曼昆微观经济学英文版12design_tax

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曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案完整版

曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]the link between buyers’ willingness to pay for a good and the demandcurve.how to define and measure consumer surplus.the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.how to define and measure producer surplus.that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in amarket.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then utilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the winners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity that balance supply and demand” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.KEY POINTS:Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount they actually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market. Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market. Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer andproducer surplus. That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leadsbuyers and sellers to allocate resources efficiently.Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market power or externalities.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being.A. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording of Elvis Presley’s first album. Four buyers show up. Their willingness to pay is as follows:If the bidding goes to slightly higher than $80, all buyersdrop out except for John. Because John is willing to paymore than he has to for the album, he derives some benefitfrom participating in the market.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer is willing to payfor a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, the price in the auction would end up being lower (a little over $70 in the case of two albums) and both John and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derive a demandmarginal buyer . Because the demand curve shows the buyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure c onsumer surplus.C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer Surplussurplus because they are paying less for the product than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers will enter the market and receive consumer surplus on these additional units of output purchased (area B on the graph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus Measure?1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyers are willing to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyers themselves perceive it.III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a good .2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. You accept bidsfor the work from four sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the priceyou will pay exceeds her opportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity costthus represents willingness to sell.) The costs are:sellers will drop out except for Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in the market.4. Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, the price in the auction would end up being higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and both Grandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw themarket for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a priceceiling below the equilibrium price.Then go through:consumer surplus before the price ceiling is put into place. consumer surplus after the price ceiling is put into place. You will need to take some time to explain the relationship between the producers’ willingness to sell and the cost of producing the good. The relationship between cost and the supply curve is not as apparent as the relationship between the It is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured inmonetary terms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place amonetary cost on inefficient market outcomes (due to governmentB. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) to derive a2.the cost of the marginal seller. Because the supply curve shows the sellers’ cost (willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus.C. How a Higher Price Raises Producer Surplussurplus because they are receiving more for the product than before (area C on the graph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers will enter the market and receive producer surplus on these additional units of output sold (area D on the graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of producers,ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the marketfor an agricultural product such as corn. Draw in a price supportabove the equilibrium price.Then go through:producer surplus before the price support is put in place.producer surplus after the price support is put in place.Make sure that you discuss the cost of the price support tomuch like consumer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of consumers.IV. Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can be measured by total surplus, which is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + Producer SurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – Amount Paid byBuyers) +(Amount Received by Sellers – Cost to Sellers)Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = Amount Received bySellers:2. Definition of efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing the total surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributing economicprosperity uniformly the members of society .a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibrium price will purchase the product; those who do not, will not purchase the product. Inother words, the free market allocates the supply of a good to the buyers who value it most highly, as measured by their willingness to pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium price will produce the product; those whose costs are higher, will not produce the product. Inother words, the free market allocates the demand for goods to the sellers who can produce it at the lowest cost.value of the product to the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output increases.Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward(Richard Gere) negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals shewould have accepted a lower price, while Edward admits he wouldhave paid more. If you have done a good job of introducingconsumer and producer surplus, you will see the light bulbs gob. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibrium quantity, the value of the product to the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economists believe Principle #6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity.C. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work to achieve anefficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe describes economist Chip Case’sexperience with ticket scalping.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs?1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed to sell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling on organs of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a more efficientallocation of resources, but critics worry about the equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made several assumptions about how markets worked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibrium may not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy the situation. SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P 1and the consumer surplus that results from that price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus is the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it. It measures the benefit to buyers ofparticipating in a market.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P 1and the producer surplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus is the amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it (measured by the supply curve). It measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstances when the market process does not lead to the most efficient outcome. Examples include situations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market power over price or when there areFigure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The price of turkey is P, consumer surplus is CS, and producer surplus is PS. Producing more turkeys 1than the equilibrium quantity would lower total surplus because the value to the marginal buyer would be lower than the cost to the marginal seller on those additional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals the price that each buyer is willing to pay minus the price actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price received minus each seller's costs of producing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total surplus, the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal of economic policymakers; they may also be concerned about equitythe fairness of the distribution of well-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers and sellers into promoting general economic well-being. Despite decentralized decision making and self-interested decision makers, free markets often lead to an efficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power and externalities. Market power may cause market outcomes to be inefficient because firms may cause price and quantity to differ from the levels they would be under perfect competition, which keeps total surplus from being maximized. Externalities are side effects that are not taken into account by buyers and sellers. As a result, the free market does not maximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minus the price paid. Therefore, Melissa’s willingness to pay must be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 $90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not have purchased one because the price is greater than her willingness to pay. Therefore, she would receive no consumer surplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, the supply curve for lemons shifts to the left, as shown in Figure 5. The result is a rise in the price of lemons and a decline in consumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. So consumer surplus declines by the amount B + C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemons reduces the supply of lemonade, as shown in Figure 6. The result is a rise in the price of lemonade and a decline in consumer surplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F. Note that an event that affects consumer surplus in one market oftenhas effects on consumer surplus in other markets.3. A rise in the demand for French bread leads to an increase in producer surplus in the market for French bread, as shown in Figure 7. The shift of the demand curve leads to an increased price, which increases producer surplusfrom area A to area A + B + C.Figure 7The increased quantity of French bread being sold increases the demandfor flour, as shown in Figure 8. As a result, the price of flour rises, increasing producer surplus from area D to D + E + F. Note that an event that affects producer surplus in one market leads to effects on producer surplus in related markets.Figure 84. a.Figure 9b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Bert buys two bottles of water. His consumer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He values hisfirst bottle of water at $7, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $3. He values his second bottle of water at $5, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $1. Thus Bert’s total consumer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2, Bert buys three bottles of water, an increase of one. His consumer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase in the amount of area B. He gets consumer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($7 value minus $2 price), $3from the second bottle ($5 value minus $2 price), and $1 from the third bottle ($3 value minus $2 price), for a total consumer surplus of $9. Thus consumer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2.5. a.Figure 10b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Ernie sells two bottles of water. His producer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He receives $4 for his first bottle of water, but it costs only $1 to produce, so Ernie has producer surplus of $3. He also receives $4 for his second bottle of water, which costs $3 to produce, so he has producer surplus of $1. Thus Ernie’s total producer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6, Ernie sells three bottles of water, an increase of one. His producer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase by the amount of area B. He gets producer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($6 price minus $1 cost), $3 from the second bottle ($6 price minus $3 cost), and $1 from the third bottle ($6 price minus $5 price), for a total producer surplus of $9. Thus producer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6.6. a. From Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demand schedule, thean equilibrium quantity of two.b. At a price of $4, consumer surplus is $4 and producer surplus is $4, as shown in Problems 3 and 4 above. Total surplus is $4 + $4 = $8.c. If Ernie produced one less bottle, his producer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 4 above. If Bert consumed one less bottle, hisconsumer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 3 above. So total surplus would decline to $3 + $3 = $6.d. If Ernie produced one additional bottle of water, his cost would be $5, but the price is only $4, so his producer surplus would decline by $1. If Bert consumed one additional bottle of water, his value would be $3, but the price is $4, so his consumer surplus would decline by $1. So total surplus declines by $1 + $1 = $2.7. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for stereos results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 11. As a result, the equilibrium price of stereos declines and the equilibriumquantity increases.Figure 11b. The decline in the price of stereos increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D. Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.c. If the supply of stereos is very elastic, then the shift of the supply curve benefits consumers most. To take the most dramatic case, suppose the supply curve were horizontal, as shown in Figure 12. Then there is no producer surplus at all. Consumers capture all the benefits of falling production costs, with consumer surplus rising from area A to area A + B.Figure 128. Figure 13 shows supply and demand curves for haircuts. Supply equals demand at a quantity of three haircuts and a price between $4 and $5. Firms A, C, and D should cut the hair of Ellen, Jerry, and Phil. Oprah’s willingnessto pay is too low and firm B’s costs are too high, so they do not participate. The maximum total surplus is the area between the demand and supply curves, which totals $11 ($8 value minus $2 cost for the first haircut, plus $7 value minus $3 cost for the second, plus $5 value minus $4 cost for the third).Figure 139. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Figure 14 Figure 15Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E(the area above the supply curve and below the price). After theshift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producersurplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive ornegative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus,while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Becauseconsumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises byF +G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.b. Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for typewriters, shifting the demand for typewriters to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of typewriters. Consumer surplus in the typewriter market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Typewriter producers are sad about technological advances in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Because software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, a net change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.Figure 16d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest people, because his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.10. a. With Provider A, the cost of an extra minute is $0. WithProvider B, the cost of an extra minute is $1.b. With Provider A, my friend will purchase 150 minutes [= 150 –(50)(0)]. With Provider B, my friend would purchase 100 minutes [=150 – (50)(1)].c. With Provider A, he would pay $120. The cost would be $100 with Provider B.Figure 17d. Figure 17 shows the friend’s demand. With Provider A, he buys 150minutes and his consumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(3)(150) – 120= 105. With Provider B, his consumer surplus is equal to(1/2)(2)(100) = 100.e. I would recommend Provider A because he receives greater consumer surplus.11. a. Figure 18 illustrates the demand for medical care. If each procedure has a price of $100, quantity demanded will be Q1 procedures.Figure 18b. If consumers pay only $20 per procedure, the quantity demanded will be Qprocedures. Because the cost to society is $100, the number of procedures 2performed is too large to maximize total surplus. The quantity that maximizes total surplus is Q1 procedures, which is less than Q2.c. The use of medical care is excessive in the sense that consumers get procedures whose value is less than the cost of producing them. As a result, the economy’s total surplus is reduced.d. To prevent this excessive use, the consumer must bear the marginal cost of the procedure. But this would require eliminating insurance. Another possibility would be that the insurance company, which pays most of the marginal cost of the procedure ($80, in this case) could decide whether the procedure should be performed. But the insurance company does not get the benefits of the procedure, so its decisions may not reflect the value to the consumer.。

微观经济学(曼昆)知识点梳理

1.经济学十大原理1.1.在效率（efficiency）和公平（equality）之间权衡和取舍1.2.机会成本（opportunity cost）1.3.理性人（rational people）考虑边际变动（marginal change）1.4.激励（incentive）1.5.贸易1.6.市场能够很好地组织经济活动1.7.市场需要产权（property rights），政府有时可以促进效率和平等，但也可能因为市场权力或外部性造成市场失灵（market failure）。

1.8.一国的生活水平取决于他生产产品和服务的能力，即生产率（productivity），生产率的增长率决定了平均收入的增长率。

1.9.通货膨胀（inflation）1.10.在经济周期中，人们需要平衡通货膨胀和失业2.经济思维2.1.科学的方法2.2.假设思维2.3.经济模型2.4.循环流量图（circular-flow diagram）2.5.生产可能性边界（production possibilities frontier）2.6.微观（microeconomics）与宏观（macroeconomics）2.7.实证表述（positive statements）与规范表述（normative statements）3.贸易4.供给与需求4.1.市场：某服务或物品的买者和卖者组成的群体。

4.2.需求量（quantity demand）：买者愿意并能够购买的量。

其他条件不变，价格上升，需求量减少；价格下降，需求量增加，此为需求定理（law of demand）5.弹性（elasticity）5.1.弹性是数量对于价格变动的反应程度。

替代品（substitutes）、奢侈品往往富有弹性，互补品（complements）、必需品往往缺乏弹性；广义的市场缺乏弹性（inelastic），狭义的市场富有弹性；长期比短期市场更富有弹性。

曼昆经济学原理微观名词解释9-12(中英)

CHAPTER 9Application: International TradeWorld price: the price of a good that prevails in the world market for that good世界价格:一种物品在世界市场上通行的价格。

Tariff: a tax on goods produced abroad and sold domestically关税:对在国外生产而在国内销售的物品征收的一种税。

CHAPTER 10ExternalitiesExternality: the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the well-being of a bystander外部性：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的无补偿的影响Internalizing the externality: altering incentives so that people take into account the external effects of their actions外在性内部化：改变激励，以使人们考虑到自己行为的外部效应Corrective tax: a tax designed to induce private decision makers to take into account the social costs that arise from a negative externality矫正税：旨在引导私人决策者考虑负外部性引起的社会成本的税收Coase theorem: the proposition that if private parties canbargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their own科斯定理：认为如果私人各方可以无成本的就资源配置进行协商，那么他们就可以自己解决外部性问题的观点。

曼昆微观经济学chapter12

The Design of the Tax System
12
Copyright © 2006 Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Ltd.
Learning Objectives
●Get an overview of how the Canadian government raises and spends money ●Examine the efficiency costs of taxes ●Learn alternative ways to judge the equity of a tax system ●See why studying tax incidence is crucial for evaluating tax equity ●Consider the tradeoff between efficiency and equity in the design of a tax system
Copyright © 2006 Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Ltd.
The Federal Government
Spending ●Federal spending goes to interest on the debt and program spending
Table 4 Federal Governments Spending, 2002-2003 2002-
Copyright © 2006 Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Ltd. Copyright©2004 South-Western
The Federal Government

曼昆微观经济学第四版关键概念中英文对照

微观经济学关键概念中英文对照CHAPTER 1scarcity稀缺性economics经济学efficiency效率equity平等opportunity cost机会成本rational people理性人marginal changes边际变动incentive激励market economy市场经济property rights产权market failure市场失灵externality外部性market power市场势力productivity生产率inflation通货膨胀business cycle经济周期CHAPTER 2circular-flow diagram循环流向图production possibilities frontier生产可能性边界microeconomics微观经济学macroeconomics宏观经济学positive statements实证表述normative statements规范表述CHAPTER 3absolute advantage绝对优势opportunity cost机会成本comparative advantage比较优势imports进口exports出口CHAPTER 4market市场competitive market竞争市场quantity demanded需求量law of demand需求定理demand schedule需求表demand curve需求曲线normal good正常物品inferior good低档物品substitutes替代品complements互补品quantity supplied供给量law of supply供给定理supply schedule供给表supply curve供给曲线equilibrium均衡equilibrium price均衡价格equilibrium quantity均衡数量surplus过剩shortage短缺law of supply and demand供求定理CHAPTER 5elasticity弹性price elasticity of demand需求价格弹性total revenue总收益income elasticity of demand需求收入弹性cross-price elasticity of demand需求的交叉价格弹性price elasticity of supply供给价格弹性CHAPTER 6price ceiling价格上限price floor价格下限tax incidence税收归宿CHAPTER 7welfare economics福利经济学willingness to pay支付意愿consumer surplus消费者剩余cost成本producer surplus生产者剩余efficiency效率equity平等CHAPTER 8deadweight loss无谓损失CHAPTER 9world price世界价格tariff关税CHAPTER 10externality外部性internalizing the externality外部性的内在化Coase theorem科斯定理transaction costs交易成本corrective tax矫正税CHAPTER 11Excludability排他性rivalry in consumption消费中的竞争性private goods私人物品public goods公有物品common resources公有资源free rider搭便车者cost-benefit analysis成本收益分析Tragedy of the Commons公有地悲剧CHAPTER 12CHAPTER 13total revenue总收益total cost总成本profit利润explicit costs显性成本implicit costs隐性成本economic profit经济利润accounting profit会计利润production function生产函数marginal product边际产量diminishing marginal product边际产量递减fixed costs固定成本variable costs可变成本average total cost平均总成本average fixed cost平均固定成本average variable cost平均可变成本marginal cost边际成本efficient scale有效规模economies of scale规模经济diseconomies of scale规模不经济constant returns to scale规模收益不变CHAPTER 14competitive market竞争市场average revenue平均收益marginal revenue边际收益sunk cost沉没成本CHAPTER 15Monopoly垄断企业natural monopoly自然垄断price discrimination价格歧视CHAPTER 16Oligopoly寡头monopolistic competition垄断竞争collusion勾结cartel卡特尔Nash equilibrium纳什均衡game theory博弈论prisoners＇dilemma囚徒困境dominant strategy占优策略CHAPTER 17monopolistic competition垄断竞争CHAPTER 18factors of production生产要素production function生产函数marginal product of labor劳动的边际产量diminishing marginal product边际产量递减value of the marginal product边际产量值capital资本CHAPTER 19compensating differential补偿性工资差别human capital人力资本union工会strike罢工efficiency wages效率工资discrimination歧视CHAPTER 20poverty rate贫困率poverty line贫困线in-kind transfers实物转移支付life cycle生命周期permanent income持久收入utilitarianism功利主义utility效用liberalism自由主义maximin criterion最大化标准social insurance社会保障libertarianism自由意志主义welfare福利negative income负所得税。

12design_tax

• Social Insurance Taxes: taxes on wages that is earmarked to pay for Social Security and Medicare.（社会保障税：因为工薪税被专门用于支付社会保障和医疗保障，又被称为社会保障税。）
• Excise Taxes: taxes on specific goods like gasoline, cigarettes, and alcoholic beverages.（消费税：对于某些特殊物品，例如汽油，香烟，酒精饮料征收的税。）
State and Local Governments（州和地方政府）
• State and local governments collect about 40 percent of taxes paid.
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
Individual Income Tax, 50% Social Insurance Tax, 35% Corporate Tax, 8% Other, 8%
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
The Federal Government
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
The Federal Government
• The Federal Government and Taxes （联邦政府和税收）
• Payroll Taxes: tax on the wages that a firm pays its workers. （工薪税：对企业支付给工人的工资征税。）

曼昆的《微观经济学基础》课业笔记英文版

曼昆的《微观经济学基础》课业笔记英文版IntroductionThis document presents my notes on "Microeconomics: Principles and Applications" by N. Gregory Mankiw. These notes summarize key concepts and ideas covered in the book, aiming to provide a helpful overview of microeconomics.Chapter 1: Ten Principles of Economics- People face trade-offs: individuals and societies must make choices due to scarcity.- The cost of something is what you give up to get it: when making decisions, considering both the direct and opportunity costs is crucial.- Rational people think at the margin: making decisions by evaluating incremental benefits and costs.- People respond to incentives: incentives can influence individuals' behavior and decision-making.- Trade can make everyone better off: voluntary exchange benefits all parties involved.- Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity: markets coordinate exchanges efficiently.- A country's standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services: productivity is key.- Prices rise when the government prints too much money: inflation can be caused by excessive money supply growth.- Society faces a short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment: the Phillips curve illustrates this trade-off.Chapter 2: Thinking Like an Economist- Economists use models to simplify reality and understand economic behavior.- Assumptions in economic models help focus on essential elements.- Opportunity cost is the true cost of something and is measured by what we give up to obtain it.Chapter 3: Interdependence and the Gains from Trade- Specialization and international trade result in greater production efficiency and consumption possibilities.- Both parties benefit from trade even if one has an absolute advantage in both goods.- Prices reflect the opportunity cost and guide resources to their most valued uses.Chapter 4: The Market Forces of Supply and Demand- Markets consist of buyers and sellers, and their interactions determine prices and quantities.- Demand curve shows the relationship between price and quantity demanded, while supply curve reflects the relationship between price and quantity supplied.- Market equilibrium occurs when quantity demanded equals quantity supplied.- Changes in demand or supply shift their respective curves, leading to changes in equilibrium price and quantity.ConclusionThese notes provide a brief summary of the key concepts covered in "Microeconomics: Principles and Applications." Studying this bookallows for a deeper understanding of microeconomic principles and their applications in the real world.。

曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第12章税制的设计)

曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第12章税制的设计课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。

以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。

一、概念题1．预算赤字（budget deficit）答：预算赤字指政府的支出大于收入。

政府得到税收收入用T表示，政府用于物品与劳务的支出用G表示。

如果G大于T，这种情况下政府有预算赤字。

一国之所以会出现预算赤字，有许多原因。

有的是为了刺激经济发展而降低税率或增加政府支出，有的则因为政府管理不当，引起大量的逃税或过分浪费。

当一个国家预算赤字累积过高时，就好像一家公司背负的债务过多一样，对国家的长期经济发展而言，并不是一件好事，对于该国货币亦属长期的利空，且日后为了要解决财政赤字只有靠减少政府支出或增加税收，这两项措施对于经济或社会的稳定都有不良的影响。

一国财政赤字若加大，该国货币币值会下跌，反之，若财政赤字缩小，表示该国经济良好，该国货币币值会上扬。

2．预算盈余（budget surplus）答：预算盈余指政府的收入大于支出。

政府得到税收收入用T表示，政府用于物品与劳务的支出用G表示。

如果T大于G，政府的预算盈余就是T G。

预算盈余是一种预算不平衡的状态，不过它与预算赤字的不平衡是完全不同的两种状态。

盈余表示财政宽松，赤字表示财政困难。

严格地讲，预算应是平衡的，不仅在计划中是平衡的，而且执行中和执行后也应是平衡的。

但在某些时候，适当地安排使财政收入大于财政支出是可以的。

这时，就会出现预算盈余。

3．平均税率（average tax rate）答：平均税率指纳税人实际缴纳的税额与课税对象的比例。

曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案

✍ how to define and measure consumer surplus.✍ the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.✍ how to define and measure producer surplus.✍ that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in a market. CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then utilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the winners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market?” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity that balance supply and demand?” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.KEY POINTS:? Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount they actually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market.Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.? Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market. Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.? An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.? The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leads buyers and sellers to allocate resources efficiently.? Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market power or externalities.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being.A. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording of Elvis Presley’s first album. Four buyers show up. Their willingness to pay is as follows:for John. Because John is willing to pay more than he has to for the album,he derives some benefit from participating in the market.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, the price in the auction would end up being lower (a little over $70 in the case of two albums) and both John and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derive a demand curve for the rare2. . Because the demand curve shows the buyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure consumer surplus.C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer Surplusare paying less for the product than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers will enter the market and receive consumer surplus on these additional units of output purchased (area B on the graph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus Measure?1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyers are willing to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyers themselves perceive it.III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a good .2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. You accept bids for the work from four sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the price you will pay exceeds her opportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity cost thus represents willingness to sell.) The costs are: ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a price ceiling below the equilibriumprice.Then go through:✍ consumer surplus before the price ceiling is put into place.✍ consumer surplus after the price ceiling is put into place.You will need to take some time to explain the relationship between the producers’ willingness to sell and the cost of producing the good. The relationship between cost and the supply curve is not as apparent as the relationship between the demand curve and willingness to pay. It is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured in monetary terms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place a monetary cost on inefficient market outcomes (due to government involvement or market failure).except for Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in the market.4.Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, the price in the auction would end up being higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and both Grandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.B. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) to derive a supply curve for2. marginal seller . Because the supply curve shows the sellers’ cost (willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus.are receiving more for the product than before (area C on the graph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers will enter the market and receive producer surplus on these additional units of output sold (area D on the graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of producers, much like consumer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of consumers.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for anagricultural product such as corn. Draw in a price support above the equilibriumprice.Then go through:✍ producer surplus before the price support is put in place.✍ producer surplus after the price support is put in place.Make sure that you discuss the cost of the price support to taxpayers.IV.Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can be measured by total surplus, which is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + Producer SurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – Amount Paid by Buyers) +(Amount Received by Sellers – Cost to Sellers)Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = Amount Received bySellers:2. Definition of efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing the total surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformly the members of society .a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibrium price will purchase the product; those who do not, will not purchase the product. In other words, the free market allocates the supply of a good to the buyers who value it most highly, as measured by their willingness to pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium price will produce the product; those whose costs are higher, will not produce the product. In other words, the free market allocates the demand for goods to the sellers who can produce it at the lowest cost.to the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output increases.b. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibrium quantity, the value of the product to the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economists believe Principle #6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstances whenthe market process does not lead to the most efficient outcome. Examplesinclude situations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market power over priceor when there are externalities present. These situations will be discussed inlater chapters.Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward (Richard Gere)negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals she would have accepted a lowerprice, while Edward admits he would have paid more. If you have done a goodjob of introducing consumer and producer surplus, you will see the light bulbsgo off above your students’ heads as they watch this clip.C. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work to achieve an efficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe de scribes economist Chip Case’s experience with ticket scalping.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs?1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed to sell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling on organs of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a more efficient allocation of resources, but critics worry about the equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made several assumptions about how markets worked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibrium may not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy the situation. SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and the consumer surplus that results from that price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus is the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it. It measures the benefit to buyers of participating in a market.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and the producer surplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus is the amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it (measured by the supply curve). It measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.Figure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The price of turkey is P1, consumer surplus is CS, and producer surplus is PS. Producing more turkeys than the equilibrium quantity would lower total surplus because the value to the marginal buyer would be lower than the cost to the marginal seller on those additional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals the price that each buyer is willing to pay minus the price actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price received minus each seller's costs of producing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total surplus, the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal of economic policymakers; they may also be concerned about equity the fairness of the distribution of well-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers and sellers into promoting general economic well-being. Despite decentralized decision making and self-interested decision makers, free markets often lead to an efficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power and externalities. Market power may cause market outcomes to be inefficient because firms may cause price and quantity to differ from the levels they would be under perfect competition, which keeps total surplus from being maximized. Externalities are side effects that are not taken into account by buyers and sellers. As a result, the free market does not maximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minus the price paid. Therefore, Melissa’s willingness to pay must be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 ? $90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not have purchased one because the price is greater than her willingness to pay. Therefore, she would receive no consumer surplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, the supply curve for lemons shifts to the left, as shown in Figure 5. The result is a rise in the price of lemons and a decline in consumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. So consumer surplus declines by the amount B + C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemons reduces the supply of lemonade, as shown in Figure 6. The result is a rise in the price of lemonade and a decline in consumer surplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F. Note that an event that affects consumer surplus in one market often has effects on consumer surplus in other markets.3. A rise in the demand for French bread leads to an increase in producer surplus in the market for French bread, as shown in Figure 7. The shift of the demand curve leads to an increased price, which increases producer surplus from area A to area A + B + C.Figure 7The increased quantity of French bread being sold increases the demand for flour, as shown in Figure 8. As a result, the price of flour rises, increasing producer surplus from area Dto D + E + F. Note that an event that affects producer surplus in one market leads to effects on producer surplus in related markets.Figure 84. a.Figure 9b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Bert buys two bottles of water. His consumer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He values his first bottle of water at $7, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $3. He values his second bottle of water at $5, but pays only $4for it, so has consumer surplus of $1. Thus Bert’s total consumer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2, Bert buys three bottles of water, an increase of one. His consumer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase in the amount of area B. He gets consumer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($7 value minus $2 price), $3 from the second bottle ($5 value minus $2 price), and $1 from the third bottle ($3 value minus $2 price), for a total consumer surplus of $9. Thus consumer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2.5. a.Figure 10b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Ernie sells two bottles of water. His producer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He receives $4 for his first bottle of water, but it costs only $1 to produce, so Ernie has producer surplus of $3. He also receives $4 for his second bottle of water, which costs $3 to produce, so he has producer surplus of $1. Thus Ernie’s total producer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6, Ernie sells three bottles of water, an increase of one. His producer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase by the amount of area B. He gets producer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($6 price minus $1 cost), $3 from the second bottle ($6 price minus $3 cost), and $1 from the third bottle ($6 price minus $5 price), for a total producer surplus of $9. Thus producer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6.6. a. From Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demand schedule, the quantityequilibrium quantity of two.b. At a price of $4, consumer surplus is $4 and producer surplus is $4, as shown in Problems 3 and 4 above. Total surplus is $4 + $4 = $8.c. If Ernie produced one less bottle, his producer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 4 above. If Bert consumed one less bottle, his consumer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 3 above. So total surplus would decline to $3 + $3 = $6.d. If Ernie produced one additional bottle of water, his cost would be $5, but the price is only $4, so his producer surplus would decline by $1. If Bert consumed one additional bottle of water, his value would be $3, but the price is $4, so his consumer surplus would decline by $1. So total surplus declines by $1 + $1 = $2.7. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for stereos results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 11. As a result, the equilibrium price of stereos declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.Figure 11b. The decline in the price of stereos increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D. Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.c. If the supply of stereos is very elastic, then the shift of the supply curve benefits consumers most. To take the most dramatic case, suppose the supply curve were horizontal, as shown in Figure 12. Then there is no producer surplus at all. Consumers capture all the benefits of falling production costs, with consumer surplus rising from area A to area A + B.Figure 128. Figure 13 shows supply and demand curves for haircuts. Supply equals demand at a quantity of three haircuts and a price between $4 and $5. Firms A, C, and D should cut the hair of Ellen, Jerry, and Phil. Oprah’s willingness to pay is too low and firm B’s costs are too high, so they do not participate. The maximum total surplus is the area between the demand and supply curves, which totals $11 ($8 value minus $2 cost for the first haircut, plus $7 value minus $3 cost for the second, plus $5 value minus $4 cost for the third).Figure 139. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Figure 14 Figure 15Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above thesupply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus isareas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, whichmay be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus,while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplusrises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises byC +D + F + G.b. Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for typewriters, shifting the demand for typewriters to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of typewriters. Consumer surplus in the typewriter market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Typewriter producers are sad about technological advances in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Because software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, anet change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.Figure 16d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest people, because his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.10. a. With Provider A, the cost of an extra minute is $0. With Provider B, the cost of anextra minute is $1.b. With Provider A, my friend will purchase 150 minutes [= 150 – (50)(0)]. WithProvider B, my friend would purchase 100 minutes [= 150 – (50)(1)].c. With Provider A, he would pay $120. The cost would be $100 with Provider B.Figure 17d. Figure 17 shows the friend’s demand. With Provider A, he buys 150 minutes andhis consumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(3)(150) – 120 = 105. With Provider B, hisconsumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(2)(100) = 100.e. I would recommend Provider A because he receives greater consumer surplus.11. a. Figure 18 illustrates the demand for medical care. If each procedure has a price of $100, quantity demanded will be Q1 procedures.Figure 18b. If consumers pay only $20 per procedure, the quantity demanded will be Q2 procedures. Because the cost to society is $100, the number of procedures performed is too large to maximize total surplus. The quantity that maximizes total surplus is Q1 procedures, which is less than Q2.c. The use of medical care is excessive in the sense that consumers get procedures whose value is less than the cost of producing them. As a result, the economy’s total surplus is reduced.d. To prevent this excessive use, the consumer must bear the marginal cost of the procedure. But this would require eliminating insurance. Another possibility would be that the insurance company, which pays most of the marginal cost of the procedure ($80, in this case) could decide whether the procedure should be performed. But the insurance company does not get the benefits of the procedure, so its decisions may not reflect the value to the consumer.。

微观经济学原理(第七版)-曼昆-名词解释(带英文)

微观经济学原理曼昆名词解释1.需求价格弹性(price elasticity of demand)：2.蛛网模型（）：对于生产周期较长的商品供给的时滞性，需求的不是动态模型分类，画图3.|4.边际效用递减（diminishing marginal utility）——基数效用论不违反边际效用递减规律。

因为边际效用是指物品的消费量每增加(或减少)一个单位所增加(或减少)的总效用的量。

这里的“单位”是指一完整的商品单位，这种完整的商品单位，是边际效用递减规律有效性的前提。

比如，这个定律适用于一双的鞋子，但不适用于单只的鞋子。

对于四轮车而言，必须是有四个轮子的车才成为一单位。

三个轮子不能构成一辆四轮车，因而每个轮子都不是一个有效用的物品，增加一个轮子，才能使车子有用。

因此，不能说第四个轮子的边际效用超过第三个轮子（2）特征：凸向原点越远越大不相交6.边际替代率(marginal rate of ：——序数效用论7.预算线（Budget line/ budget constraint）8.吉芬物品(Giffen good)：价格上升引起需求量增加的物品。

9.柯布道格拉斯生产函数稀缺性（scarcity）：社会资源的有限性。

\经济学(economics)：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。

效率(efficiency)：社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最多东西的特性。

平等(equality)：经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。

机会成本(opportunity cost)：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。

理性人(rational people)：系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现起目标的人。

【边际变动(marginal change)：对行动计划微小的增量调整。

激励(incentive)：引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。

市场经济(market economy)：当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时，通过他们的分散决策配置资源的经济。

曼昆微观经济学第十二章税制的设计

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THE DESIGN OF THE TAX SYSTEM
结论：平等与效率之间的权衡取舍
平等与效率之间经常矛盾：比如：总额税是最不平等的，但最有效率政治领导人之间对这种权衡取舍有不同的看法经济学：能帮助我们更好的理解这种权衡取舍能帮助我们避免那些牺牲了效率却没有增加公平的政策
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内容提要
在美国，最重要的联邦收入来源是个人所得税，用于社会保障的工薪税以及公司所得税。州和地方政府最重要的税是销售税和财产税税制的效率是指它给纳税人带来的成本。除了资源从纳税人向政府的转移税收还有两种成本：第一种是由于税收改变了激励，扭曲了资源配置而带来的无谓损失；第二种是遵从税法的管理负担
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THE DESIGN OF THE TAX SYSTEM
介绍
从前面章节中学到的关于税收的知识：对一种物品征税减少了那种物品的销售量税收负担由买者与卖者分摊，具体的分摊比例取决于供给弹性与需求弹性税收引起了无谓损失
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THE DESIGN OF THE TAX SYSTEM
美国政府的财政概况
首先，我们考查：税收收入占国民收入的比例随着时间是如何变化的税收收入占国民收入的比重随时间是如何变化的美国税收收入占国民收入的比例与其他国家相比联邦政府，州与地方政府税收收入中最重要的来源
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THE DESIGN OF THE TAX SYSTEM
所得税与消费税
消费税类似于美国税法对个人退休账户的处理：人们可以把一定数量的储蓄存到这个账户中这部分资金不会被征税，直到退休时取出这些钱欧洲的增值税也与消费税类似
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THE DESIGN OF THE TAX SYSTEM
管理负担
包括人们为遵照税法纳税时花费的时间与金钱鼓励人们将资源用在合法避税上面比如，雇佣会计师寻找税制的漏洞来减少税收负担是无谓损失的一种通过简化税法可以减少税制的管理负担，但这种消除漏洞的税法在政治上是困难的

曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》课后习题详解(第1篇)

曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》课后习题详解（第1篇）第1篇导言第1章经济学十大原理一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。

稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。

人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。

正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。

经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。

”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。

2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。

时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。

自从凯恩斯的名著《就业、利息和货币通论》于1936年发表之后，西方经济学界对经济学的研究便分为两个部分：微观经济学与宏观经济学。

微观经济学是以单个经济主体（作为消费者的单个家庭或个人，作为生产者的单个厂商或企业，以及单个产品或生产要素市场）为研究对象，研究单个经济主体面对既定的资源约束时如何进行选择的科学。

宏观经济学则以整个国民经济为研究对象，主要着眼于对经济总量的研究。

3．效率（efficiency）答：效率指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入之比值，或者是效益与成本之比值，如果比值大，效率就高；反之，比值小，效率就低。

效率与产出或者收益的大小成正比，而与成本或投入成反比，也就是说，如果想提高效率，必须降低成本或投入，提高收益或产出。

曼昆《微观经济学》答案(英文版)_Chapter_1~5[1]

Chapter 1Problems and Applications1. a. A family deciding whether to buy a new car faces a tradeoff between the cost of thecar and other things they might want to buy. For example, buying the car mightmean they must give up going on vacation for the next two years. So the real costof the car is the family's opportunity cost in terms of what they must give up.b. For a member of Congress deciding whether to increase spending on national parks,the tradeoff is between parks and other spending items or tax cuts. If more moneygoes into the park system, that may mean less spending on national defense or on thepolice force. Or, instead of spending more money on the park system, taxes couldbe reduced.c. When a company president decides whether to open a new factory, the decision isbased on whether the new factory will increase the firm's profits compared to otheralternatives. For example, the company could upgrade existing equipment orexpand existing factories. The bottom line is: Which method of expandingproduction will increase profit the most?d. In deciding how much to prepare for class, a professor faces a tradeoff between thevalue of improving the quality of the lecture compared to other things she could dowith her time, such as working on additional research.2. When the benefits of something are psychological, such as going on a vacation, it isn't easy tocompare benefits to costs to determine if it's worth doing. But there are two ways to think about the benefits. One is to compare the vacation with what you would do in its place. If you didn't go on vacation, would you buy something like a new set of golf clubs? Then you can decide if you'd rather have the new clubs or the vacation. A second way is to think about how much work you had to do to earn the money to pay for the vacation; then you can decide if the psychological benefits of the vacation were worth the psychological cost of working.3. If you are thinking of going skiing instead of working at your part-time job, the cost of skiingincludes its monetary and time costs, plus the opportunity cost of the wages you're giving up by not working. If the choice is between skiing and going to the library to study, then the cost of skiing is its monetary and time costs plus the cost to you of getting a lower grade in your course.4. If you spend $100 now instead of investing it for a year and earning 5 percent interest, youare giving up the opportunity to spend $105 a year from now. The idea that money has a time value is the basis for the field of finance, the subfield of economics that has to do with prices of financial instruments like stocks and bonds.5. The fact that you've already sunk $5 million isn't relevant to your decision anymore, sincethat money is gone. What matters now is the chance to earn profits at the margin. If you spend another $1 million and can generate sales of $3 million, you'll earn $2 million in marginal profit, so you should do so. You are right to think that the project has lost a total of $3 million ($6 million in costs and only $3 million in revenue) and you shouldn't have started it. That's true, but if you don't spend the additional $1 million, you won't have any sales and your losses will be $5 million. So what matters is not the total profit, but the profit you can earn at the margin. In fact, you'd pay up to $3 million to complete development; any more than that, and you won't be increasing profit at the margin.6. Harry suggests looking at whether productivity would rise or fall. Productivity is certainlyimportant, since the more productive workers are, the lower the cost per gallon of potion.Harry wants to look at average cost. But both Harry and Ron are missing the other side of the equation−revenue. A firm wants to maximize its profits, so it needs to examine both costs and revenues. Thus, Hermione is right−it’s best to examine whether the extra revenue would exceed the extra costs. In addition, Hermione is the only one who’s thinking at the margin.7. a. Since a person gets fewer after-tax Social Security benefits the greater is his or herincome, there's an incentive not to save for retirement. If you save a lot, yourincome will be higher, and you won't get as much after-tax Social Security income assomeone who didn't save as much. The unintended consequence of the taxation ofSocial Security benefits is to reduce saving; yet the Social Security system arosebecause of worries that people wouldn’t save enough for retirement.b. For the same reason, you'll tend not to work (or not work as much) after age 65.The more you work, the lower your after-tax Social Security benefits will be. Thusthe taxation of Social Security benefits discourages work effort after age 65.8. a. When welfare recipients who are able to work have their benefits cut off after twoyears, they have greater incentive to find jobs than if their benefits were to lastforever.b. The loss of benefits means that someone who can't find a job will get no income atall, so the distribution of income will become less equal. But the economy will bemore efficient, since welfare recipients have a greater incentive to find jobs. Thusthe change in the law is one that increases efficiency but reduces equity.9. By specializing in each task, you and your roommate can finish the chores more quickly. Ifyou divided each task equally, it would take you more time to cook than it would take your roommate, and it would take him more time to clean than it would take you. By specializing, you reduce the total time spent on chores.Similarly, countries can specialize and trade, making both better off. For example, suppose it takes Spanish workers less time to make clothes than French workers, and French workers can make wine more efficiently than Spanish workers. Then Spain and France can both benefit if Spanish workers produce all the clothes and French workers produce all the wine, and they exchange some wine for some clothes.10. a. Being a central planner is tough! To produce the right number of CDs by the rightartists and deliver them to the right people requires an enormous amount ofinformation. You need to know about production techniques and costs in the CDindustry. You need to know each person's musical tastes and which artists theywant to hear. If you make the wrong decisions, you'll be producing too many CDsby artists that people don't want to hear, and not enough by others.b. Your decisions about how many CDs to produce carry over to other decisions. Youhave to make the right number of CD players for people to use. If you make toomany CDs and not enough cassette tapes, people with cassette players will be stuckwith CDs they can't play. The probability of making mistakes is very high. Youwill also be faced with tough choices about the music industry compared to otherparts of the economy. If you produce more sports equipment, you'll have fewerresources for making CDs. So all decisions about the economy influence yourdecisions about CD production.11. a. Efficiency: The market failure comes from the monopoly by the cable TV firm.b. Equityc. Efficiency: An externality arises because secondhand smoke harms nonsmokers.d. Efficiency: The market failure occurs because of Standard Oil's monopoly power.e. Equityf. Efficiency: There's an externality because of accidents caused by drunk drivers.12. a. If everyone were guaranteed the best health care possible, much more of our nation'soutput would be devoted to medical care than is now the case. Would that beefficient? If you think that currently doctors form a monopoly and restrict healthcare to keep their incomes high, you might think efficiency would increase byproviding more health care. But more likely, if the government mandated increasedspending on health care, the economy would be less efficient because it would givepeople more health care than they would choose to pay for. From the point of viewof equity, if poor people are less likely to have adequate health care, providing morehealth care would represent an improvement. Each person would have a more evenslice of the economic pie, though the pie would consist of more health care and lessof other goods.b. When workers are laid off, equity considerations argue for the unemploymentbenefits system to provide them with some income until they can find new jobs.After all, no one plans to be laid off, so unemployment benefits are a form ofinsurance. But there’s an efficiency problem why work if you can get income fordoing nothing? The economy isn’t o perating efficiently if people remainunemployed for a long time, and unemployment benefits encourage unemployment.Thus, there’s a tradeoff between equity and efficiency. The more generous areunemployment benefits, the less income is lost by an unemployed person, but themore that person is encouraged to remain unemployed. So greater equity reducesefficiency.13. Since average income in the United States has roughly doubled every 35 years, we are likelyto have a better standard of living than our parents, and a much better standard of living than our grandparents. This is mainly the result of increased productivity, so that an hour of work produces more goods and services than it used to. Thus incomes have continuously risen over time, as has the standard of living.14. If Americans save more and it leads to more spending on factories, there will be an increasein production and productivity, since the same number of workers will have more equipment to work with. The benefits from higher productivity will go to both the workers, who will get paid more since they're producing more, and the factory owners, who will get a return on their investments. There's no such thing as a free lunch, though, because when people save more, they're giving up spending. They get higher incomes at the cost of buying fewer goods.15. a. If people have more money, they're probably going to spend more on goods andservices.b. If prices are sticky, and people spend more on goods and services, then output mayincrease, as producers increase output to meet the higher demand rather than raisingprices.c. If prices can adjust, then people's higher spending will be matched with increasedprices, and output won't rise.16. To make an intelligent decision about whether to reduce inflation, a policymaker would needto know what causes inflation and unemployment, as well as what determines the tradeoff between them. Because prices are sticky, an attempt to reduce inflation will lead to higher unemployment. A policymaker thus faces a tradeoff between the benefits of lower inflation compared to the cost of higher unemployment.Chapter 2Problems and Applications1. Many answers are possible.2. a. Steel is a fairly uniform commodity, though some firms produce steel of inferiorquality.b. Novels are each unique, so they are quite distinguishable.c. Wheat produced by one farmer is completely indistinguishable from wheat producedby another.d. Fast food is more distinguishable than steel or wheat, but certainly not as much asnovels.3. See Figure 2-5; the four transactions are shown.Figure 2-54. a. Figure 2-6 shows a production possibilities frontier between guns and butter. It isbowed out because when most of the economy’s resources are being used to pr oducebutter, the frontier is steep and when most of the economy’s resources are being usedto produce guns, the frontier is very flat. When the economy is producing a lot ofguns, workers and machines best suited to making butter are being used to makeguns, so each unit of guns given up yields a large increase in the production of butter;thus the production possibilities frontier is flat. When the economy is producing alot of butter, workers and machines best suited to making guns are being used tomake butter, so each unit of guns given up yields a small increase in the productionof butter; thus the production possibilities frontier is steep.b. Point A is impossible for the economy to achieve; it is outside the productionpossibilities frontier. Point B is feasible but inefficient because it’s inside theproduction possibilities frontier.Figure 2-6c. The Hawks might choose a point like H, with many guns and not much butter. TheDoves might choose a point like D, with a lot of butter and few guns.d. If both Hawks and Doves reduced their desired quantity of guns by the same amount,the Hawks would get a bigger peace dividend because the production possibilitiesfrontier is much steeper at point H than at point D. As a result, the reduction of agiven number of guns, starting at point H, leads to a much larger increase in thequantity of butter produced than when starting at point D.5. See Figure 2-7. The shape and position of the frontier depend on how costly it is to maintaina clean environment the productivity of the environmental industry. Gains inenvironmental productivity, such as the development of a no-emission auto engine, lead to shifts of the production-possibilities frontier, like the shift from PPF1 to PPF2 shown in the figure.Figure 2-76. a. A family’s decision about how much income to save is microeconomics.b. The effect of government regulations on auto emissions is microeconomics.c. The impact of higher saving on economic growth is macroeconomics.d. A f irm’s decision about how many workers to hire is microeconomics.e. The relationship between the inflation rate and changes in the quantity of money ismacroeconomics.7. a. The statement that society faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation andunemployment is a positive statement. It deals with how the economy is, not how itshould be. Since economists have examined data and found that there’s a short-runnegative relationship between inflation and unemployment, the statement is a fact,thus it’s a positive statement.b. The statement that a reduction in the rate of growth of money will reduce the rate ofinflation is a positive statement. Economists have found that money growth andinflation are very closely related. The statement thus tells how the world is, and soit is a positive statement.c. The statement that the Federal Reserve should reduce the rate of growth of money isa normative statement. It states an opinion about something that should be done,not how the world is.d. The statement that society ought to require welfare recipients to look for jobs is anormative statement. It doesn’t state a fact about how the world is. Instead, it is astatement of how the world should be and is thus a normative statement.e. The statement that lower tax rates encourage more work and more saving is apositive statement. Economists have studied the relationship between tax rates andwork, as well as the relationship between tax rates and saving. They’ve found anegative relationship in both cases. So the statement reflects how the world is, andis thus a positive statement.8. Two of the statements in Table 2-2 are clearly normative. They are: “5. If the federalbudget is to be balanced, it should be done over the business cycle rather th an yearly” and “9.The government should restructure the welfare system along the lines of a ‘negative income tax.’” Both are suggestions of changes that should be made, rather than statements of fact, so they are clearly normative statements.The other statements in the table are positive. All the statements concern how the world is, not how the world should be. Note that in all cases, even though they’re statements of fact, fewer than 100 percent of economists agree with them. You could say that positive statements are statements of fact about how the world is, but not everyone agrees about what the facts are.9. As the president, you’d be interested in both the positive and normative views of economists,but you’d probably be most interested in their positive views. Economists are on your staff to provide their expertise about how the economy works. They know many facts about the economy and the interaction of different sectors. So you’d be most likely to call on them about questions of fact posit ive analysis. Since you’re the president, you’re the one who has the make the normative statements as to what should be done, with an eye to the political consequences. The normative statements made by economists represent their views, not necessarily ei ther your’s or the electorate’s.10. There are many possible answers.11. As of this writing, the chairman of the Federal Reserve is Alan Greenspan, the chair of theCouncil of Economic Advisers is Martin N. Baily, and the secretary of the treasury is Larry Summers.12. There are many possible answers.13. As time goes on, you might expect economists to disagree less about public policy becausethey’ll have opportunities to observe different policies that are put into place. As new policies are tried, their results will become known, and they can be evaluated better. It’s likely that the disagreement about them will be reduced after they’ve been tried in practice.For example, many economists thought that wage and price controls would be a good idea for keeping inflation under control, while others thought it was a bad idea. But when the controls were tried in the early 1970s, the results were disastrous. The controls interfered with the invisible hand of the marketplace and shortages developed in many products. As a result, most economists are now convinced that wage and price controls are a bad idea for controlling inflation.But it’s unlikely that the differences between economists will ever be completely eliminated.Economists differ on too many aspects of how the world works. Plus, even as some policies get tried out and are either accepted or rejected, creative economists keep coming up with new ideas.Chapter 3Problems and Applications1. In the text example of the farmer and the rancher, the farmer’s opportunity cost of producingone pound of meat is two pounds of potatoes because for every 20 hours of work, he can produce one pound of meat or two pounds of potatoes. With limited time at his disposal, producing a pound of meat means he gives up the opportunity to produce two pounds of potatoes. Similarly, the rancher’s opportunity cost of producing one pound of meat is 1/8 pound of potatoes because for every hour of work, she can produce one pound of meat or 1/8 pound of potatoes. With limited time at her disposal, producing a pound of meat means she gives up the opportunity to produce 1/8 pound of potatoes.2. a. See Figure 3-2. If Maria spends all five hours studying economics, she can read100 pages, so that is the vertical intercept of the production possibilities frontier. Ifshe spends all five hours studying sociology, she can read 250 pages, so that is thehorizontal intercept. The time costs are constant, so the production possibilitiesfrontier is a straight line.Figure 3-2b. It takes Maria two hours to read 100 pages of sociology. In that time, she couldread 40 pages of economics. So the opportunity cost of 100 pages of sociology is40 pages of economics.3. a.Workers needed to make:One Car One Ton of GrainU.S. 1/4 1/10Japan 1/4 1/5b. See Figure 3-3. With 100 million workers and four cars per worker, if eithereconomy were devoted completely to cars, it could make 400 million cars. Since aU.S. worker can produce 10 tons of grain, if the U.S. produced only grain it wouldproduce 1,000 million tons. Since a Japanese worker can produce 5 tons of grain, ifJapan produced only grain it would produce 500 million tons. These are theintercepts of the production possibilities frontiers shown in the figure. Note thatsince the tradeoff between cars and grain is constant, the production possibilitiesfrontier is a straight line.Figure 3-3c. Since a U.S. worker produces either 4 cars or 10 tons of grain, the opportunity cost of1 car is 2½ tons of grain, which is 10 divided by 4. Since a Japanese workerproduces either 4 cars or 5 tons of grain, the opportunity cost of 1 car is1 1/4 tons of grain, which is 5 divided by 4. Similarly, the U.S. opportunity cost of1 ton of grain is 2/5 cars (4 divided by 10) and the Japanese opportunity cost of 1 tonof grain is 4/5 cars (4 divided by 5). This gives the following table:Opportunity Cost of:1 Car (in terms of tons ofgrain given up) 1 Ton of Grain (in terms ofcars given up)U.S. 2 1/2 2/5Japan 1 1/4 4/5d. Neither country has an absolute advantage in producing cars, since they’re equallyproductive (the same output per worker); the U.S. has an absolute advantage in producing grain, since it’s more productive (greater output per worker).e. Japan has a comparative advantage in producing cars, since it has a loweropportunity cost in terms of grain given up. The U.S. has a comparative advantage in producing grain, since it has a lower opportunity cost in terms of cars given up. f. With half the workers in each country producing each of the goods, the U.S. wouldproduce 200 million cars (that’s 50 million workers times 4 cars each) and 500 million tons of grain (50 million workers times 10 tons each). Japan would produce 200 million cars (50 million workers times 4 cars each) and 250 million tons of grain(50 million workers times 5 tons each).g. From any situation with no trade, in which each country is producing some cars andsome grain, suppose the U.S. changed 1 worker from producing cars to producinggrain. That worker would produce 4 fewer cars and 10 additional tons of grain.Then suppose the U.S. offers to trade 7 tons of grain to Japan for 4 cars. The U.S.will do this because it values 4 cars at 10 tons of grain, so it will be better off if thetrade goes through. Suppose Japan changes 1 worker from producing grain toproducing cars. That worker would produce 4 more cars and 5 fewer tons of grain.Japan will take the trade because it values 4 cars at 5 tons of grain, so it will be betteroff. With the trade and the change of 1 worker in both the U.S. and Japan, eachcountry gets the same amount of cars as before and both get additional tons of grain(3 for the U.S. and 2 for Japan). Thus by trading and changing their production,both countries are better off.4. a. Pat’s opportunity cost of making a pizza is 1/2 gallon of root beer, since she couldbrew 1/2 gallon in the time (2 hours) it takes her to make a pizza. Pat has anabsolute advantage in making pizza since she can make one in two hours, while ittakes Kris four hours. Kris’s opportunity cost of making a pizza is 2/3 gallons ofroot beer, since she could brew 2/3 of a gallon in the time (4 hours) it takes her tomake a pizza. Since Pa t’s opportunity cost of making pizza is less than Kris’s, Pathas a comparative advantage in making pizza.b. Since Pat has a comparative advantage in making pizza, she will make pizza andexchange it for root beer that Kris makes.c. The highest price of pizza in terms of root beer that will make both roommates betteroff is 2/3 gallons of root beer. If the price were higher than that, then Kris wouldprefer making her own pizza (at an opportunity cost of 2/3 gallons of root beer)rather than trading for pizza that Pat makes. The lowest price of pizza in terms ofroot beer that will make both roommates better off is 1/2 gallon of root beer. If theprice were lower than that, then Pat would prefer making her own root beer (she canmake 1/2 gallon of root beer instead of making a pizza) rather than trading for rootbeer that Kris makes.5. a. Since a Canadian worker can make either two cars a year or 30 bushels of wheat, theopportunity cost of a car is 15 bushels of wheat. Similarly, the opportunity cost of abushel of wheat is 1/15 of a car. The opportunity costs are the reciprocals of eachother.b. See Figure 3-4. If all 10 million workers produce two cars each, they produce atotal of 20 million cars, which is the vertical intercept of the production possibilitiesfrontier. If all 10 million workers produce 30 bushels of wheat each, they produce atotal of 300 million bushels, which is the horizontal intercept of the productionpossibilities frontier. Since the tradeoff between cars and wheat is always the same,the production possibilities frontier is a straight line.If Canada chooses to consume 10 million cars, it will need 5 million workers devotedto car production. That leaves 5 million workers to produce wheat, who willproduce a total of 150 million bushels (5 million workers times 30 bushels perworker). This is shown as point A on Figure 3-4.c. If the United States buys 10 million cars from Canada and Canada continues toconsume 10 million cars, then Canada will need to produce a total of 20 million cars.So Canada will be producing at the vertical intercept of the production possibilitiesfrontier. But if Canada gets 20 bushels of wheat per car, it will be able to consume200 million bushels of wheat, along with the 10 million cars. This is shown as pointB in the figure. Canada should accept the deal because it gets the same number ofcars and 50 million more bushes of wheat.Figure 3-46. Though the professor could do both writing and data collection faster than the student (that is,he has an absolute advantage in both), his time is limited. If the professor’s comparative advantage is in writing, it makes sense for him to pay a student to collect the data, since that’s the student’s comparative advantage.7. a. English workers have an absolute advantage over Scottish workers in producingscones, since English workers produce more scones per hour (50 vs. 40). Scottishworkers have an absolute advantage over English workers in producing sweaters,since Scottish workers produce more sweaters per hour (2 vs. 1). Comparativeadvantage runs the same way. English workers, who have an opportunity cost of1/50 sweaters per scone (1 sweater per hour divided by 50 scones per hour), have acomparative advantage in scone production over Scottish workers, who have anopportunity cost of 1/20 sweater per scone (2 sweaters per hour divided by 40 sconesper hour). Scottish workers, who have an opportunity cost of 20 scones per sweater(40 scones per hour divided by 2 sweaters per hour), have a comparative advantagein sweater production over English workers, who have an opportunity cost of 50scones per sweater (50 scones per hour divided by 1 sweater per hour).b. If England and Scotland decide to trade, Scotland will produce sweaters and tradethem for scones produced in England. A trade with a price between 20 and 50scones per sweater will benefit both countries, as they’ll be getting the traded good ata lower price than their opportunity cost of producing the good in their own country.c. Even if a Scottish worker produced just one sweater per hour, the countries wouldstill gain from trade, because Scotland would still have a comparative advantage inproducing sweaters. Its opportunity cost for sweaters would be higher than before(40 scones per sweater, instead of 20 scones per sweater before). But there are stillgains from trade since England has a higher opportunity cost (50 scones per sweater).。

曼昆《经济学原理第三版》第1-12章(上)微观分册原版中英文双语PPT课件(很经典)

1.人们面临权衡取舍
为了得到我们喜爱的一件东西，我们通常不得不放弃另一件喜爱的东西。
大炮 vs.黄油食物 vs. 衣服休闲 vs. 工作效率 vs. 平等
作决策时需要在两个目标之间权衡取舍
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Principles of Economics
Third Edition by
N. Gregory Mankiw
经济学原理
（第三版）
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
1
INTRODUCTION 导言

Guns v. butter Food v. clothing Leisure time v. work Efficiency v. equity
Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another.
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Ten Principles of Economics
经济学十大原理
Chapter 1
Economy. . . 经济…
. . . The word economy comes from a Greek word for ―one who manages a household.‖
经济一词来源于希腊语，意思是 “tems and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.

《微观经济学》教学大纲(英文版)

Syllabus for MicroeconomicsThe Nature of the Course：Specialized required courseSuitable Specialty: International economy and trade Marketing AccountingInformation Management and Systems Business AdministrationFinancial AdministrationCredit： 4Class Hours：64Authors：yijun liu ling langT he Purpose and Tasks of the CourseThis course is a basic professional course for undergraduate in the School of Business and Management. Through this course, students have a more comprehensive understanding of basic issues and basic viewpoints on the microeconomics. They can grasp the basic concepts of microeconomics, the basic idea, the basic analytical methods and basic theory as well. More important, lay ing a theoretical foundation for the further study of other professional courses.The Basic Requirements of the Course1．Require students to grasp the basic concept, the basic thought, the basic analysis method and the elementary theory of microeconomics.2．Require students to conduct self-study, and students are encouraged to widely read reference books to make it more understanding of basic economic theory and its application in all respects.3．Require teachers to pay close attention to using graphic tools and using mathematical tools properly.4．The advance curriculum is the higher mathematics.Outline the Content and Hours Allocation Recommendations Chapter 1Introduction 6 Class Hours §1 Ten Principles of Economics1.How People Make Decisions2. How People Interact3.How the Economy as a Whole Works§2 Thinking Like an Economist1.The Economist as a Scientist2. The Economist as a Policy Adviser3.Why Economist Disagree§3 the Using of Graphs in Economics （#）1.Graphic Drawing and Graphics Type in Economic Analysis2.Slope and Elasticity3. Note for Graphics Use in Economic Analysis§4 Interdependence and the Gains from Trade1.The Production Possibilities Frontier、Specialization and Tradeparative Advantage3.Applications of Comparative AdvantageChapter 2Supply and Demand（Ⅰ）：How Markets Work 8 Class Hours §1Markets and Competitionpetitive Market2.Other Markets§2 law of demand1.Demand and the Demand Curve2.Shifts in the Demand Curve and Shift of the Demand Curve3.Market Demand and Individual Demand§3 law of supply （#）1. Supply and the Supply Curve2. Shifts in the Supply Curve and Shift of the Supply Curve3.Market Supply and Individual Supply§4 Supply and Demand Model1.The Conditions of Supply and Demand Model2.Supply and Demand Model3.What happens to equilibrium when supply and demand shifts?4.Cobweb Theory （☆）§5Elasticity and The Applications of Elasticity Theory1.the Elasticity of Demand and Its Application2.the Elasticity of Supply and Its Application（#）§6Supply、Demand and Government Policies1.Controls on prices （#）2.How Taxes Affect Market Outcomes3.Can Good News for Farming Be Bad News for Farmers?Exercise classes 2Class Hours Chapter 3 Supply and Demand（Ⅱ）：Market and Welfare 16 Class Hours §1 The Theory of Consumer Choice 4 Class Hours1.Cardinal Utility Theory2. Preference Theory3.Application of The Theory of Consumer Choice§2 The Theory of Producer Choice 6 Class Hours1.The Organization of Production （#）2. Production Function and Factor Inputs3. The Cost Theory§3 Consumer Surplus 2Class Hours1.Willingness to Paying the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus3.How a Lower Price Raises Consumer Surplus§4 Producer Surplus（#）1.Cost and the Willingness to Sell2. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus3. How a Higher Price Raises Producer Surplus§5 Market Efficiency 2 Class Hours1.The Concept of Efficiency2.The Equilibrium Efficiency of the Competitive Firm(1)3.The conditions of the Efficient Competitive Firm§6 Application：The Cost of Taxation 2 Class Hours1.The Deadweight Loss of Taxation2.The Determinants of the Deadweight Loss3. Deadweight Loss and Tax Revenue as Taxes Vary§7 Application：International Trade （#）1.The Determinants of Trade2.The Winners and Losers from Trade3.The Arguments for Restricting TradeExercise classes 3 Class Hours Discussion class 1 Class Hour Chapter 4The Economics of the Public Sector 4 Class Hours §1 Externalities1.Externalities and Market Inefficiency2.Private Solutions to Externalities3.Public Policies toward Externalities§2 Public Goods and Common Resources1.The Different Kinds of Goods2.Public Goodsmon Resources§3 The Design of the Tax System（#）1.Taxes and Efficiency2.Taxes and EquityChapter 5 Supply and Demand（Ⅲ）：Enterprise behavior and industrial organization8 Class Hours§1Types of Market （#）§2 Firms in Competitive Markets 4 Class Hours1. The Demand Curve and Revenue Curve of the Competitive Firm2. The Short-run Decision and the Supply Curve of the Competitive Firm3. The Short-run Supply Curve of the Competitive Market4.The Competitive Firm's Long-run Decision5.The Long-run Supply Curve of the Competitive Firm6.The Equilibrium Efficiency of the Competitive Firm(2)§3 Monopoly 4 Class Hours1.Why Monopolies Arise2.The Demand Curve and Revenue Curve of the Monopolistic Firm3.The Monopolistic Firm's Short-run and Long-run Decision4.The Welfare Cost of Monopoly5.Public Policy toward Monopolies6.Price Discrimination§4 Oligopoly （#）1.Markets with Only a few Sellers2.Game Theory and the Economics of Cooperation3.Public Policy toward Oligopolies§5 Monopolistic Competition（#）1.The Demand Curve and Revenue Curve of The MonopolisticCompetitive Firm2. The Monopolistic Competitive Firm in the Short-run and Long-run3. Monopolistic Competition and the Welfare of Society4.AdvertisingExercise classes 1 Class Hour Discussion class 1 Class Hour Chapter 6 Supply and Demand（Ⅳ）：The Markets for the factors of production6 Class Hours§1 How Markets Determine Incomes1. Income and Wealth （#）2. Marginal Productivity Determines the Prices of Inputs§2 The Economics of Labor Market1.The Demand and Supply for Labor （#）2.Equilibrium in the Labor Market （#）3. Some Determinants of Equilibrium Wages4.The Economics of Discrimination§3 The Land Market and The Capital Marketnd and Rent2.Capital and Interest§4 Income Distribution （#）1.The Measurement of Inequality2.The Political Philosophy of Redistributing Income3.Policies to Reduce PovertyDiscussion class 2 Class Hours Chapter 7 Supply and Demand（Ⅴ）：(General equilibrium) Market and Welfare （☆）§1 General equilibrium1.Meaning of the Equilibrium2. The Equilibrium Model of Léon Walras3. The Two-sector Model of General Equilibrium§2 Welfare Economics1.The Social Welfare Function2.Equity and EfficiencyChapter 8Uncertainty and Information （☆）§1 Uncertainty in the Economy1. Uncertainties and Risks2. The Effectiveness of Property3. Measurement of Risk Cost§2 Information, Risk and Markets1. Insurance and Risk-sharing2. Private Information and Market3. Risk Management in the Financial MarketsReview class 2 Class Hours Flexible time 4 Class Hours note：（#）Expressed that students learn these contents on its own, and they are included in the scope of examination.（☆）Expressed that students can choose according to their interest in reading, but not included in the scope of examination.Recommended Teaching Materials and Major Reference Books1．[美]曼昆著，梁小民译，《经济学原理（第5版）》，机械工业出版社，2009年2．[美]保罗·萨缪尔森、威廉·诺德豪斯著，萧琛主译，《经济学（第18版）》，人民邮电出版社，2008年3．刘毅军主编，《经济学基础》，石油工业出版社，2006年。

微观经济学原理曼昆英文

TEN PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS
5
HOW PEOPLE MAKE DECISIONS
Principle #2: The Cost of Something Is What You Give Up to Get It
Making decisions requires comparing the costs
Rational people respond to incentives.
Examples: When gas prices rise, consumers buy more hybrid cars and fewer gas guzzling SUVs. When cigarette taxes increase, teen smoking falls.
Equality: when prosperity is distributed uniformly
among society’s members
Tradeoff: To achieve greater equality,
could redistribute income from wealthy to poor. But this reduces incentive to work and produce, shrinks the size of the economic “pie.”
1
Answers
Cost of fixing transmission = $600
A. Blue book value is $6500 if transmission works, $5700 if it doesn’t
Benefit of fixing the transmission = $800 ($6500 – 5700). It’s worthwhile to have the transmission fixed.

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Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
Table 2 Receipts of the Federal Government: 2001
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Receipts of the Federal Government...
• Policymakers have two objectives in designing a tax system...
• • Efficiency Equity
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TAXES AND EFFICIENCY
Revenue as Percent of 35 GDP 30 Total government
25 State and local 20
15 Federal 10
5
0 1902
1913
1922 1927 1932
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
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• Budget Deficit
• A budget deficit is an excess of government spending over government receipts.
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Table 4 Spending of the Federal Government: 2001
Table 1 Central Government Tax Revenue as a Percent of GDP
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The Federal Government
• The U.S. federal government collects about two-thirds of the taxes in our economy.
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The Federal Government
• Budget Surplus
• A budget surplus is an excess of government receipts over government spending.
• A budget surplus may be used to reduce the government’s outstanding debts.
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State and Local Governments
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Federal Government Spending: 2001
Social Security, 23%
Defense, 17% Net Interest, 14% Income security, 14% Medicare, 12%
Health, 9%
Table 5 Receipts of State and Local Governments: 1999
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State and Local Government
• Spending
• • • • Education Public Welfare Highways Other
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TAXES AND EFFICIENCY
• The Cost of Taxes to Taxpayers
• The tax payment itself • Deadweight losses • Administrative burdens
100
Today, taxes account for up to a third of the average American’s income.
80 60 40 20 0
1789
Today
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Figure 1 Government Revenue as a Percentage of GDP
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
The Federal Government
• Federal Government Spending
• Expense Category:
• • • • • • • Social Security National Defense Income Security Net Interest Medicare Health Other
The Design of the Tax System
12Leabharlann Copyright©2004 South-Western
“In this world nothing is certain but death and taxes.” . . . Benjamin Franklin
100
80 60 40 20
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Deadweight Losses
• Because taxes distort incentives, they entail deadweight losses.
• The deadweight loss of a tax is the reduction of the economic well-being of taxpayers in excess of the amount of revenue raised by the government.
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The Federal Government
• Individual Income Taxes
• The marginal tax rate is the tax rate applied to each additional dollar of income. • Higher-income families pay a larger percentage of their income in taxes.
Other, 14%,
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The Federal Government
• Financial Conditions of the Federal Budget
• A budget deficit occurs when there is an excess of government spending over government receipts.
• State and local governments collect about 40 percent of taxes paid.
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State and Local Government
• Receipts
Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning
The Federal Government
• The Federal Government and Taxes
• Payroll Taxes: tax on the wages that a firm pays its workers.
• One tax system is more efficient than another if it raises the same amount of revenue at a smaller cost to taxpayers. • An efficient tax system is one that imposes small deadweight losses and small administrative burdens.
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Table 6 Spending of State and Local Governments: 1999
Copyright©2004 South-Western
TAXES AND EFFICIENCY
• Government finances the deficit by borrowing from the public.
• A budget surplus occurs when government receipts are greater than government spending.
Individual Income Tax, 50% Social Insurance Tax, 35% Corporate Tax, 8% Other, 8%
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The Federal Government