a role in the distribution of bee coloniesB To know exactly where in the study area the coloniesof all the different bee species were locatedC To be sure that suitable nesting sites were equallyavailable in all parts of the study areaD To find out whether different species of beespreferred different types of trees as potential nestsites5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A The limited number of colonies was not due to the distribution or availability of potential nesting sites.B There was no lack of suitable trees or potential nesting sites in the study area.C The number of nests was directly related to the number or the distribution of suitable trees.D Neither the number nor the distribution of colonies could be explained by the availability of suitable nest sites.6. According to paragraph 5, Hubbell and Johnson determined A the order in which the colonies in the study area had been establishedB the level of aggressiveness of each of the nine speciesC the distribution pattern of the nests of five of the nine speciesD the number of colonies of each of the nine species7. Why does the author indicate that “The fifth species was not aggressive, and its nests were randomly distributed over the study area”?A To identify research results that contradicted Hubbell and Johnson's original hypothesisB To indicate that research results confirmed that nestThough Hubbell and Johnson were interested in how bee behavior might affect colony distributions, they recognized that the availability of potential nest sites for colonies could also affect distributions.So as one of the first steps in their study, they mapped the distributions of trees suitable for nesting. They found that potential nest trees were distributed randomly through the study area. They also found that the number of potential nest sites was muchgreater than the number of bee colonies. What did these measurements show the researchers? The number ofcoloniesinthe study area wasnotlimitedbyavailabilityof suitable trees, andaclumpedorregular distribution of colonies was not due toanunderlyingclumped or regulardistributionofpotential nest sites.Hubbell and Johnson mapped the nests of five of the nine species of stingless bees accurately, and the nests of four of these species were distributed regularly. All four species with regular nest distributions were highly aggressive to bees from other colonies of their own species. The fifth species was not aggressive, and its nests were randomly distributed over the study area.8. distribution was related to aggressiveness C To introduce the hypothesis that, within the same species, not all colonies are aggressive D To point out that both aggressive and nonaggressive species are equally successful at finding nest sitesThe phrase “insights into” in the passage is closest i n meaning to A tools to studyB opportunities forC evidence ofD an understanding of9. According to paragraph 6, what is one result of using pheromones to mark nest sites?A The use of pheromones tends to result in nest clumping.B Pheromones attract animals other than bees to prospective nest sites.C Pheromones tend to make bees aggressive.D Pheromones secreted by bees of one colony also attract bees of other colonies.10. The word “escalated” in the passage is closest in meaning toA intensifiedB transformedC combinedD lengthened11. Paragraph 7 supports which of the following ideas about fights over occupied nests?A They are more violent than battles over unoccupied nest sites.B They mostly occur between colonies of different species.C They are more frequent than battles over unoccupied sites.D They last longer than battles over unoccupied sites do.The researchers also studied the process by which the aggressive species establish new colonies. Their observations provide insights into the mechanisms that establish and maintain the regular nest distribution of these species. Aggressive species apparently mark prospective nest sites with pheromones, chemical substances secreted by some animals for communication with other members of their species. The pheromone secreted by these stingless bees attracts and aggregates members of their colony to the prospective nest site; however, it also attracts workers from other nests.If workers from two different colonies arrive at the prospective nest at the same time, they may fight for possession. Fights may be escalated into protracted battles.The researchers observed battles over a nest tree that lasted for two weeks. Each dawn, fifteen to thirty workers from two competing colonies arrived at the contested nest site. The workers from the two colonies faced off in two swarms and displayed and fought with each other. In the displays, pairs of bees faced each other, slowly flew vertically to a height of about three meters, and then grappled each other to the ground. When the two bees hit the ground, they separated, faced off, and performed another aerial display. Bees did not appear to be injured in these fights, which were apparently ritualized. The two swarms abandoned the battle at about 8 or 9 A.M. each morning, only to re-form and begin again the next day just afterdawn. While this contest over an unoccupied nest site produced no obvious mortality, fights over occupied nests sometimes kill over 1,000 bees in a single battle.Though Hubbell and Johnson were interested in how bee behavior might affect colony distributions, they recognized that the availability of potential nest sites for colonies could also affect distributions.(So as one of the first steps in their study, they mapped the distributions of trees suitable for nesting. (They found that potential nest trees were distributed randomly through the study area. (They also found that the number of potential nest sites was much greater than the number of bee colonies. (What did these measurements show the researchers? The number of colonies in the study area was not limited by availability of suitable trees, and a clumped or regular distribution of colonies was not due to an underlying clumped or regular distribution of potential nest sites.12. Look at the four squares [(] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where does the sentence best fit? For example, a clumped distribution of nests might simply reflect a clumped distribution of suitable nesting sites.13.Select from the seven sentences below the three sentences that correctly characterize aggressive species of stingless bees and the two sentences that correctly characterize nonaggressive species.Answer ChoicesA. Nests are regularly distributedB. Nests are sometimes located close togetherC. Nests always occur in large clumpsD. Colonies are generally made up of fewer than 100 workerE. Members of a colony feed alone or in small groupsF. Bees feed mainly on flowers that grow in high-density clumpsNest spacing is maintained by fighting。
【威学教育】王鑫托福阅读TPO24-2阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO全集之TPO24-2TPO24TPO24-2 Breathing During Sleep1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following can be inferred about the diaphragm during sleep?A During sleep the diaphragm requires increased movement of the rib cage.B The diaphragm helps with breathing as movements of the rib cage decrease during sleep.C The diaphragm requires a great amount of pressure to function properly.D The diaphragm contributes to the effective functioning of the rib cage.2. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of the voluntary breathing system EXCEPT:A It has its control center in the brain stem.B It controls breathing for a number of activiti during wakefulness. ▲C It is able to bypass the automatic system.D It produces an irregular breathing pattern.^ mmOf all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been discovered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. Not only are there differences in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function.Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the diaphragm more important. Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight against the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. However, there are many other changes that affect respiration通 1 1"when asleep.During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems. The first is an automatic,,毳.metabolic system whose control is centered in thebrain stem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate wand depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ratio in the blood. The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Its control center is based in the forebrain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. It is capable of ignoring or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breathing.3. The word exclusive in the passage is closest in meaning toA consistentB perfectC partialD sole4. According to paragraph 3, which of the following may occur just before NREM sleep begins?A The automatic, metabolic system may increase its dependence on air exchanges.B Breathing can stop for a short time as a person falls asleep.C An increase in the oxygen level in the blood can occur as sleep becomes fully obtained.D The level of carbon dioxide in the blood may drop suddenly.5. What is the author's purpose in stating that inhaling is like sucking air out of a balloon?A To refute the argument that additional effo necessary for breathing during sleepB To argue that REM sleep is more important than NREM sleepC To illustrate the difficulty of breathing during sleepD To illustrate how blockage of narrow passages can be prevented during sleep6. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as being characteristic of breathing during sleep EXCEPT A relaxation of the muscles involved in the respiratory systemB changes in resistance between the two sides of the noseC easier airflow in the passages of the upper airwayD absence of certain complex muscle interactionsDuring NREM (the phase of sleep in which there is no rapid eye movement) breathing becomes deeper and more regular, but there is also a decrease in the breathing rate, resulting in less air being exchanged overall. This occurs because during NREM sleep theautomatic, metabolic system has exclusive control over breathing and the body uses less oxygen and produces less carbon dioxide. Also, during sleep the automatic metabolic system is less responsive to carbon dioxide levels and oxygen levels in the blood. Two things result from these changes in breathing control that occur during sleep. First, there may be a brief cessation or reduction of breathing when falling asleep as the sleeper waxes and wanes between sleep and wakefulness and their differing control mechanisms. Second, once sleep is fully obtained, there is an increase of carbon dioxide and a decrease of oxygen in the blood that persists during NREM.V / <S&>But that is not all that changes. During all phases of sleep, several changes in the air passages have been observed. It takes twice as much effort to breathe during sleep because of greater resistance to airflow in the airways and changes in the efficiency of the muscles used for breathing. Some of the muscles that help keep the upper airway open when breathing tend to become more relaxed during sleep, especially during REM (the phase of sleep in which there is rapid eye movement). Without this muscular action,inhalingis like sucking air out of a balloon—the narrowpassages tend to collapse. Also there is a regular cycle of change in resistance between the two sides of the nose. If something blocks the "good" side, such as congestion from allergies or a cold, then resistance increases dramatically. Coupled with these factors is the loss of the complex interactions among the muscles that can change the route of airflow from nose to mouth.7. According to paragraph 5, what happens during NREM sleep when inhaling is difficult?A There is an immediate, automatic, adaptive increase in breathing effort.B The sleeping person takes several inadequate breaths before the breathing effort is adjusted.C The coughing reflex causes the breathing effort to adjust.Other respiratory regulating mechanisms apparently cease functioning during sleep. For example, during wakefulness there is an immediate, automatic, adaptive increase in breathing effort when inhaling is made more difficult (such as breathing through a restrictive face mask). This reflexive adjustment is totally absent during NREM sleep. Only after several inadequate breaths under such conditions, resulting inD The airways become cleared as the blood removestheconsiderableelevation of carbon dioxide andairway, then resume breathing and likely return toresume in the passage is closestirritants.8. It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that a very mild irritation during sleep will likely cause the sleeping person toA increase the breathing effortB wake up and remove the source of irritationC cough while still sleepingD stop breathing temporarily while still sleeping9. The word considerable meaning to A significantB SteadyC UsualD necessary10. The word meaning to A reduce B stop C Readjust D restartreduction of oxygen in the blood, is breathing effort adjusted. Finally, the coughing reflex in reaction to irritants in the airway produces not a cough during sleep but a cessation of breathing. If the irritation is severe enough, a sleeping person will arouse, clear the11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A Because breathing is more shallow and irregular in REM than in NREM, less air is exchanged in REM.B Breathing in NREM is less effective than breathing in REM because of irregular episodes of rapid breathing during NREM.C Because breathing is more rapid in NREM sleep than in REM sleep, breathing often becomes shallow.D Although REM has brief episodes of shallow breathing or lack of breathing, breathing is more rapid than in NREM.Additional breathing changes occur during REM sleep that are even more dramatic than the changes thatoccur during NREM. The amount of air exchanged iseven lower in REM than NREM because, althoughbreathing is more rapid in REM,it is also more irregular,with brief episodes of shallow breathing or absence of breathing. In addition, breathing during REM depends much more on the action of the diaphragm and much less on rib cage action.Of all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been discovered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. Not only are there differences in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function. Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the diaphragm more important. | Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight against the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. | However, there are many other changes that affect respiration when asleep.| During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems.| The first is an automatic, metabolic system whose control is centered in the brain stem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate and depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ratio in the blood. The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Its control center is based in the forebrain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. It is capable of ignoring or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breathing.12. Look at the four squares [| ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passageTo better understand breathing during sleep, it is, however, helpful to first understand how respiration works ingeneral.r13. Directions: From the seven statements below, select the statements that correctly characterize breathing during wakefulness and those statements that correctly characterize breathing during sleep. Drag each answer choice you select into the appropriate box of the table. Two of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points. 4% HA. The role of the rib cage increases and the role of the diaphragm decreases.B. Carbon dioxide in blood rises and oxygen drops.C. The coughing reflex is extremely complex.D. A great deal of effort is used for breathing.E. Upper airways are resistant to colds and allergies.F. There is a drop in the volume of air that is exchanged.G. Automatic and voluntary respiratory systems are both involved.。
新托福TPO23阅读原文及译文(一)
新托福TPO23阅读原文(一)：Urban ClimatesTPO23-1：Urban ClimatesThe city is an extraordinary processor of mass and energy and has its own metabolism. A daily input of water, food, and energy of various kinds is matched by an output of sewage, solid waste, air pollutants, energy, and materials that have been transformed in some way. The quantities involved are enormous. Many aspects of this energy use affect the atmosphere of a city, particularly in the production of heat.In winter the heat produced by a city can equal or surpass the amount of heat available from the Sun. All the heat that warms a building eventually transfers to the surrounding air, a process that is quickest where houses are poorly insulated. But an automobile produces enough heat to warm an average house in winter, and if a house were perfectly insulated, one adult could also produce more than enough heat to warm it. Therefore, even without any industrial production of heat, an urban area tends to be warmer than the countryside that surrounds it.The burning of fuel, such as by cars, is not the only source of this increased heat. Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities. The first is the heat capacity of the materials that constitute the city, which is typically dominated by concrete and asphalt. During the day, heat from the Sun can be conducted into these materials and stored—to be released at night. But in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground. The second factor is that radiant heat coming into the city from the Sun is trapped in two ways: (1) by a continuing series of reflection among the numerous vertical surfaces that buildings present and (2) by the dust dome, the cloudlike layer of polluted air that most cities produce. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the pollution dome more easily than outgoing longwave radiation does; the latter is absorbed by the gaseous pollutants of the dome and reradiated back to the urban surface.Cities, then, are warmer than the surrounding rural areas, and together they produce a phenomenon known as the urban heat island. Heat islands develop bestunder particular conditions associated with light winds, but they can form almost any time. The precise configuration of a heat island depends on several factors. For example, the wind can make a heat island stretch in the direction it blows. When a heat island is well developed, variations can be extreme; in winter, busy streets in cities can be 1.7℃warmer than the side streets. Areas near traffic lights can be similarly warmer than the areas between them because of the effect of cars standing in traffic instead of moving. The maximum differences in temperature between neighboring urban and rural environments is called the heat-island intensity for that region. In general, the larger the city, the greater its heat-island intensity. The actual level of intensity depends on such factors as the physical layout, population density, and productive activities of a metropolis.The surface-atmosphere relationships inside metropolitan areas produce a number of climatic peculiarities. For one thing, the presence or absence of moisture is affected by the special qualities of the urban surface. With much of the built-up landscape impenetrable by water, even gentle rain runs off almost immediately from rooftops, streets, and parking lots. Thus, city surfaces, as well as the air above them, tend to be drier between episodes of rain; with little water available for the cooling process of evaporation, relative humidities are usually lower. Wind movements are also modified in cities because buildings increase the friction on air flowing around them. This friction tends to slow the speed of winds, making them far less efficient at dispersing pollutants. On the other hand, air turbulence increases because of the effect of skyscrapers on airflow. Rainfall is also increased in cities. The cause appears to be in part greater turbulence in the urban atmosphere as hot air rises from the built-up surface.TPO23-1译文：城市气候城市是一个物质和能量的巨大处理器，拥有自己的新陈代谢。
【威学教育】王鑫托福阅读TPO21-3阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO 全集之TPO21-3TPO 21TPO21-3 Autobiographical Memory1. The word "ample" in the passage is closest in meaning toA. surprisingB. convincingC. plentifulD. questionable2. According to paragraph 1, infantile amnesia has intrigued psychologists becauseA. the ability to recount memories prior to three years of age seems to be connected to intelligence in adulthoodB. psychologists do not understand why some people are able to recount memories from before the age of three years, while others are not able do soC. psychologists do not understand the connection between infantile amnesia and autobiographical memoryD. although psychologists have evidence that infants have memory abilities, most people cannot remember life events that happened before the age of three years3. According to paragraph 1, what is the evidence that a child has developed autobiographical memory?A. The child is able to remember past events from before the age of three years.B. The child is able to describe past events in a sufficiently lengthy and cohesive manner.C. The child is aware that he or she does not remember experiences from before the age of three years.D. The child is able to give a basic description of the nature of autobiographical memory.Paragraph 1：Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point?4. In paragraph 2, why does the author provide the information that children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering a past event?A. To provide evidence that memories do not depend only upon verbal skillsB. To challenge the idea that one year olds are too young to form memoriesC. To argue that the memory of one year olds depends only on action-based codesD. To suggest that Piaget later revised his findings on the correlation between memory and verbal ability5. The word meaning toA. consistentB. sufficientC. apparentD. deep6. The word "elaboration" in the passage is closest in meaning toA. developmentB. specializationC. useD. transformation'reasonable" in the passage is closest inParagraph 2: Perhaps the explanation goes back to some ideas raised by influential Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget—namely, that children under age two years represent events in a qualitatively different form than older children do. According to this line of thought, the verbal abilities that blossom in the two year old allow events to be coded in a form radically different from the action-based codes of the infant. Verbal abilities of one year olds are, in fact, related to their memories for events one year later.When researchers had one year olds imitate an action sequence one year after they first saw it, there was correlation between the children's verbal skills at the time they first saw the event and their success on the later memory task. However, even children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering the event; thus, memories may be facilitated by but are not dependent on those verbal skills.Paragraph 3 ： Another suggestion is that before children can talk about past events in their lives, they need to have a reasonable understanding of the self as a psychological entity. The development of an understanding of the self bees evident between the first and second years of life and shows rapid elaboration in subsequent years. The realization that the physical self has continuity in time, according to this hypothesis, lays the foundation for the emergence of autobiographical memory.7. According to paragraph 3, what is the relationship between autobiographical memory and the development of an understanding of the self?A. Autobiographica丨 memory aids in the development of an understanding of the self.B. Children possess an understanding of the self when they can talk about past events in their lives.C. The realization that the self continues through time may aid in the onset of autobiographical memory.D. The development of autobiographical memory helps children gain an understanding of their roles in their social relationships.8. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as ways in which parents help their children understand the structure of narratives EXCEPTA. talking with their children about past eventsB. telling stories to their childrenC. having their children repeat stories back to themD. showing their children that they think memories are important9. According to paragraph 4, the studies of Caucasian American and Korean children suggest which of the following?A. Autobiographica丨 memories develop similarly across all cultures.B. Parents from different cultures tell their children different kinds of stories about the past.C. Children's pleasure in hearing stories varies from culture to culture.D. The kinds of interactions children have with their parents affect the development of autobiographical memories.Paragraph 4： A third possibility is that children will not be able to tell their own "life story" until they understand something about the general form stories take, that is, the structure of narratives. Knowledge about narratives arises from social interactions, particularly the storytelling that children experience from parents and the attempts parents make to talk with children about past events in their lives. When parents talk with children about "what we did today" or "last week" or "last year," they guide the children's formation of a framework for talking about the past. They also provide children with reminders about the memory and relay the message that memories are valued as part of the cultural experience. It is interesting to note that some studies show Caucasian American children have earlier childhood memories than Korean children do. Furthermore, other studies show that Caucasian American mother-child pairs talk about past events three times more often than do Korean mother-child pairs. Thus, the types of social experiences children have do factor into the development of autobiographical memories.10. According to paragraph 5, what evidence is there that a "theory of mind" is a factor in the development of autobiographical memory?A. Even children who are not aware of their mental states are still able to talk about past events.B. Autobiographicat memory decreases when a chiId's feelings and mental state are upset.C. Older children who are unable to achieve awareness of mental states lack autobiographical memory.D. Children's memory of past events grows once children can answer questions about what it means to know and remember.Paragraph 5: A final suggestion is that children must begin to develop a "theory of mind"—an awareness of the concept of mental states (feelings, desires, beliefs, and thoughts), their own and those of others—before they can talk about their own past memories. Once children bee capable of answering such questions as "What does it mean to remember?" and "What does it mean to know something?" improvements in memory seem to occur.11. The organization of the passage can best be described asA. Paragraph 6: It may be that the developments just described are intertwined with and influence one another. Talking with parents about the past may enhance the development of the self-concept, for example, as well as help the child understand what it means to "remember." No doubt the ability to talk about one's past represents memory of a different level of plexity than simple recognition or recall.the presentation of an argument followed by the evidence for and against itB. a description of a phenomenon followed by several possible theories about how it developsC. the definition of a psychological term followed by a history of its usageD. an explanation of a process followed by a discussion of its practical applications12. The passage supports which of the following statements about the development of autobiographical memory?A. It is unlikely that a single factor is responsible for the development of autobiographical memory.B. Jean Piaget was the first psychologist to understand the development of autobiographical memory.C. Understanding the development of autobiographical memory will help psychologists eliminate infant amnesiaD. Understanding what it means to remember is the most important factor in the development of autobiographical memory.Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? ■ Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. ■The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. ■Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. ■ Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point?13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.It is unlikely that this memory will be from the first two years of life.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. A14. 【Directions】 An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.The ability to construct autobiographical memories—coherent narratives about events from one's past—is probably the joint product of several social and intellectual developments.A. Although children are capable of simple recognition and recall very early in life, they do not develop the capacity for autobiographical memory until the age of three or four years.B. Verbal skills and familiarity with narrative structures probably aid in the construction of autobiographical memories.C. Children's earliest autobiographical memories are usually about social interactions with parents.D. Research suggests that infantile amnesia occurs in some cultures but not in others and may be linked to children's social experiences.E. The development of autobiographical memory allows children to appreciate the fact that memories are an important part of their cultural experience.F. Children who have acquired a concept of the self and of various mental states are generally able to talk about their own past memories.。
【威学教育】王鑫托福TPO13-3阅读文本
【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO 13-3阅读文本TPO 13Tpo13-3 Methods of Studying Infant Perception1. Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe theA range of motor activity in neonatesB frequency and duration of various stimuliC change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulusD range of an infant's visual field2. The word uniformly in the passage is closest in meaning to A clearlyB quicklyC consistentlyD occasionally3. Why does the author mention repetitive followingmovements of the eye? A To identify a response thatindicates a neonate's perception of a stimulus B To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli only through repetitive movements C To argue that motor activity in a neonate may be random and unrelated to stimuli D To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to ageIn the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of theresponse to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth —have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.4. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in using the technique of direct observation?A It is impossible to be certain of the actual cause of an infant's response.B Infants' responses, which occur quickly and diffusely, are often difficult to measure.C Infants do not respond well to stimuli presented in an unnatural laboratory setting.D It may be difficult for observers to agree on the presence or the degree of a response.Such techniques, however, have limitations. First, the observation may be unreliable in that two or more observers may not agree that the particular response occurred, or to what degree it occurred. Second, responses are difficult to quantify. Often the rapid and diffuse movements of the infant make it difficult to get an accurate record of the number of responses. The third, and most potent, limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant's response was due to the stimulus presented or to a change from no stimulus to a stimulus. The infant may be responding to aspects of the stimulus different than those5. identified by the investigator. Therefore, whenobservational assessment is used as a technique forstudying infant perceptual abilities, care must betaken not to overgeneralize from the data or to relyon one or two studies as conclusive evidence of aparticular perceptual ability of the infant.The word potent in the passage is closest in meaning toA artificialB powerfulC commonD similar6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. A Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies.B On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others.C To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence.D When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive.indications of an infant's heightened interest in a new stimulus EXCEPT an increase in A sucking behavior B heart rateC the number of breaths takenD eye movements7. What is the author's primary purpose in paragraph 3? A To explain why researchers must conduct more than one type of study when they are attempting to understand infant perceptionB To describe new techniques for observing infant perception that overcome problems identified in the previous paragraphC To present and evaluate the conclusions of various studies on infant perceptionD To point out the strengths and weaknesses of three new methods for quantifying an infant's reaction to stimuli8. The word quantifiable in the passage is closest in meaning to A visualB permanentC meaningfulD measurable9. Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following asObservational assessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented. Film analysis of the infant's responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception. Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant's responses over and over and in slow motion. Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant's attention between two stimuli. Heart and respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or breathstaken when a new stimulus is presented. Numericalincreases are used asquantifiableindicators ofheightened interest in thenew stimulus. Increases innonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby's pacifier to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant's attention to or preference for a givendisplay.stimulus is getting through to the infant's central10. According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in ahabituation-dishabituation study?A Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus.B Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus.C Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus.D The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses.11. In paragraph 4, what does the author suggest about the way an infant's brain perceives stimuli?A An infant's potential to respond to a stimulus may be related to the size of its brain.B Changes in the electrical patterns of an infant's brain are difficult to detect.C Different areas of an infant's brain respond to different types of stimuli.D An infant is unable to perceive more than one stimulus at a time,Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulusbecauseof where they originate. Changes intheelectricalpattern of the brain indicate thatthe12. Paragraph 5 indicates that researchers who usedEach of the preceding techniques provides thethe techniques described in the passage discoveredresearcher with evidence that the infant can detect orthatdiscriminate between stimuli. With theseA infants find it difficult to perceive some types ofsophisticated observational assessment andstimulielectro-physiological measures, we know that theB neonates of only a few days cannot yet discriminate between stimulineonate of only a few days is far more perceptive than previously suspected. However, these measures areC observational assessment is less useful for studyingonly "indirect" indicators of the infant's perceptualinfant perception than researchers previously believed D a neonate is able to perceive stimuli better than researchers once thoughtabilities.Observational assessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented. Film analysis of the infant's responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception. | Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant's responses over and over and in slow motion. | Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant's attention between two stimuli.| Heart and respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented. | Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby's pacifier to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant's attention to or preference for a given visual display.13. Look at the four squares [| ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? The repetition allows researchers to observe the infant's behavior until they reach agreement about the presence and the degree of the infant's response.14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Researchers use a number of techniques to determine how infants respond to changes in their environment. A. Data from observational methods must be confirmed through multiple studies.B. New techniques for studying infant perception have improved the accuracy with which researchers observe and quantify infant responsesC. Indirect observation is most accurate when researchers use it to test auditory and olfactory perception in neonates.D. Visual indicators such as turning the head, blinking the eyes, or crying remain the best evidence of an infant's perceptual abilities.E. Pacifiers are commonly used in studies to calm an infant who has been presented with excessive stimuli.Sophisticated techniques that have aided new discoveries about perception in the neonate continue to be indirect measures.。
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【王鑫托福阅读】托福TPO全集之TPO23-3TPO23TPO23-3 Rock Art of the Australia Aborigines1. The word "infrequent”in the passage is closest in meaning toA. puzzlingB. uncommonC. questionableD. undocumented2. According to paragraph 1, the twentieth-century approach to studying Australian rock art was different from earlier approaches because the twentieth-century approachA. recognized that many different groups of Aborigines created Australian rock artB. concentrated on a limited range of Aboriginal rock artC. examined Aboriginal art from an Aboriginal rather than from a European perspectiveD. focused more intensely on understanding and documenting rock art3. The word "rela tively”in the passage is closest in meaning toA. completelyB. comparativelyC. apparentlyD. particularly4. The word "discern”in the passage is closest in meaning toA. indicateB. applyC. identifyD. repeat5. The word "revised”in the passage is closest in meaning toA. discussedB. raisedC. challengedD. changedParagraph 1: Ever since European first explored Australia, people have been trying to understand the ancient rock drawings and cavings created by the Aborigines, the original inhabitants of the continent. Early in the nineteenth century, encounters with Aboriginal rock art tended to be infrequent and open to speculative interpretation, but since the late nineteenth century, awareness of the extent and variety of Australian rock art has been growing. In the latter decades of the twentieth century there were intensified efforts to understand and record the abundance of Australian rock art.Paragraph 2: The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible todiscern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants?Paragraph 3: The age of Australia's rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of 3946. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave ways or leave out essential informationA. The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North.B. Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type.C. Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively.D. The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia.7. According to paragraph 4, researchers have organized and structured Australian rock art by distinguishing between which of the following?A. Images found at PanaramiteeNorth and images found in other parts of AustraliaB. Images found in a particular type of rock layer and images found in other types of rock layersC. Images that have geometric elements and images that have figurative elementsD. Images that are typically found and image that are rarely found8. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are signs of the great age of the Panaramitee engravings EXCEPT:A. The engravings consisted of simple animal drawings.generations, and one that makes Australia's rock art the oldest continuous art tradition in the world.Paragraph 4: Although the remarkable antiquity of Australia's rock art is now established, the sequences and meanings of its images have been widely debated. Since the mid-1970s, a reasonably stable picture has formed of the organization of Australian rock art. In order to create a sense of structure to this picture, researchers have relied on a distinction that still underlies the forms of much indigenous visual culture—a distinction between geometric and figurative elements. Simple geometric repeated patterns—circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-art sites found across Australia. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. Certain features of these engravings lead to the conclusion that they are of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish,”a glaze that develops on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago.B .The engravings were covered with a layer of a substance known as “desert varnish”.C. Local Aborigines who were asked knew nothing about the origin of the engravings.A. Geologic changes had occurred after the engravings were made.9. Why does the author include information about Tasmania in paragraph 4?A. To provide evidence that the Panaramitee style is widespread and of great ageB. To prove that Aboriginal Australians could not have made the carvings in TasmaniaC. To indicate how researchers have determined how long ago Tasmania separated from the mainlandD. To illustrate the importance of geometric rock art to tourism in Tasmania10. According to paragraph 5, the complex figurative style differs from the geometric style in that the complex figurative styleA. varies significantly from region to regionB. is more meaningfulC. appears on only a few types of rocksD. has changed little overtime11. According to paragraph 5, Lesley Maynard made which of the following suggestions about Australian rock art?A. There were a pattern of human figures being represented in a more complex style than animal figures.B. Australian archaeology should concentrate on determining the sequence of styles that led up to the Panaramitee style.C. The great antiquity of Australian rock art would probably make it impossible to determine the ages of the various styles found in rock art.D. The geometric style of Australian rock art was replaced by increasingly complex figurative styles.12. In paragraph 5, the author indicates that twentieth century art has shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence in order toA. emphasize that it may not be possible to determine what the figures in ancient rock art representB. suggest a reply to those who have questioned Maynard's interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock artParagraph 5: In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear. Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramiteestyle,”suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence?C. provide a counterexample to Maynard's interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock artD. indicate that twentieth century art is more advanced than ancient rock art【Paragraph 2】The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible to discern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants? ■【Paragraph 3】The age of Australia's rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. ■Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. ■This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of generations, and one that makes Australia's rock art the oldest continuous art tradition in the world. ■13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passageWhile a great deal of information exists, the answers to these questions are not yet definitive.Where would the sentence best fit?14. 【Direction】An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provides below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 pointsInterest in the rock art of the original inhabitants of Australia has grown over the last two centuries. BCEA. Late nineteenth century studies of Aboriginal rock art failed to recognize that a variety of styles existed.B. The extreme age of the earliest Aboriginal rock art has been established but the interpretation of rock art images is still debated.C. A sequence from geometric to more representative art fits many sites but does not necessarily indicate a progression from simple to complex meaning.D. In determining the way in which Australian rock art was organized, archaeologists have made little distinction between geometric and figurative elements.E. Older examples of rock art consist of simple, repeated geometric patterns while later rock art includes figures and animals.Aboriginal informants were able to explain the meanings of ancient rock art symbols.。