外文资料翻译(原文和译文)_刘海平
英文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Sodium Polyacrylate:Also known as super-absorbent or “SAP”(super absorbent polymer), Kimberly Clark used to call it SAM (super absorbent material). It is typically used in fine granular form (like table salt). It helps improve capacity for better retention in a disposable diaper, allowing the product to be thinner with improved performance and less usage of pine fluff pulp. The molecular structure of the polyacrylate has sodium carboxylate groups hanging off the main chain. When it comes in contact with water, the sodium detaches itself, leaving only carboxylions. Being negatively charged, these ions repel one another so that the polymer also has cross-links, which effectively leads to a three-dimensional structure. It has hige molecular weight of more than a million; thus, instead of getting dissolved, it solidifies into a gel. The Hydrogen in the water (H-O-H) is trapped by the acrylate due to the atomic bonds associated with the polarity forces between the atoms. Electrolytes in the liquid, such as salt minerals (urine contains 0.9% of minerals), reduce polarity, thereby affecting superabsorbent properties, especially with regard to the superabsorbent capacity for liquid retention. This is the main reason why diapers containing SAP should never be tested with plain water. Linear molecular configurations have less total capacity than non-linear molecules but, on the other hand, retention of liquid in a linear molecule is higher than in a non-linear molecule, due to improved polarity. For a list of SAP suppliers, please use this link: SAP, the superabsorbent can be designed to absorb higher amounts of liquids (with less retention) or very high retentions (but lower capacity). In addition, a surface cross linker can be added to the superabsorbent particle to help it move liquids while it is saturated. This helps avoid formation of "gel blocks", the phenomenon that describes the impossibility of moving liquids once a SAP particle gets saturated.History of Super Absorbent Polymer ChemistryUn til the 1980’s, water absorbing materials were cellulosic or fiber-based products. Choices were tissue paper, cotton, sponge, and fluff pulp. The water retention capacity of these types of materials is only 20 times their weight – at most.In the early 1960s, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was conducting work on materials to improve water conservation in soils. They developed a resin based on the grafting of acrylonitrile polymer onto the backbone of starch molecules (i.e. starch-grafting). The hydrolyzed product of the hydrolysis of this starch-acrylonitrile co-polymer gave water absorption greater than 400 times its weight. Also, the gel did not release liquid water the way that fiber-based absorbents do.The polymer came to be known as “Super Slurper”.The USDA gave the technical know how several USA companies for further development of the basic technology. A wide range of grating combinations were attempted including work with acrylic acid, acrylamide and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).Since Japanese companies were excluded by the USDA, they started independent research using starch, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), acrylic acid, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and isobutylene maleic anhydride (IMA).Early global participants in the development of super absorbent chemistry included Dow Chemical, Hercules, General Mills Chemical, DuPont, National Starch & Chemical, Enka (Akzo), Sanyo Chemical, Sumitomo Chemical, Kao, Nihon Starch and Japan Exlan.In the early 1970s, super absorbent polymer was used commercially for the first time –not for soil amendment applications as originally intended –but for disposable hygienic products. The first product markets were feminine sanitary napkins and adult incontinence products.In 1978, Park Davis (d.b.a. Professional Medical Products) used super absorbent polymers in sanitary napkins.Super absorbent polymer was first used in Europe in a baby diaper in 1982 when Schickendanz and Beghin-Say added the material to the absorbent core. Shortly thereafter, UniCharm introduced super absorbent baby diapers in Japan while Proctor & Gamble and Kimberly-Clark in the USA began to use the material.The development of super absorbent technology and performance has been largely led by demands in the disposable hygiene segment. Strides in absorption performance have allowed the development of the ultra-thin baby diaper which uses a fraction of the materials – particularly fluff pulp – which earlier disposable diapers consumed.Over the years, technology has progressed so that there is little if any starch-grafted super absorbent polymer used in disposable hygienic products. These super absorbents typically are cross-linked acrylic homo-polymers (usually Sodium neutralized).Super absorbents used in soil amendments applications tend to be cross-linked acrylic-acrylamide co-polymers (usually Potassium neutralized).Besides granular super absorbent polymers, ARCO Chemical developed a super absorbent fiber technology in the early 1990s. This technology was eventually sold to Camelot Absorbents. There are super absorbent fibers commercially available today. While significantly more expensive than the granular polymers, the super absorbent fibers offer technical advantages in certain niche markets including cable wrap, medical devices and food packaging.Sodium polyacrylate, also known as waterlock, is a polymer with the chemical formula [-CH2-CH(COONa)-]n widely used in consumer products. It has the ability to absorb as much as 200 to 300 times its mass in water. Acrylate polymers generally are considered to possess an anionic charge. While sodium neutralized polyacrylates are the most common form used in industry, there are also other salts available including potassium, lithium and ammonium.ApplicationsAcrylates and acrylic chemistry have a wide variety of industrial uses that include: ∙Sequestering agents in detergents. (By binding hard water elements such as calcium and magnesium, the surfactants in detergents work more efficiently.) ∙Thickening agents∙Coatings∙Fake snowSuper absorbent polymers. These cross-linked acrylic polymers are referred to as "Super Absorbents" and "Water Crystals", and are used in baby diapers. Copolymerversions are used in agriculture and other specialty absorbent applications. The origins of super absorbent polymer chemistry trace back to the early 1960s when the U.S. Department of Agriculture developed the first super absorbent polymer materials. This chemical is featured in the Maximum Absorbency Garment used by NASA.译文聚丙烯酸钠聚丙烯酸钠，又可以称为超级吸收剂或者又叫高吸水性树脂，凯博利克拉克教授曾经称它为SAM即：超级吸收性物质。
外文翻译
毕业论文外文资料翻译专业：给水排水工程姓名：李松松学号： 080403108外文出处： water research 24(2004) 23—28附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
指导教师评语：该同学选择外文资料与课题有一定相关性，翻译基本准确，语句较通顺，能够掌握资料的中心内容，基本地完成了外文翻译工作。
签名：李贵霞2012年3月19日(用外文写)附件1：外文资料翻译译文用詹姆逊细胞技术去除营养化池塘中的藻类和磷1 除藻技术概况在澳大利亚池塘系统广泛应用于生活污水和工业废水的处理，它可以作为多步骤处理系统中的最后一个环节，例如生物滤池、滴滤池等，还可以作为唯一的处理工艺。
成熟池塘为污水提供了被天然紫外线消毒的停留时间，同时池塘中同样包含了多种微生物，可以对污水中的营养物质进行消化处理。
此外，再多及处理工艺中，池塘工艺具有重要的技术优势。
因此，它既可以作为二次处理后的深度处理，又可以作为在上游处理系统失效情况下的应急处理。
不幸的是，成熟池塘很容易使藻类增殖，导致出水中悬浮物浓度和酸碱度值普遍偏高。
因此，处理水的排放会引起环境和健康问题。
所以，要将池塘技术进行改善，使之发展成为一个符合排放要求，具有良好去除效果的处理工艺。
多年以来，科学家实验了很多除藻的方法，并且取得了不同程度的结果，然而，现有的处理工艺都有各自的优缺点。
在此主要介绍詹姆逊细胞技术与低速混合头合并成的新技术。
詹姆逊的细胞技术已经被大量地应用于选矿、溶剂萃取等行业，并且，该工艺在工业和城市污水处理方面也得到了迅猛的发展。
在Jetflote有限公司（澳大利亚环境集团有限公司分公司）的不断开发研究之下，于成熟池塘中同时去除藻类和磷这一技术得到了较好的发展。
该工艺涉及到藻类表面化学知识，并运用较为高端的化学理论，使得更有效的发生诱导浮选，将成熟池塘中的藻类和磷能够同时去除。
2 詹姆逊的细胞技术在废水处理中的应用詹姆逊的细胞技术是一个专利。
S3 外文资料翻译()
S3 外文资料翻译（）淮阴工学院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系（院）：专业：姓名：学号：经管学院国际经济与贸易胡婷 3062102109外文出处：Workshop”Empircal studies of innovation(用外文写)in Europe”,Urbino 1-2 December 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件：指导教师评语：签名：月日年注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文“欧洲的实证研究创新” 研讨会，乌尔比诺12月1-2日生产者服务的国际竞争力摘要：本文调查了在90年代国际竞争力和以经合组织国家为样本的生产者服务业的国际专业化的决定因素。
我们发现了国家制造业基础与生产者服务业发展的重要联系。
国内专业化的制造业的生产者服务的大用户明确有助于生产者服务的出口。
我们也发现了在信息与通信技术上的花费对生产者服务出口有积极的影响。
关键词：生产者服务，信息与通信技术，制造业与服务业的联系 JEL代码：L80，F10，O33 1 引言1965年福克斯提出了20世纪50年代中期以来美国劳动力的唯一的一个少数民族涉及有形商品的生产，因此认识服务经济的概念。
最近大多数服务业，特别是一些生产者服务类别（例如通讯和商业服务）被列入增长最快的经济领域中。
普雷特和博斯沃思（____）指出，商业服务的比重在过去____年翻了一番。
传统服务被认为是无形的，它们的消费不能从产品中分割。
结果它们被当做非流通股（福克斯，1968）。
但是巴格瓦蒂（1984）等人指出，由于电信和信息技术的发展，提供服务的物理接近要求可能有所减少，因此提高了服务可交易性的价值。
事实上，自80年代初，国际服务贸易迅速增长和快于商品贸易，以至于在1990年全球服务贸易已达到全球贸易的20%（Hoekman和普里莫布拉加，____）。
随着服务贸易的增长，一些生产者服务贸易的理论模型和服务贸易的自由化的经济结论被马库森（1989），梅尔文（1989年），法国（1990年a，1990年b），琼斯和瑞恩（1990年），Van Marrewijk（____年）等，德瓦尔和范德伯格（____年），迪尔朵夫（____年）提出。
外文文献及翻译
（（英文参考文献及译文）二〇一六年六月本科毕业论文 题 目：STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED INTHE AUDIT学生姓名：王雪琴学 院：管理学院系 别：会计系专 业：财务管理班 级：财管12-2班 学校代码： 10128 学 号： 201210707016Statistics and AuditRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010STATISTICAL SAMPLING METHOD, USED IN THE AUDIT - views, recommendations, fi ndingsPhD Candidate Gabriela-Felicia UNGUREANUAbstractThe rapid increase in the size of U.S. companies from the earlytwentieth century created the need for audit procedures based on the selectionof a part of the total population audited to obtain reliable audit evidence, tocharacterize the entire population consists of account balances or classes oftransactions. Sampling is not used only in audit – is used in sampling surveys,market analysis and medical research in which someone wants to reach aconclusion about a large number of data by examining only a part of thesedata. The difference is the “population” from which the sample is selected, iethat set of data which is intended to draw a conclusion. Audit sampling appliesonly to certain types of audit procedures.Key words: sampling, sample risk, population, sampling unit, tests ofcontrols, substantive procedures.Statistical samplingCommittee statistical sampling of American Institute of CertifiedPublic Accountants of (AICPA) issued in 1962 a special report, titled“Statistical sampling and independent auditors’ which allowed the use ofstatistical sampling method, in accordance with Generally Accepted AuditingStandards (GAAS). During 1962-1974, the AICPA published a series of paperson statistical sampling, “Auditor’s Approach to Statistical Sampling”, foruse in continuing professional education of accountants. During 1962-1974,the AICPA published a series of papers on statistical sampling, “Auditor’sApproach to Statistical Sampling”, for use in continuing professional educationof accountants. In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, “AuditSampling”, which provides general guidelines for both sampling methods,statistical and non-statistical.Earlier audits included checks of all transactions in the period coveredby the audited financial statements. At that time, the literature has not givenparticular attention to this subject. Only in 1971, an audit procedures programprinted in the “Federal Reserve Bulletin (Federal Bulletin Stocks)” includedseveral references to sampling such as selecting the “few items” of inventory.Statistics and Audit The program was developed by a special committee, which later became the AICPA, that of Certified Public Accountants American Institute.In the first decades of last century, the auditors often applied sampling, but sample size was not in related to the efficiency of internal control of the entity. In 1955, American Institute of Accountants has published a study case of extending the audit sampling, summarizing audit program developed by certified public accountants, to show why sampling is necessary to extend the audit. The study was important because is one of the leading journal on sampling which recognize a relationship of dependency between detail and reliability testing of internal control.In 1964, the AICPA’s Auditing Standards Board has issued a report entitled “The relationship between statistical sampling and Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)” which illustrated the relationship between the accuracy and reliability in sampling and provisions of GAAS.In 1978, the AICPA published the work of Donald M. Roberts,“Statistical Auditing”which explains the underlying theory of statistical sampling in auditing.In 1981, AICPA issued the professional standard, named “Audit Sampling”, which provides guidelines for both sampling methods, statistical and non-statistical.An auditor does not rely solely on the results of a single procedure to reach a conclusion on an account balance, class of transactions or operational effectiveness of the controls. Rather, the audit findings are based on combined evidence from several sources, as a consequence of a number of different audit procedures. When an auditor selects a sample of a population, his objective is to obtain a representative sample, ie sample whose characteristics are identical with the population’s characteristics. This means that selected items are identical with those remaining outside the sample.In practice, auditors do not know for sure if a sample is representative, even after completion the test, but they “may increase the probability that a sample is representative by accuracy of activities made related to design, sample selection and evaluation” [1]. Lack of specificity of the sample results may be given by observation errors and sampling errors. Risks to produce these errors can be controlled.Observation error (risk of observation) appears when the audit test did not identify existing deviations in the sample or using an inadequate audit technique or by negligence of the auditor.Sampling error (sampling risk) is an inherent characteristic of the survey, which results from the fact that they tested only a fraction of the total population. Sampling error occurs due to the fact that it is possible for Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthe auditor to reach a conclusion, based on a sample that is different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would have been subject to audit procedures identical. Sampling risk can be reduced by adjusting the sample size, depending on the size and population characteristics and using an appropriate method of selection. Increasing sample size will reduce the risk of sampling; a sample of the all population will present a null risk of sampling.Audit Sampling is a method of testing for gather sufficient and appropriate audit evidence, for the purposes of audit. The auditor may decide to apply audit sampling on an account balance or class of transactions. Sampling audit includes audit procedures to less than 100% of the items within an account balance or class of transactions, so all the sample able to be selected. Auditor is required to determine appropriate ways of selecting items for testing. Audit sampling can be used as a statistical approach and a non- statistical.Statistical sampling is a method by which the sample is made so that each unit consists of the total population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, method of sample selection is random, allowed to assess the results based on probability theory and risk quantification of sampling. Choosing the appropriate population make that auditor’ findings can be extended to the entire population.Non-statistical sampling is a method of sampling, when the auditor uses professional judgment to select elements of a sample. Since the purpose of sampling is to draw conclusions about the entire population, the auditor should select a representative sample by choosing sample units which have characteristics typical of that population. Results will not extrapolate the entire population as the sample selected is representative.Audit tests can be applied on the all elements of the population, where is a small population or on an unrepresentative sample, where the auditor knows the particularities of the population to be tested and is able to identify a small number of items of interest to audit. If the sample has not similar characteristics for the elements of the entire population, the errors found in the tested sample can not extrapolate.Decision of statistical or non-statistical approach depends on the auditor’s professional judgment which seeking sufficient appropriate audits evidence on which to completion its findings about the audit opinion.As a statistical sampling method refer to the random selection that any possible combination of elements of the community is equally likely to enter the sample. Simple random sampling is used when stratification was not to audit. Using random selection involves using random numbers generated byRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit a computer. After selecting a random starting point, the auditor found the first random number that falls within the test document numbers. Only when the approach has the characteristics of statistical sampling, statistical assessments of risk are valid sampling.In another variant of the sampling probability, namely the systematic selection (also called random mechanical) elements naturally succeed in office space or time; the auditor has a preliminary listing of the population and made the decision on sample size. “The auditor calculated a counting step, and selects the sample element method based on step size. Step counting is determined by dividing the volume of the community to sample the number of units desired. Advantages of systematic screening are its usability. In most cases, a systematic sample can be extracted quickly and method automatically arranges numbers in successive series.”[2].Selection by probability proportional to size - is a method which emphasizes those population units’recorded higher values. The sample is constituted so that the probability of selecting any given element of the population is equal to the recorded value of the item;Stratifi ed selection - is a method of emphasis of units with higher values and is registered in the stratification of the population in subpopulations. Stratification provides a complete picture of the auditor, when population (data table to be analyzed) is not homogeneous. In this case, the auditor stratifies a population by dividing them into distinct subpopulations, which have common characteristics, pre-defined. “The objective of stratification is to reduce the variability of elements in each layer and therefore allow a reduction in sample size without a proportionate increase in the risk of sampling.” [3] If population stratification is done properly, the amount of sample size to come layers will be less than the sample size that would be obtained at the same level of risk given sample with a sample extracted from the entire population. Audit results applied to a layer can be designed only on items that are part of that layer.I appreciated as useful some views on non-statistical sampling methods, which implies that guided the selection of the sample selecting each element according to certain criteria determined by the auditor. The method is subjective; because the auditor selects intentionally items containing set features him.The selection of the series is done by selecting multiple elements series (successive). Using sampling the series is recommended only if a reasonable number of sets used. Using just a few series there is a risk that the sample is not representative. This type of sampling can be used in addition to other samples, where there is a high probability of occurrence of errors. At the arbitrary selection, no items are selected preferably from the auditor, Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditthat regardless of size or source or characteristics. Is not the recommended method, because is not objective.That sampling is based on the auditor’s professional judgment, which may decide which items can be part or not sampled. Because is not a statistical method, it can not calculate the standard error. Although the sample structure can be constructed to reproduce the population, there is no guarantee that the sample is representative. If omitted a feature that would be relevant in a particular situation, the sample is not representative.Sampling applies when the auditor plans to make conclusions about population, based on a selection. The auditor considers the audit program and determines audit procedures which may apply random research. Sampling is used by auditors an internal control systems testing, and substantive testing of operations. The general objectives of tests of control system and operations substantive tests are to verify the application of pre-defined control procedures, and to determine whether operations contain material errors.Control tests are intended to provide evidence of operational efficiency and controls design or operation of a control system to prevent or detect material misstatements in financial statements. Control tests are necessary if the auditor plans to assess control risk for assertions of management.Controls are generally expected to be similarly applied to all transactions covered by the records, regardless of transaction value. Therefore, if the auditor uses sampling, it is not advisable to select only high value transactions. Samples must be chosen so as to be representative population sample.An auditor must be aware that an entity may change a special control during the course of the audit. If the control is replaced by another, which is designed to achieve the same specific objective, the auditor must decide whether to design a sample of all transactions made during or just a sample of transactions controlled again. Appropriate decision depends on the overall objective of the audit test.Verification of internal control system of an entity is intended to provide guidance on the identification of relevant controls and design evaluation tests of controls.Other tests:In testing internal control system and testing operations, audit sample is used to estimate the proportion of elements of a population containing a characteristic or attribute analysis. This proportion is called the frequency of occurrence or percentage of deviation and is equal to the ratio of elements containing attribute specific and total number of population elements. WeightRomanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit deviations in a sample are determined to calculate an estimate of the proportion of the total population deviations.Risk associated with sampling - refers to a sample selection which can not be representative of the population tested. In other words, the sample itself may contain material errors or deviations from the line. However, issuing a conclusion based on a sample may be different from the conclusion which would be reached if the entire population would be subject to audit.Types of risk associated with sampling:Controls are more effective than they actually are or that there are not significant errors when they exist - which means an inappropriate audit opinion. Controls are less effective than they actually are that there are significant errors when in fact they are not - this calls for additional activities to establish that initial conclusions were incorrect.Attributes testing - the auditor should be defining the characteristics to test and conditions for misconduct. Attributes testing will make when required objective statistical projections on various characteristics of the population. The auditor may decide to select items from a population based on its knowledge about the entity and its environment control based on risk analysis and the specific characteristics of the population to be tested.Population is the mass of data on which the auditor wishes to generalize the findings obtained on a sample. Population will be defined compliance audit objectives and will be complete and consistent, because results of the sample can be designed only for the population from which the sample was selected.Sampling unit - a unit of sampling may be, for example, an invoice, an entry or a line item. Each sample unit is an element of the population. The auditor will define the sampling unit based on its compliance with the objectives of audit tests.Sample size - to determine the sample size should be considered whether sampling risk is reduced to an acceptable minimum level. Sample size is affected by the risk associated with sampling that the auditor is willing to accept it. The risk that the auditor is willing to accept lower, the sample will be higher.Error - for detailed testing, the auditor should project monetary errors found in the sample population and should take into account the projected error on the specific objective of the audit and other audit areas. The auditor projects the total error on the population to get a broad perspective on the size of the error and comparing it with tolerable error.For detailed testing, tolerable error is tolerable and misrepresentations Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Auditwill be a value less than or equal to materiality used by the auditor for the individual classes of transactions or balances audited. If a class of transactions or account balances has been divided into layers error is designed separately for each layer. Design errors and inconsistent errors for each stratum are then combined when considering the possible effect on the total classes of transactions and account balances.Evaluation of sample results - the auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether assessing relevant characteristics of the population is confirmed or needs to be revised.When testing controls, an unexpectedly high rate of sample error may lead to an increase in the risk assessment of significant misrepresentation unless it obtained additional audit evidence to support the initial assessment. For control tests, an error is a deviation from the performance of control procedures prescribed. The auditor should obtain evidence about the nature and extent of any significant changes in internal control system, including the staff establishment.If significant changes occur, the auditor should review the understanding of internal control environment and consider testing the controls changed. Alternatively, the auditor may consider performing substantive analytical procedures or tests of details covering the audit period.In some cases, the auditor might not need to wait until the end audit to form a conclusion about the effectiveness of operational control, to support the control risk assessment. In this case, the auditor might decide to modify the planned substantive tests accordingly.If testing details, an unexpectedly large amount of error in a sample may cause the auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balances is given significantly wrong in the absence of additional audit evidence to show that there are not material misrepresentations.When the best estimate of error is very close to the tolerable error, the auditor recognizes the risk that another sample have different best estimate that could exceed the tolerable error.ConclusionsFollowing analysis of sampling methods conclude that all methods have advantages and disadvantages. But the auditor is important in choosing the sampling method is based on professional judgment and take into account the cost / benefit ratio. Thus, if a sampling method proves to be costly auditor should seek the most efficient method in view of the main and specific objectives of the audit.Romanian Statistical Review nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit The auditor should evaluate the sample results to determine whether the preliminary assessment of relevant characteristics of the population must be confirmed or revised. If the evaluation sample results indicate that the relevant characteristics of the population needs assessment review, the auditor may: require management to investigate identified errors and likelihood of future errors and make necessary adjustments to change the nature, timing and extent of further procedures to take into account the effect on the audit report.Selective bibliography:[1] Law no. 672/2002 updated, on public internal audit[2] Arens, A şi Loebbecke J - Controve …Audit– An integrate approach”, 8th edition, Arc Publishing House[3] ISA 530 - Financial Audit 2008 - International Standards on Auditing, IRECSON Publishing House, 2009- Dictionary of macroeconomics, Ed C.H. Beck, Bucharest, 2008Revista Română de Statistică nr. 5 / 2010Statistics and Audit摘要美国公司的规模迅速增加，从第二十世纪初创造了必要的审计程序，根据选定的部分总人口的审计，以获得可靠的审计证据，以描述整个人口组成的帐户余额或类别的交易。
李海平老师笔译全书
英汉翻译教案Unit 1 翻译概述1.1 翻译的定义与分类翻译是把一种语言文字所表达的思维内容用另一种语言表达出来的双语转换过程或结果。
翻译是一种语言活动过程，又是该活动的结果。
翻译是创造性实践活动，它形成于社会、文化和语言现实之中，同时又为促进社会、文化和语言发展服务。
语言是文化的载体，翻译过程涉及两种语言、两种社会文化；是通过语言机制的转换连接或沟通自身文化和异国文化的桥梁；是具有不同语言文化背景的人互相交际、交流思想，达到相互了解的媒介。
翻译属于交叉学科，它与语言学、符号学、修辞学、心理学、人类学等有着密切联系。
它正在发展成为一个自成体系的独立学科——翻译学。
翻译又是一门艺术。
翻译美学是翻译学的不可分割的组成部分。
翻译是一种融理论、技能、艺术于一体的语言实践活动。
翻译一般分为三类：（1）按翻译手段可分为：口译（interpretation）、笔译（translation）和机器翻译（machine translation）。
（2）按源出语（sourced language）和目的语（target language）的关系，可分为：a）语际翻译（interlingual translation：指发生在不同语言之间的翻译活动，诸如英汉互译、法英互译等。
）b）语内翻译（intralingual translation：指同一语言内部进行的翻译，如方言与民族共同语，古语与现代语等。
）c）符际翻译（intersemiotic translation：指不同符号之间进行的翻译，此类翻译往往只限于通讯及保密等工作。
）（3）按翻译题材，可分为政论翻译、应用文翻译、科技翻译、文学翻译等。
不同类型的翻译有着不同的要求，学习时应注意它们的共性和个性。
1.2 翻译的过程1.3 翻译的标准Unit 2 翻译标准练习练习1： It may be safely assumed that, two thousand years ago, before Caesar set foot in southern Britain, the whole countryside visible from the windows of the room, in which I write, was in what is called ‘the state of nature’.(1)赫胥黎独处一室之中，在英伦之南，背山而面野，槛外诸境，历历如在目下。
英文原文及翻译
Characterization of bio-oil from induction-heating pyrolysis of food-processing sewage sludges using chromatographic analysis (可搜到原文)利用色谱法分析感应加热热解食品加工污泥中生物油特征Wen-Tien Tsai a,*, Mei-Kuei Lee b, Jeng-Hung Chang b, Ting-Yi Su b, Yuan-Ming Chang aa Graduate Institute of Bioresources, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912, Taiwanb Department of Environmental Engineering and Science, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan 717,Taiwan摘要：在这项研究中，利用气相色谱分析-质谱法(GC-MS)分析了热解生物油和来自感应加热技术热解工业污水污泥产生的气体的分数。
使用从25到500℃加热速率为300℃/min，低温冷凝氮气中的挥发分得到了液体产品。
分析结果表明：热解生物油是非常复杂的有机化合物的混合物和含有大量的氮氧化物/或含氧化合物，如脂肪烃类物质、酚类化合物、吡啶类、吡咯、胺类、酮类，等等。
目前污水污泥中的微生物含有来自蛋白质和核酸纹理的有机碳氢化合物含有氮/或氧。
不凝性挥发组分由氮氮氧化物和含氧的化合物组成，但所载小分数为酚类化合物、1H-吲哚和脂肪羧酸。
另一方面，通过气相色谱法-热导检测器（GC-TCD）进行分析得出不凝气体产品中的成分主要是二氧化碳、一氧化碳和甲烷。
关键字：污水污泥；热解油；气相色谱-质谱法介绍为了应对全球气候变暖和化石燃料价格飙升，近年来生物质资源的能源利用已引起广泛关注，因为这种替代能源将难以放出有害空气污染物（如硫氧化物和有毒重金属）和不作为化石燃料相比增加净温室气体（即CO2）排放到大气中。
董开桥外文翻译
HexaLite 29/25 at 1.4 g or less on new neck finish 29/25 at 2.4 g or less, replacing the 30/25 world standard for still water, generating total weight savings of 2.0 g. Such savings per bottle generate almost 2,000 tons of resin saved for every one billion bottles produced (and almost €3 million saved), and an estimated reduction of 15,000 tons of greenhouse gas emission (carbon footprint), according to Bericap. Sustainable Alternatives BIO-BASED PLASTICS ARE made of starch from plants (corn, sugarcane, potato, etc.) instead of petroleum. They can replace most petrochemical plastics used to make bottles, packaging, fabric and many other items. Rising petroleum prices coupled with an increase in market demand for green products have bolstered the demand for bio-based plastics. They are being positioned as sustainable alternatives to traditional plastics because they can be compostable and biodegradable, although not all bioplastics may comply with industry standards ASTM D6400 in the United States for compostable plastics and Europe's EN13432 for biodegradability/compostibility. The biopolymer share of the plastic market is poised to grow from 1% now to 6 -12% by 2010. The current demand for bioplastic, however, is eight times the 2008 expected capacity. Worldwide, the market for bioplastics is projected to reach between $15-30 billion by 2010 and $50 billion by 2015. PLA (polylactic acid), a versatile polymer made from cornstarch, is the most well-known of these so-called biopolymers. A polyethylene alternative from sugarcane-based ethanol has also been launched. Other producers are turning to agriculture and forestry waste as sources rather than using food crops. Among these is Innovia Films whose NatureFlex film is produced from wood pulp (for an application, see page 33 -- Editor). A matter of semantics COMPOSTABLE, degradable and biodegradable are often mistakenly interchanged… Compostable Plastic is, by ASTM standards, "capable of undergoing biological decomposition in a compost site as part of an available program, such that the plastic is not visually distinguishable and breaks down to carbon dioxide, water, inorganic compounds, and biomass, at a rate consistent with known compostable materials (e.g. cellulose) and leaves no toxic residue." In order for a plastic to be called compostable, three criteria need to be met: Biodegrade - break down into CO2, water, biomass at the same rate as cellulose Disintegrate - the material is indistinguishable in the compost Eco-toxicity - the biodegradation does not produce any toxic material and the compost can support plant growth. Biodegradable Plastic will degrade from the action of naturally occurring microorganism, such as bacteria, fungi etc., over a period of time. Note, that there is no requirement for leaving "no toxic residue", and as well as no requirement for the time it needs to take to biodegrade. Degradable Plastic will undergo a significant change in its chemical structure
外文参考文献译文及原文
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor's Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大，在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段，项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法。
1.简介调查显示，大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本。
2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000)指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的...标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密...决( Diallo and Thuillier, 2005)。
4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四，项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有...重要(Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化--在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰...围、变更、进度、质量）相结合由于一个工程项目......虑时间价值影响后的结果。
英文文献原文及对应翻译
Adsorption char acter istics of copper , lead, zinc and cadmium ions by tourmaline(环境科学学报英文版) 电气石对铜、铅、锌、镉离子的吸附特性JIANG Kan1,*, SUN Tie-heng1,2 , SUN Li-na2, LI Hai-bo2(1. School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China. jiangkan522@; 2. Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering of Shenyang University, Shenyang 110041, China)摘要：本文研究了电气石对Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的吸附特性，建立了吸附平衡方程。
研究四种金属离子的吸附等温线以及朗缪尔方程。
结果表明电气石能有效地去除水溶液中的重金属且具有选择性：Pb2+> Cu2+> Cd2+> Zn2+。
电气石对金属离子吸附量随着介质中金属离子的初始浓度的增加而增加。
电气石也可以增加金属溶液的pH值；发现电气石对Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的最大吸附量为78.86、154.08、67.25和66.67mg/g；温度在25-55℃对电气石的吸附量影响很小。
此外研究了Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的竞争吸附。
同时观察到电气石对单一金属离子的吸附能力为Pb>Cu>Zn>Cd，在两种金属系统中抑制支配地位是Pb>Cu，Pb>Zn，Pb>Cd，Cu>Zn，Cu>Cd，和Cd>Zn。
关键字：吸附；重金属含量；朗缪尔等温线；电气石介绍重金属是来自不同行业排出的废水，如电镀，金属表面处理，纺织，蓄电池，矿山，陶瓷，玻璃。
参考文献中英对照
[1]雷斌，肖建庄.再生混凝土抗碳化性能的研究[J].建筑材料学报，2008(10):605-611[1] LeiBin ,XiaoJianZhuang. Research on Carbonation Resistance of Recycle Aggregate Concret [J]. Journal of building materials, 2008 (10) : 605-611.[2]张雷顺，王娟，黄秋风，邓宇.再生混凝土抗冻耐久性实验研究[J].工业建筑，2005(9):64-66 [2] Zhang Leishun, wang Juan, Huang Qiufeng Deng Yu. Study on frost resistance frost durability of recycled aggregate concrete. [J]. Industrial construction, 2005 (9) : 64-66.[3]叶青，纳米复合水泥结构材料的研究与开发[ J].新型建筑材料，2002(1):15-19[3] Ye Qing, the research and development of nanometer composite cement structure [J]. Journal of new building materials, 2002 (1) : 15 to 19[4]黄功学，谢晓鹏，纳米SiO2对水工混凝土耐久性影响试验研究[J].人民黄河，2011(70): 138-140[4]Huang Gongxue, Xie Xiaopeng, Experimental Study on the Effect of Nano-SiO_2 to Durability in Hydraulic Concrete.[J]. The people of the Yellow River, 2011 (70) : 138-140[5]肖建庄，刘琼，李文贵，Vivian Tam.再生混凝土细微观结构和破坏机理研究[J].青岛理工大学学报，2009(4):24-30[5] Xiao Jianzhuang, Liu Qiong Li Wengui, Vivian Tam, On the Micro-and Meso-Struture and Failure Mechanism of Recycle Concrete. [J]. journal of qingdao technological university , 2009 (4) : 24 to 30[6]杨青，钱晓倩，钱匡亮，王章夫，周堂贵.再生混凝土纳米复合强化实验[J].材料科学与工程学报，2011(10):66-69[6]Yang qing ,Qian Xiaoqian, Qian Kuangliang, Wang Zhangfu, Zhou, Tanggui. Recycled Concrete Intensified by Nano-materious [J]. Journal of materials science and engineering, 2011 (10) : 66-69[7]7]J. Camiletti,A. M. Soliman, M. L. Nehdi..Effects of nano- and micro-limestone addition on early-age properties of ultra-high-performance concrete[J]. Materials and Structures，2012(10) [8][8]P. Hosseini,A. Booshehrian,A. Madari.Developing Concrete Recycling Strategies by Utilizationof Nano-SiO2 Particles[J]. Waste Biomass Valor，2011(2):347–355[9]杜江涛.再生混凝土细观结构研究综述[M].广东建材，2010(4):55-57[9] Du Jiangtao. The Review of recycled concrete mesoscopic structure review [M]. Guangdong building materials, 2010 (4) : 55 to 57[10]肖建庄，兰阳，李佳彬，王军龙.再生混凝土长期使用性能研究进展[J].结构工程师，2005(6): 72-76[10]Xiao jianzhuang. lan-yang, Li Jiabin Wang Junlong. The Research of Long-term recycled concrete.[J]. Journal of structural engineers, 2005 (6) : 72-76[11]Laila Raki,James Beaudoin,Rouhollah Alizadeh,Jon Makar.Cement and Concrete Nanoscience and Nanotechnology[J]. Materials 2010(3):918-942[12]谢德文，纳米材料在混凝土中的应用研究[J].能源技术与管理，2008(5):105-113[12]Xie Dewen. The application of nano material in the concrete [J]. Energy technology and management, 2008 (5) : 105-113。
水利水电外文翻译
Hydromechanical analysis of Placing and protecting fillflow behavior in damAbstract:Primary surface according to the design requirements of excavation and stone processing, to ensure that the dense, with certain strength and stability meet the requirements. Quarry mining, transport in the repair of the road at the same time, excavator, bulldozer, with clear reclaimer field covering layer, to ensure that no weed roots and soil tillage. Abandon the material piling up in the yard right as obstinate cultivated material, also prepare slope to prevent soil erosiondam filling should be done: regardless of which part of the fill and the final foundation surface exposure time does not exceed 72 hours. Fill method should also prevent the separation of the filling material. If the contract requirements in different lots of different filling packing and contracting business in construction should prevent of confusion between the different types of fillers.Key words: Hydromechanical fill permeabilityAny undesirable material accumulated on the fill surface shall be removed before placeing the next layer of fill material shall be placed on a previous layer of that has dried out,become saturated or in any way deteriorated by exposure or by spilling of other material or disterbance by mechanical transport or by deposition of wind blown particles or by any other means. Before fresh fill material is placed aoo such deteriorated fill or foreign material shall be removed to a depth at which material of an acceptable standard is exposed. The surface of each layer is to be approved by the Engineer before the next layer is placed.Any fill shall be placed in uniform layers not greater than the approved thickness as specified hereafter and in an orderly sequence approximately horizontal along the centreline of the where specified of directed otherwise, no portion of any embankment shall be stepped more than 3 feet higher than any immediately adjacent portion except where permitted by the Engineer and the slope formed by such steps shall not exceed 1V:3H and not less than 1V:4H from one level to as shown on the Drawings or as otherwise directed, all fill placement surfaces shall be sloped at right angles to the centerline of the embankment in both the upstream and downstream direction from the downstream edge of the core so as to allow run-off and prevent the accumulation of water. The drainage slope on the temporary surface of anny zone shall not exceed 1 on 30 and the highest point shall be de downstream edge of the core.Where,due to the specified geometry of the excavation into the top of the existing embankments, the surface slope is towards the downstream edge of the core, theContractor shall take such measures an necessary to prevent erosion of fine material being washed into the filter zones downstream of the core. Any surface layer of filter material contaminated by such drainage or other cause shall be removed and replaced with fresh filter material before placing the next layer above.Construction of any one embankment shall be carried out over the maximum possible length,mo less than 1500 feet,of that embankment in such a manner that mo temporary construction slope crosses the axis of the embankment except as approved by the Engineer. Where a temporary constrction slope crossing the axis of the embankment is permitted by the Engineer it shall be formed at a gradient of 1V：5H. When subsequently placeing material against this slope it shall be cut back in steps equal to the layer thickness to avoid feather edges. The Contractor shall complete each layer of fill fully up to the abutment contacts and structures and against sloping foundations and ensure that the fill is compacted an specified throughout. The Contractor shall not allow the fill in those areas to lag behind or to get ahead of the normal fill placing operations and form feather edges, except where fill has been placed in advance to cover grouted surface.Should not contain humus soil was used to fill the soil, roots, or other harmful substances, to fill jobs should spread in layers shop, motor grader leveling, each layer of loose paving thickness should be not more than 30cm. Each filler layer thickness is not less than 50 cm, top earthwork embankment to the pavement surface layer at the end of the compaction thickness should not less than 10cm.Where the Contractor is allowed to use either grvel fill and /or sandstone no intermixing of the two materials in a layer shall be allowed. The Constractor may place either of the materials in adjacent layers or sections of the embankment.The Constractor shall be responsible for protecting temporary fill surfaces against damage of erosion. At the end of each working day,or if it start to rain ,the surface of the fill shall be made smooth and compacted with a smooth drum roller with a drainage slope to induce runoff from the filled areas and leave no areas that can retain water. Where necessary, grips,drainage ditches and the like shall be formed to assist drainage and to prevent runoff from damaging placed from heavy rain shall be controlled to prevent gully erosion of the placed fill. Any gully erosion shall be repaired with material compacted in accordance with the Specification, and eroded surfaces shall be restored and graded to ensure a proper bond with new fill placed on eroded material other than gravel and any contaminated material shall be removed from the embankment and placed in designated spoil tips. In particular the Contractor shall ensure that no material is washed into filter or drain material.Where placing of the filter material of drain material is not continuous ,the Constractor shall protect such filter or drain materials by a 2 foot thick layer of coursefilter material or in such other manner approved by the Engineer,and the Contractor shall maintain the protective layer.The Contractor shall keep the work free from standing water to prevent damage to the fill material. When working below the surrounding level, the Contractor shall ensure that material from adjacent areas does not contaminate the fill material,and that runoff does not flow onto the fill.The Contractor shall arrange the timing and rate of placing fill material in sucn way that no part of the workes is over stressed,weakened or endangered. Any part of the fill that be comes saturated or attains excessive moisture content or that is rendered unsuitable due to poor surface drainage, uncontrolled traffic,or for any other reason, shall be excavated and removed to a spoil tip and replaced by fresh fill .If permitted by the Engineer, such fill may be scarified and re-compacted.Unless otherwise approved by the Engineer unrestrained edges of fill, whether for temporary or permanent slops, shall be overbuilt as necessary to allow full compaction to be achieved within defined limits of the fill. The excess material shall be trimmed and removed to leave a regular compacted surface.Slope exposed to view,including riprap and downstream protection slopes, shall be dressed to neatly appearing final surfaces matching the existing slopes.Temporary access ramps shall be removed when work in that area is completed. Any ramps or other areas within the limits of an embankment which, in the opinion of the Engineer have been over-compacted or damaged by the concentrated use by construction equipment,shall be reworked and re-compacted or,if the Engineer requires,shall be excavated, removed to spoil tip and replaced by the fresh fill.When necessary the surface of the layer of fine grained fill material(rolled clay,rolled silt Type A and B ,Rolled Sandstone Type A and B) shall be sprayed with water to prevent drying out and to maintain the correct uniform moisture content prior to placing the next Contractor shall ensure that a good bond is achieved between layers of filland unless otherwise directed, previously compacted layers of fine grain materials shall be harrowed, scarified or otherwise roughened to depth of at least 3 inches and made suitable for covering with future layer of fill.For Hydromechanical analysis of flow behavior in dam,Evaluating the safety of concrete gravity dams against sliding requires an understanding that rock foundations and the structure above them are an interactive system whose behavior is controlled by the mechanical and hydraulic properties of concrete materials and rock foundations. About a century ago, the failure of Boozy Dam prompted dam engineers to start considering the effect of uplift pressures generated by seepage within the dam–foundation system and to explore ways to minimize its effect.. Today, with modern computational resources and much more precedent, it is still most challenging todetermine the pore-pressure distribution along foundation discontinuities to assess pertinent stresses and evaluate factors of safety. It is our opinion that observing and monitoring the behavior of large dams on well mapped and adequately instrumented foundations can bring important insights for a better understanding of factors controlling joint opening, crack propagation, and pore-pressure development in foundations of concrete gravity dams.Fig. behavior of natural joints :(a) mechanical;(b)hydraulic.This paper presents behavior representative of cycles of reservoir operation in the last 20 years collected from monitored data of Albigna Dam, Switzerland, and also describes the results of a series of numerical analyses carried out to assess the hydromechanical behavior of its foundations. Comparisons are made between results of numerical modeling and the actual behavior monitored in the field. Based on these comparisons, a series of conclusions are drawn regarding basic pore-pressure buildup mechanisms in jointed rock masses with implications that may be considered in other engineering projects, where the hydromechanical behavior of jointed rock should be considered. Such projects include pressure tunnels, hazardous waste disposal, and other situations dependent on geologic containment controlled by flow behavior along rock discontinuities.A brief summary of the state-of-the-art of mechanical and hydraulic behavior of individual rock joints is presented here. A more detailed description of rock joint Hydromechanical behavior can be found in Alvarez(1997)and Alvarez et al.(1995)and in investigations in laboratory and numerical model simulations carried out by Raven and Gale (1985), Gentier (1987),Esaki et al.(1992),and others.The mechanical behavior of the joint can be represented by a nonlinear nhyperbolic relationship between the applied effective normal stress,，and joint closure,mcni nmc mc n ni V K V V n or V Vn V K n -∆=∆-∆=''')(1σσσ （1） During loading, significant joint closure takes place at low effective normal stresses. The magnitude of the closure per unit of stress decreases rapidly, however, as the stress level increases. The hyperbola is defined by the initial tangent stiffness,Kni, and the asymptote maximum joint closure, Vmc. This relationship is also nonlinearand hysteretic for the unloading condition until effective normal stresses become zero .The values of Kni and Vmc are estimated by regression analysis on experimental data. For natural and induced fractures in granite, these parameters are33.133.1205mc ni mc V K V 〈〈 （2）interrelated and range between the following limits Alvarez et al. (1995):WhereKni is in Mpa/m and Vmc is in m/s.Rough joints exhibit the largest joint maximum closure and the lowest initial joint stiffness, whereas smooth joints have the lowest Vmcand the largest KniThe hydraulic behavior of the rock joint is characterized by the linear relationship between hydraulic aperture,ah, which controls the magnitude of flow, and mechanical joint closure, Vn , which depends on stress levels. Hydraulic apertures are plotted versus their corresponding joint closure to obtain the line ,intercept, aho,initial hydraulic aperture, and the coupled slope coefficient, f,which characterizes the hydromechanical behavior of the joint ,i. e., the relationship between)(hr h n ho h a a V f a a ≥∆-= （3）changes in hydraulic aperture due to changes in mechanical aperture, given byWhere ahris the residual hydraulic aperture.For a given rock joint, there is a relationship between roughness and the coupled coefficient, because f depends on the distribution and tortuosity of flow channels along the joint surface. For ideal parallel plates, with a single flow channel along the entire joint surface, f= concentrated flow channels meandering across the joint surface, f<.h Ga Q h w ∆=3)12μγ（ （4）Hence, the classic cubic law expresses flow rate through a rock joint:Where Q is the flow rate; W is the unit weight of the water; his the head drop along the rock joint; μ is the dynamic viscosity of the water ×10Pa ·s ); ah is the joint hydraulic aperture; and G is the shape factor, which depends on the geometry of flow. For straight flow, G=W/L (where W and L are the width and length, respectively, of the joint); and for divergent radial flow, G=2π/ln (re/ri), where ri and re are the borehole and external cylindrical surface radiuses, respectively.Jointed rock mass permeability change with depth,Alternatively, the rock mass equivalent permeability can be expressed in the same form as the modified cubic law.)1()12(3s a K h w m μγ= （5）Or in terms of hydraulic aperture, to account for spacing of the joints,S:Changes in jointed rock mass permeability due to overburden and confining stresses were calculated using eqs. [1]–[3].The results of a theoretical relationship of rock mass permeability, k, for depths up to 1000 m, using eq. [5] are presented in reduction of hydraulic apertures with increasing overburden stresses results in a rock mass permeability that decreases with an increase in depth from 10 cm/s8near the surface to 10 cm/s at depths of 600–1000 m.The rock mass permeability estimates were obtained assuming f=,Vmc= kni =10vmc, which are representative of the values obtained in laboratory tests carried out in granitic formations(Alvarez et similar to those of the Brazilian test location described in this section. Overburden stresses were estimated using a unit weight of kN/ this case it was assumed that horizontal and vertical stresses are about the same (coefficient of earth pressure at rest Ko=, which are also considered to be representative of the igneous formations at the Brazil test location, but other values of in situ stresses could be estimated, ., for Ko<, vertical joints would have larger permeabilities.Field permeability measurements obtained in Packer tests at a deep open-pit mining project in granitic rock in Brazil are also plotted in for comparison with the theoretical relationship. Values of joint spacing observed from borehole cores are in the range of a few meters, and thus a constant spacing of 5m was assumed in the computations. Values of aho in the range of 300–1000μm were used to determine the theoretical relationships of km=f (z), where z is the depth, and compare with field measurements.Measured permeability values in the two boreholes are relatively high at depths between 100 and 200m, probably denoting the presence of a sheared zone or a zone of more jointed rock. The measured rock permeabilities decrease steadily with an increase in depth, however, and their values correspond well with the theoretical trend of rock mass permeability estimated with the model. Typical hydraulic apertures of 400–500μm and joint stiffness following a hyperbolic relationship with KNI=10V mc and Vmc= ahoseem to agree well with observed field behavior for these crystalline rock masses.Fig. jointed rock mass permeability relationship with depth.Although real Hydromechanical behavior of jointed rock masses is site specific and depends on geologic factors, which need to be taken into account, the proposed approach provides a framework to estimate rock mass permeability during design stages where information is not yet available.References:[1]Canadian Water Resources Journal, 2000, (3),[2]Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, . Box 413, Milwaukee, WI 53201-0413, United States[3]Department of Geography, Binghamton University, The State University of New York, . Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902, United States[4]School of Chemical & Materials Engineering, National University of Sciences & Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan[5]Building Physics and Services, Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology, . Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands坝体填料的填筑保护及基础流体力学行为分析一填料的填筑保护摘要：基层表面按设计要求开挖和块石处理，确保密实，具有一定强度和稳定性满足要求。
7代常成-外文翻译原文4
Journal of ELECTRONIC MATERIALS, Vol. 34, No. 11, 2005Regular Issue Paper1446Contact Resistance and Shear Strength of the Solder Joints Formed Using Cu Bumps Capped with Sn or Ag/Sn LayerSEUNG-HYUN LEE,1HEE-RA ROH,1ZHI GANG CHEN,1and YOUNG-HO KIM 1,21.—Division of Materials Science & Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, 133-791, Korea.2.—E-mail: kimyh@hanyang.ac.krSolder joints were successfully bonded by joining Ag/Sn/Cu bumps and Ag/Sn/Cu layers at 200°C for 30 sec under 20 MPa, 40 MPa, and 80 MPa using thermo-compression bonder. The solder joints were aged at 150°C up to 1000 h.The strength of the solder joints was measured by the shear test and the con-tact resistance was measured using four-point probe method. The microstruc-ture of the solder joints and the fracture modes after shear test were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with the energy-dispersive spectrome-try (EDS). Results showed that the electrical resistance of the solder joints decreased, and the shear strength of the solder joints increased after aging treatment. The fracture modes were observed to move from the interfacial failure between solder and intermetallic compounds (IMCs) to the interfacial failure between IMCs. It was considered that the transition of fracture modes was closely related with the microstructure evolution of the solder joints,especially the transformation of IMC phases during the aging treatment.Key words:Aging treatment, Cu bumps, flip chip, oxidation, contactresistance(Received June 10, 2005; accepted August 1, 2005)INTRODUCTIONDemands are being placed on the production of low power consumption, low weight, and compact packaging technologies for very large scale integra-tion (VLSI) integrated circuits, aerospace, and mili-tary applications. In order to meet the demands,many three-dimensional chip stacking technologies are now emerging.1Chip stacking technology that is based on conventional packaging technologies,such as die attach, wire bonding, and molding is currently available. However, the long wiring length of the chip-to-chip interconnection may limit high-frequency performance, since it gives rise to the parasitic inductance. For this concern, another chip stacking technology based on bump-to-bump bond-ing process is preferred. It can minimize the inter-connection length, and enables ultrafine pitch inter-connections.2–4The chip to chip bonding process using Cu bump with Sn-Ag alloy capping layer wasdeveloped by the Association of Super-Advanced Electronic Technologies.4,5This method was precon-ditioned with the Ar sputtering cleaning to reduce oxide layers and contaminations of bump surfaces.However, expensive Ar cleaning made the process cost high. Meanwhile, high bonding pressure and bonding temperature were liable to damage the chip and substrate. A fluxless bonding technique has been developed recently by using Ag coating on the solder bumps, which was proven to be effective to re-duce the oxidation.6In this study, we applied Ag/Sn coating on the Cu bumps for fluxless bonding. We further investigated the effect of aging treatment on the shear strength and contact resistance of solder joints, and the microstructure and fracture modes after different aging times were characterized and discussed.EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURESThe Ti (50 nm) and Cu (2 µm) thin films were deposited on SiO 2wafer using a d.c. magnetron sputtering system. The conductive lines were fabri-Contact Resistance and Shear Strength of the Solder Joints Formed Using Cu Bumps Capped with Sn or Ag/Sn Layer1447cated through the photolithographic process and the wet chemical etching. The Cu bumps were formed by electroplating process. The Sn (1 µm) and Ag (100 nm) capping layers were then formed on Cu bumps by evaporation and lift-off process. The thick photoresist was used as lift-off mask. The Cu pads were also covered with Ag/Sn layers with the same thickness as that of layers on the Cu bumps. The Cu bump size was 100 µm square and 5 µm in height. The basic process flow is summarized in Fig. 1.To investigate the effect of the Ag capping layer on the bondability and reliability of the solder joints,two sets of samples were prepared. One set was Sn/Cu bumps and Sn/Cu pad. The other set was Sn/Cu bumps and Sn/Cu pad both with Ag capping layer. The bonding process was performed at 200°C for 30 sec using thermo-compression bonder. Three levels of bonding pressure were chosen (20 MPa, 40 MPa, and 80 MPa) to examine the effect of pres-sure on the contact resistance and shear strength.The test specimens were aged in an oven at 150°C up to 1000 h. The contact resistance was measured using the four-point probe method. Figure 2a shows the sketch of the test chip for the electrical test, and the corresponding circuitry design is given in Fig. 2b. The shear strength of the solder joints was measured by shearing the test chips, as described in Fig. 3. The microstructure of the solder joints beforeand after aging treatment was analyzed using scan-Fig.1.Schematic diagram showing the bump formation and bonding.Fig.2.Schematic illustration of (a) contact resistance measurements and (b) its corresponding circuitry.abFig.3.Schematic of chip shear test.ning electron microscopy (SEM) with the energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS).1448Lee, Roh, Chen, and KimRESULTS AND DICUSSIONEffect of Ag Capping Layer and Bonding Pressure MicrostructureFigure 4 gives the SEM image of the Cu/Ti metal lines and Cu bumps with Ag/Sn capping layers formed successfully on metal lines. Figure 5 is the cross-sectional SEM image of the solder joint.The solder joints were made successfully. Figure 6a shows the microstructure of Sn/Cu solder joint assembled at 200°C under 80 MPa. It was composed of the Sn-rich phase, Cu 6Sn 5IMC phase dispersed in the Sn matrix, and Cu 6Sn 5layer at Sn/Cu inter-face. It has been reported that an interfacial Cu-Sn IMC layer composed of Cu 6Sn 5and Cu 3Sn phases was observed in annealed solder joints.7,8In gene-ral, the Cu 6Sn 5IMC appears first, since the activa-tion energy of Cu 6Sn 5phase was lower than that of Cu 3Sn IMC.9,10The Cu 3Sn phase formed at the interface between Cu and Cu 6Sn 5through the interdiffusion of Cu and Sn atoms during aging.In regards to the Ag/Sn/Cu solder joint, the mi-crostructure consisted of the Sn-rich phase, Cu 6Sn 5layer at Sn/Cu interface, and (Cu, Ag)6Sn 5IMC phase dispersed in the Sn rich phase, as shown in Fig. 6b. The (Cu, Ag)6Sn 5IMC that was Cu 6Sn 5-based compound formed because of the incorporation of Ag atoms into the Cu 6Sn 5compound. The averagecomposition of (Cu, Ag)6Sn 5IMC phase was detected to be 9.32at.%Cu, 42.29at.%Ag, and 48.39at.%Sn. It should be noted that the (Cu, Ag)6 Sn 5IMC was not found at Sn/Cu interface and still the Cu 6Sn 5comprised the IMC layer, as was the case with the solder joint formed by SnAg(Cu) solder/Cu substrate couple.11-13Contact Resistance and Shear StrengthFigure 7 shows the measured contact resistance of the solder joints as a function of bonding pressure.Under the low bonding pressure, the bonding between Sn/Cu bumps and Sn/Cu pads was not successful, and the contact resistance could not be measured. However, the average contact resistance of solder joints made by Cu bumps with Ag/Sn cap-ping layer was only 12 m Ω. For Ag/Sn/Cu bumps, as the bonding pressure increased, the average contact resistance of the solder joints decreased and then leveled off at around 9 m Ω, which was lower than that of Sn/Cu bumps.Figure 8 plots the shear strength values of the solder joints as a function of the bonding pressure.Similar to the contact resistance measurements, Cubumps with Sn capping layer could be only bondedFig.4.The SEM image showing the metal lines and Ag/Sn/Cubumps.Fig.5.Cross sectional SEM image of solder joints.Fig.6.SEM images showing (a) Sn/Cu solder joint and (b) Ag/Sn/Cu solder joint.Contact Resistance and Shear Strength of the Solder Joints Formed Using Cu Bumps Capped with Sn or Ag/Sn Layer1449at 200°C under high bonding pressure. But Cu bumps with Ag/Sn capping layer were well bonded at 200°C, regardless of the pressure level. For both cases, the average shear strength values of the solder joints were within 12–17 MPa in the range of bonding pressure in this study. It can also be seen that the shear strength of the Ag/Sn/Cu solder joints was higher than that of Sn/Cu solder joints under the same bonding pressure. As the bonding pressure increased, the shear strength of solder joints showed an increasing trend.It is known that Sn oxidizes easily to form Sn oxide that holds high melting point. The Sn oxide layer acts as a solid barrier that prohibits the diffu-sion between Sn bumps and Sn pads, thus making the bonding impossible under low bonding pressure.However, because the oxide layer can be broken under high bonding pressure, the chemical bonding can be realized between Sn/Cu bumps and Sn/Cu pads. It has been proven that Ag capping layer is effective in reducing the oxidization of Sn bumps at ambient atmosphere.6The Cu bumps with the application of the Ag layer further prevents the oxidization of Sn layer, thus making the bonding feasible under low bonding pressure.Effect of Aging Treatment MicrostructureAfter 30 min aging treatment, the microstructure of the solder joints was nearly unchanged, as shown in Fig. 9a. Figure 9b gives the cross sectional back-scattered electron (BSE) image of the Sn/Cu solder joint after 25 h aging treatment. It is indicated that the Sn-rich phase has completely transformed into the Cu 6Sn 5phase. As aging continued, the thicknessFig.7.Contact resistance of the solder joints versus bonding pressure.Fig.8.Shear strength of the solder joints versus bonding pressure.Fig.9.The SEM images showing the cross section of the solder joints of the Sn/Cu bumps-Sn/Cu pads after aging treatment of (a) 30 min,(b) 25 h, (c) 250 h, (d) 500 h, and (e) 1000 h.1450Lee, Roh, Chen, and Kimafter aging for 30 min, and, after aging for 1 h, the resistance of the solder joints sharply decreased to 6 m Ωand then leveled off. It was reported that the resistance of Sn was 10.1 µΩcm, and 17.5 µΩcm, 8.9 µΩcm for Cu 6Sn 5and Cu 3Sn, respectively.15At the early stage of aging, the contact resistance decreased sharply (Fig. 11a), even though we do notobserve the noticeable microstructural change inFig.10.The SEM images showing the cross section of the solder joints of the Ag/Sn/Cu bumps-Ag/Sn/Cu pads after aging treatment of (a) 30 min,(b) 25 h, (c) 250 h, (d) 500 h, and (e) 1000 h.Table I.Cu Concentration in (Cu, Ag)3Sn andCu 3Sn Phases500 h 34.0 at.%71.0 at.%1000 h31.4 at.%72.2 at.%of the Cu 6Sn 5phase reduced and partly transformed to the Cu 3Sn phase, as can be compared from Fig. 9b and c. The remaining Cu 6Sn 5IMC layer was still visible in the Cu 3Sn phase after 500 h aging treatment, shown in Fig. 9d. Until 1000 h of aging,no Cu 6Sn 5phase could be detected in the joint,which indicated that all of the Cu 6Sn 5phase had transformed into Cu 3Sn.The microstructure change of Ag/Sn/Cu solder joints with aging time is demonstrated in Fig. 10.After 30 min aging treatment, the microstructure of the solder joints also remained unchanged (see Fig.10a). After 25 h aging, as Fig. 10b shows, Sn-rich phase disappeared and the originally intermittent (Cu, Ag)6Sn 5phase grew into a continuous layer. The Sn-rich was considered to transform into the Cu 6Sn 5phase, since the Ag atoms were already depleted by the formation of the (Cu, Ag)6Sn 5phase. As the aging time exceeded 250 h, the Cu 6Sn 5phase was completely transformed into the Cu 3Sn phase, and the (Cu, Ag)6Sn 5IMC layer transformed to the (Cu, Ag)3Sn IMC layer, as shown in Fig. 10c. The mi-crostructure of the solder joints then got into a stable phase, even after 1000 h of aging time. The composi-tion of (Cu, Ag)3Sn IMCs was determined to be28.52at.%Cu, 43.40at.%Ag, and 28.09at.%Sn by EDS analysis. Table I shows the Cu concentration in (Cu,Ag)3Sn and Cu 3Sn phases. The Cu concentration in the (Cu, Ag)3Sn phase is lower than that in Cu 3Sn be-cause of the incorporation of Ag atoms into Cu lattice.Thus, less Cu atoms are needed to diffuse into the joint area to be involved in the reaction, and the phase transformation rate of (Cu, Ag)6Sn 5to (Cu,Ag)3Sn was faster than that of Cu 6Sn 5to Cu 3Sn.In addition, vacancies were observed at the inter-face between Cu 3Sn phase and copper layer in all of the joints with different aging times. The vacancies were considered to be Kirkendall voids caused by the migration of Cu atoms into the solder, since each of the Cu and Sn atomic forms moved with a differ-ent velocity.14As aging time went on, the voids grew up and aggregated into a clearance band, as shown clearly in Fig. 9d.Contact Resistance and Shear StrengthThe contact resistance of aged solder joints made under 80 MPa is given in Fig. 11. From the results,it can be seen that the resistance of the solder joints was about 8–10 m Ωfor both kinds of bumps before aging. The resistance of the solder joints decreasedContact Resistance and Shear Strength of the Solder JointsFormed Using Cu Bumps Capped with Sn or Ag/Sn Layer1451the solder joints. So, we can interpret it as the inter-face stability. The interfaces between solder bumps and pads were not completely contacted during bonding, since the Sn surface would be micro-scopically rough. After aging, good contact can be acquired through the interdiffusion. The decrease of the contact resistance is believed to overwhelm the increase of resistance due to the formation of Cu6Sn5. It is believed that descending of the contact resistance was due to the interdiffusion and phase transformation during aging at high temperature. As the aging time increased, the interdiffusion occurred more extensively between Ag/Sn/Cu (or Sn/Cu) bumps and Ag/Sn (or Sn) layer. Therefore, the annealed solder joints were more stable. Fur-thermore, as mentioned above, the Cu6Sn5phase gradually transformed into Cu3Sn during aging treatment, and the Cu6Sn5phase faded in the end. So, it was suggested to be the reason why the con-tact resistance found a descending trend and then leveled off in the case of Sn/Cu bump. Meanwhile, it was indicated that the contact resistance of (Cu, Ag)3Sn should also be lower than that of (Cu,Ag)6Sn5, even though no relevant resistance data of (Cu, Ag)3Sn and (Cu, Ag)6Sn5phases are available now. All test chips reached 1000 h of the thermal aging without any failure.Shear Strength of Solder JointsFigure 12 shows the shear strength value of aged solder joints. The shear strength of solder joints was about 15 MPa before aging. After 25 h aging treat-ment, the shear strength of solder joints sharply increased to about 40 MPa and found an ascending way until 500 h, where the shear strength reached the highest value of 45 MPa. Then, there is a small decrease of shear strength in the specimen, which was aged for 1000 h. Voids formed in the Cu inter-face during the aging. However, as results implied, void formation did not have a significant influence on the reliability of the solder joints.Fracture ModesThe fracture surface of solder joints with differ-ent aging time was analyzed by SEM after shear test. The fracture modes of Ag/Sn/Cu and Sn/Cu solder joints can be classified into six categories, respectively, as shown in Figs. 13 and 14. The description of various failure modes is listed in Tables II and III.Figure 15 shows the ratio of fracture modes of Sn/Cu solder joints as a function of aging time. Be-fore aging treatment, the mode A was the main frac-ture mode of the solder joints which were formed at 200°C under 80 MPa. As aging time increased, the main fracture mode changed from mode A to mode C, and then to mode D. In the case of the Ag/Sn/Cu bumps, the main fracture modes changed from mode A to mode C and, after 500 h aging treatment, the mode E grew into the main fracture mode (see Fig. 15b). It is believed that the shift of the fracture modes was originated from the microstructure evo-lution, especially the transformation of IMC phases during the aging test. Before aging treatment, theabFig.11.The contact resistance of solder joints as a function of agingtime (a) short time and (b) long time.Fig.12.The shear strength of solder joints as a function of aging time.1452Lee, Roh, Chen, and Kimmicrostructure of the solder joints consisted of Sn-rich phase and Cu6Sn5(or (Cu, Ag)6Sn5). Since the Sn-rich phase is softer than IMC phase,14the frac-ture was more prone to occur at the interface bet-ween Cu6Sn5(or (Cu, Ag)6Sn5) and Sn-rich phase. Another probable reason for mode A failure is that the bonding between Cu bumps and Cu pads was not complete. So, the failure originally occurred at the poorest bonding area and propagated along the interface between bumps and pads. In the case of Sn/Cu bump, after 25 h and 250 h aging treatment,the microstructure consisted only of the intermetal-Fig.13.The SEM images of the fracture modes of the Sn/Cu joints after shear test.Fig.14.The SEM images of the fracture modes of the Ag/Sn/Cu joints after shear test.Contact Resistance and Shear Strength of the Solder JointsFormed Using Cu Bumps Capped with Sn or Ag/Sn Layer1453lic phase, namely, the Cu6Sn5and Cu3Sn, respec-tively. However, due to the formation of Kirkendall voids along the interface between Cu and Cu3Sn (Cu6Sn5) IMCs layer, which was induced by the interdiffusion of Sn and Cu atoms, the fracture was more likely to occur along this weakened region.In regards to the Ag/Sn/Cu bumps, the micro-structure of the solder joints consisted of Cu6Sn5 layer and (Cu, Ag)6Sn5phase sandwiched in Cu6Sn5 after 25 h aging treatment. The fracture occurred along the interface between Cu and Cu6Sn5(or Cu3Sn) layer, where the Kirkendall voids formed. However, after 250 h aging treatment, only Cu3Sn and (Cu, Ag)3Sn phases remained in the solder joints, and the fracture occurred at (Cu, Ag)3Sn/ Cu3Sn interface. It was considered that this inter-face was the weakest site in the joints after a long aging time. Due to the incorporation of Ag atoms, Ag atoms take the place of parts of Cu atoms by the formation of (Cu, Ag)6Sn5. Thus, less Cu atoms are needed to diffuse into the interconnection area to be involved in the reaction, which would alleviate the Kirkendall voids effect at the Cu/Cu3Sn interface, as shown in Fig. 10.CONCLUSIONSThe bondability and reliability of Cu bump with Sn (or Ag/Sn) capping layer to Cu pad with Sn (or Ag/Sn) layer were investigated. The microstructure of the solder joints was characterized before and after aging treatment. The main results are summa-rized as follows.Table II.Definition of Fracture Modes for Sn/Cu JointsSn/Cu Bump3and Cu6Sn5.Cu-rich layerB Mixture of mode A and interfacial failure F Interfacial failure between Cu-richbetween Cu6Sn5and Cu layer and TiC Interfacial failure between Cu6Sn5and G Mixture of modeD and mode FCu-rich layerTable III.Definition of Fracture Modes for Ag/Sn/Cu JointsAg/Sn/Cu Bump3and Cu6Sn5(Cu, Ag)3SnB Mixture of mode A and interfacial failure F Interfacial failure between Cu-rich layerbetween Cu6Sn5and Cu and TiC Mixture of Cu6Sn5/Cu-rich layer and G Mixture of mode E and mode FCu6Sn5/(Cu, Ag)6Sn5interfacial failureFig.15.The ratio of the fracture modes of (a) Sn/Cu bumps and (b) Ag/Sn/Cu bumps as a function of aging time.a b1454Lee, Roh, Chen, and Kim•The Cu bumps with Ag/Sn capping layer could be bonded at 200°C under low bonding pressure because Ag capping layer served to prevent the solder bumps from oxidizing.•Sn-rich phase and Cu6Sn5IMCs were observed in the joints made by Sn/Cu bumps with Sn/Cu layer.And, in the joints made by Ag/Sn/Cu bumps with Ag/Sn/Cu layer, another IMC phase (Cu, Ag)6Sn5 was also detected before the aging treatment.•After 1000 h aging treatment, the Cu6Sn5or (Cu, Ag)6Sn5in the solder joints transformed to the Cu3Sn or (Cu, Ag)3Sn phase. Due to the incorpo-ration of Ag atoms into Cu lattice, the Cu con-centration in the (Cu, Ag)3Sn is lower than that of Cu3Sn, which explained why the phase trans-formation rate of (Cu, Ag)6Sn5to (Cu, Ag)3Sn was faster than that of Cu6Sn5to Cu3Sn.•The average contact resistance of the solder joints was about 8–10 mΩfor both kinds of bumps before aging. After aging for 1 h, the resistance of the solder joints decreased to 6 mΩand then leveled off. All test chips reached 1000h of the thermal aging without any failure.•The shear strength value of the solder joints was about 15 MPa before aging treatment. The shear strength of solder joints increased to 45 MPa after 25 h aging treatment and was then satu-rated to the value of the 45 MPa.•After aging treatment, the fracture mode changed from the failure in the solder joint to the fracture in the Cu interface, which was originated from the interfacial weakness by the development of Kirkendall voids.ACKNOWLEGEMENTThis work was supported by Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) through the Cen-ter for Electronic Packaging Materials (CEPM).REFERENCES1.S.F. Al-Sarawi, D. Abbott, and P.D. Franzon, IEEE Trans.Components, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology—Part B21, 2 (1998).2.H. Kanbach, J. Wilde, F. Kriebel, and E. Meusel, SolderingSurface Mount Technol.12, 35 (2000).3.M. Kada, IEICE Trans. on Electronic E Ser. C84, 1763(2001).4.K. Takahashi, M. Umemoto, N. Tanaka, K. Tanida,Y. Nemoto, Y. Tomita, M. Tago, and M. Bonkohara, Microelectr. Reliability43, 1267 (2003).5.Y. Tomita, T. Morifuji, M. Tomisaka, M. Sunohara, Y. Nemoto,T. Sato, K. Takahashi, and M. Bonkohara, J. Chem. Eng.Jpn.36, 119 (2003).6.S.H. Lee and Y.-H. Kim, Key Eng. Mater., in press.7. F. Bartels and J.W. Morris, Jr., J. Electron. Mater.23, 787(1994).8.K.N. Tu and R.D. Thompson, Acta Metall.30, 947 (1982).9.H.T. Lee and M.H. Chen, Mater. Sci. Eng.A333, 24 (2002).10. A.C.K. So, Y.C. Chan, and J.K.L. Lai, IEEE Trans. Compo-nents, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technol.—Part B20,161 (1997).11. C.M. Chuang and K.L. Lin, J. Electron. Mater.32, 1426(2003).12.H. Akio, Y. Hiroto, I. Eiichi, and F.K. Kojiro, Sci. Technol.Adv. Mater.5, 267 (2004).13. A. Sharif and Y.C. Chan, Mater. Sci. Eng.B106, 126(2004)14. E.A. Brandes and G.B. Brook, Smithells Metals ReferenceBook(Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998), pp. 13-1–13-119.15.R.J. Fields, S.R. Low, and G.K. Lucey, Jr., The Metal Scienceof Joining(Warrendale, PA: TMS, 1992), p. 165.。
外文文献译文及原文 - 副本(DOC)
目录1外文文献译文 (3)1外文文献原文 (4)2外文文献译文 (7)2外文文献原文 (9)1、外文文献译文《人力资本投资》节选作者：西奥多·威廉·舒尔茨《人力资本投资》---- 简要介绍1960年舒尔茨在美国经济学会年会上发表的题为《人力资本投资》的演说中，对于人力资本观点作了非常系统的论述。
这篇演说震惊了西方整个学术界，这不仅因为舒尔茨一向给人的印象是一位农业经济学家，而且还因为一般人总以为资本是有形的、物质的，至于教育、在职训练、保健、人口流动等方面的投资也可以增加一国资本存量和加速经济发展的观念对于当时的经济学界来说的确是很新鲜的。
这次会议之后，人力资本成为经济学中一个非常热门的新兴领域，“人力资本”也成了西方教育经济学的基本概念，人力资本理论成为现代西方资产阶级发展经济学的一个主要学派。
《人力资本投资》---- 内容提要舒尔茨这篇《人力资本投资》被人称之为：人力资本研究新领域的“独立宣言”，其在文中提出了九项主张：“在税收政策上应该给人力资本给予优惠；防止人人力资本的闲置和老化；避免对人力资本投资进行人为的干扰；完善人力资本市场，银行应积极主动地提供人力资本所需的费用，鼓励私人和公共投资；政府应承担人力资本投资的大部分费用，特别是资助劳动力向城市转移；重视低收入者的人力资本投资；明确教育和保健同样具有经济意义，它们是一项投资，要扭转投资在这方面的不平衡；增加政府投入、扩大人力资本投资，以减少收入的不平等；舒尔茨所提出的人力资本理论的基本内涵是：把资本分为物质资本和人力资本两种形式。
人力资本是体现在劳动者身上的以劳动者的数量和质量表示的资本。
劳动者的知识、技术水平、劳动技能的高低不同，决定了人力资本对经济的生产性作用的不同，结果使国民收入增长的程度也不同。
舒尔茨的人力资本理论有五个主要观点：（一）人力资本存在于人的身上，表现为知识、技能、体力（健康状况）价值的总和。
一个国家的人力资本可以通过劳动者的数量、质量以及劳动时间来度量。
外文文献翻译范例
StatusComplete
Type：Office
Location：Hong Kong
Construction started：18 April 1985
Completed：1990
Opening：17 May 1990
HeightAntenna spire：367.4 m (1,205.4 ft)
2011年6月8日
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建筑师：Bruce Graham, design partner, Skidmore, Owings and Merrill
地点：Chicago
甲方：Sears Roebuck and Company
工程师：Fazlur Khan of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill.项目年份：2008
香港1985年4月18日开工建设1990年完成1990年5月17日开幕高度天线尖顶三百六十七点四米2418英尺屋顶三百一十五点米10335英尺顶层二百八十八点二米九百四十五点五英尺技术细节地上楼层数724层楼建筑面积一十三点五万平方米1450000平方英尺电梯数45由奥的斯电梯公司生产的设计与施工主要承建商香港建设控股有限公司引文需要熊谷组香港贝聿铭建筑师事务所建筑师事务所谢尔曼西贡有限公司sl的托马斯博阿达莱斯利罗伯逊结构工程师协会rllp参考文献对中国塔简称中银大厦银行是中环香港最知名的摩天大楼之一
外文翻译资料及译文
附录C：外文翻译资料Article Source：Business & Commercial Aviation, Nov 20, 2000. 5-87-88 Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals Electronic publications can increase the efficiency of your digital aircraft and analogtechnicians.Benoff, DaveComputerized technical manuals are silently revolutionizing the aircraft maintenance industry by helping the technician isolate problems quickly, and in the process reduce downtime and costs by more than 10 percent.These electronic publications can reduce the numerous volumes of maintenance manuals, microfiche and work cards that are used to maintain engines, airframes, avionics and their associated components."As compared with the paper manuals, electronic publications give us greater detail and reduced research times," said Chuck Fredrickson, general manager of Mercury Air Center in Fort Wayne, Ind.With all the advances in computer hardware and software technologies, such as high quality digital multimedia, hypertext and the capability to store and transmit digital multimedia via CD-ROMs/ networks, technical publication companies have found an effective, cost-efficient method to disseminate data to technicians.The solution for many operators and OEMs is to take advantage of today's technology in the form of Electronic Technical Manuals (ETM) or Interactive Technical Manuals (IETM). An ETM is any technical manual prepared in digital format that has the ability to be displayed using any electronic hardware media. The difference between the types of ETM/IETMs is the embedded functionality and implementation of the data."The only drawback we had to using ETMs was getting enough computers to meet our technicians' demand," said Walter Berchtold, vice president of maintenance at Jet Aviation's West Palm Beach, Fla., facility.A growing concern is the cost to print paper publications. In an effort to reduce costs, some aircraft manufacturers are offering incentives for owners to switch from paper to electronic publications. With an average printing cost of around 10 cents per page, a typical volume of a paper technical manual can cost the manufacturer over $800 for each copy. When producing a publication electronically, average production costs for a complete set of aircraft manuals are approximately $20 per copy. It is not hard to see the cost advantages of electronic publications.Another advantage of ETMs is the ease of updating information. With a paper copy, the manufacturer has to reprint the revised pages and mail copies to all the owners. When updates are necessary for an electronic manual, changes can either be e-mailed to theowners or downloaded from the manufacturer's Web site.So why haven't more flight departments converted their publications to ETM/IETMs? The answer lies in convincing technicians that electronic publications can increase their efficiency."We had an initial learning curve when the technicians switched over, but now that they are familiar with the software they never want to go back to paper," said Fredrickson.A large majority of corporate technicians also said that while they like the concept of having a tool that aids the troubleshooting process, they are fearful to give up all of their marked-up paper manuals.In 1987, a human factors study was conducted by the U.S. government to compare technician troubleshooting effectiveness, between paper and electronic methodology, and included expert troubleshooting procedures with guidance through the events. Results of the project indicated that technicians using electronic media took less than half the time to complete their tasks than those using the paper method, and technicians using the electronic method accomplished 65 percent more in that reduced time.The report also noted that new technicians using the electronic technical manuals were 12-percent more efficient than the older, more experienced technicians. (Novices using paper took 15 percent longer than the experts.)It is interesting that 90 percent of the technicians who used the electronic manuals said they preferred them to the paper versions. This proved to the industry that with proper training, the older technicians could easily transition from paper to electronic media.Electronic publications are not a new concept, although how they are applied today is. "Research over the last 20 years has provided a solid foundation for today's IETM implementation," said Joseph Fuller of the U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center. "IETMs such as those for the Apache, Comanche, F-22, JSTAR and V-22 have progressed from concept to military and commercial implementation."In the late 1970s, the U.S. military investigated the feasibility of converting existing paper and microfilm. The Navy Technical Information Presentation System (NTIPS) and the Air Force Computer- based Maintenance Aid System (CMAS) were implemented with significant cost savings.The report stated that transition to electronic publications resulted in reductions in corrective maintenance time, fewer false removals of good components, more accurate and complete maintenance data collection reports, reduction in training requirements and reduced system downtime.The problem that the military encountered was ETMs were created in multiple levels of complexity with little to no standardization. Options for publications range from simple page-turning programs to full-functioning automated databases.This resulted in the classification of ETMs so that the best type of electronic publication could be selected for the proper application.Choosing a LevelWith all of the OEM and second- and third-party electronic publications that are available it is important that you choose the application level that is appropriate for your operation.John J. Miller, BAE Systems' manager of electronic publications, told B/CAthat "When choosing the level of an ETM/IETM, things like complexity of the aircraft and its systems, ease of use, currency of data and commonality of data should be the deciding factors; and, of course, price. If operational and support costs are reduced when you purchase a full-functioning IETM, then you should purchase the better system."Miller is an expert on the production, sustainment and emerging technologies associated with electronic publications, and was the manager of publications for Boeing in Philadelphia.Electronic publications are classified in one of five categories. A Class 1 publication is a basic electronic "page turner" that allows you to view the maintenance manual as it was printed. With a Class 2 publication all the original text of the manual is viewed as one continuous page with no page breaks. In Class 3, 4 and 5 publications the maintenance manual is viewed on a computer in a frame-based environment with increasing options as the class changes. (See sidebar.)Choosing the appropriate ETM for your operation is typically limited to whatever is being offered on the market, but since 1991 human factors reports state the demand has increased and, therefore, options are expected to follow.ETM/IETM ProvidersCompanies that create ETM/IETMs are classified as either OEM or second party provider. Class 1, 3 and 4 ETM/IETMs are the most commonly used electronic publications for business and commercial operators and costs can range anywhere from $100 to $3,000 for each ETM/ IETM. The following are just a few examples ofETM/IETMs that are available on the market.Dassault Falcon Jet offers operatorsof the Falcon 50/50EX, 900/900EX and 2000 a Class 4 IETM called the Falcon Integrated Electronic Library by Dassault (FIELD). Produced in conjunction with Sogitec Industries in Suresnes Cedex, France, the electronic publication contains service documentation, basic wiring, recommended maintenance and TBO schedules, maintenance manual, tools manual, service bulletins, maintenance and repair manual, and avionics manual.The FIELD software allows the user to view the procedures and hot- link directly to the Illustrated parts catalog. The software also enables the user to generate discrepancy forms, quotation sheets, annotations in the manual and specific preferences for each user.BAE's Miller said most of the IETM presentation systems have features called "Technical Notes." If a user of the electronic publication notices a discrepancy or needs to annotate the manual for future troubleshooting, the user can add a Tech Note (an electronic mark-up) to the step or procedure and save it to the base document. The next time that or another user is in the procedure, clicking on the tech note icon launches a pop-up screen displaying the previous technician's comments. The same electronic transfer of tech notes can be sent to other devices by using either a docking station or through a network server. In addition, systems also can use "personal notes" similar to technical notes that are assigned ID codes that only the authoring technician can access.Requirements for the FIELD software include the minimum of a 16X CD-ROM drive,Pentium II 200 MHz computer, Windows 95, Internet Explorer 4 SP 1 and Database Access V3.5 or higher.Raytheon offers owners of Beech and Hawker aircraft a Class 4 IETM called Raytheon Electronic Publication Systems (REPS). The REPS software links the frame-based procedures with the parts catalog using a single CD-ROM.Raytheon Aircraft Technical Publications said other in- production Raytheon aircraft manual sets will be converted to the REPS format, with the goal of having all of them available by 2001. In addition Raytheon offers select Component Maintenance Manuals (CMM). The Class 1 ETM is a stand-alone "page-turner" electronic manual that utilizes the PDF format of Adobe Acrobat.Other manufacturers including Bombardier, Cessna and Gulfstream offer operators similar online and PDF documentation using a customer- accessed Web account.Boeing is one manufacturer that has developed an onboard Class 5 IETM. Called the Computerized Fault Reporting System (CFRS), it has replaced the F-15 U.S. Air Force Fault Reporting Manuals. Technologies that are currently being applied to Boeing's military system are expected to eventually become a part of the corporate environment.The CFRS system determines re-portable faults by analyzing information entered during a comprehensive aircrew debrief along with electronically recovered maintenance data from the Data Transfer Module (DTM). After debrief the technicians can review aircraft faults and schedule maintenance work to be performed. The maintenance task is assigned a Job Control Number (JCN) and is forwarded electronically to the correct work center or shop. Appropriate information is provided to the Air Force's Core Automated Maintenance System (CAMS).When a fault is reported by pilot debrief, certain aircraft systems have the fault isolation procedural data on a Portable Maintenance Aid (PMA). The JCN is selected on a hardened laptop with a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) connection to the CFRS LAN infrastructure. The Digital Wiring Data System (DWDS) displays aircraft wiring diagrams to the maintenance technician for wiring fault isolation. On completion of maintenance, the data collected is provided to the Air Force, Boeing and vendors for system analysis.Third party IETM developers such as BAE Systems and Dayton T. Brown offer OEMs the ability to subcontract out the development of Class 1 through 5 ETM/IETMs. For example, Advantext, Inc. offers PDF and IPDF Class 1 ETMs for manufacturers such as Piper and Bell Helicopters. Technical publications that are available include maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, service bulletins, wiring diagrams, service letters and interactive parts ordering forms.The difference between the PDF and IPDF version is that the IPDF version has the ability to search for text and include hyperlinks. A Class 1 ETM, when printed, is an exact reproduction of the OEM manuals, including any misspellings or errors. Minimum requirements for the Advantext technical publications is a 486 processor, 16 MB RAM with 14 MB of free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Aircraft Technical Publishers (ATP) offers Class 1, 2 and 3 ETM/ IETMsfor the Beechjet 400/400A; King Air 300/ 350, 200 and 90; Learjet 23/24/25/28/29/35/36/55; Socata TB9/10/20/21 and TBM 700A; Sabreliner 265-65, -70 and -80; andBeech 1900. The libraries can include maintenance manuals, Illustrated parts bulletins, wiring manuals, Airworthiness Directives, Service Bulletins, component maintenance manuals and structural maintenance manuals. System minimum requirements are Pentium 133 MHz, Windows 95 with 16 MB RAM, 25 MB free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Additional providers such as Galaxy Scientific are providing ETM/ IETMs to the FAA. This Class 2, 3 and 4 publication browser is used to store, display and edit documentation for the Human Factors Section of the administration."Clearly IETMs have moved from research to reality," said Fuller, and the future looks to hold more promise.The Future of Tech PubsThe use of ETM/IETMs on laptop and desktop computers has led research and development corporations to investigate the human interface options to the computer. Elements that affect how a technician can interface with a computer are the work environment, economics and ease of use. Organizations such as the Office of Naval Research have focused their efforts on the following needs of technicians: -- Adaptability to the environment.-- Ease of use.-- Improved presentation of complex system relationship.-- Maximum reuse and distribution of engineering data.-- Intelligent data access.With these factors in mind, exploratory development has begun in the areas of computer vision, augmented reality display and speech recognition.Computer vision can be created using visual feedback from a head- mounted camera. The camera identifies the relative position and orientation of an object in an observed scene, and the object is used to correlate the object with a three-dimensional model. In order for a computer vision scenario to work, engineering data has to be provided through visually compatible software.When systems such as Sogitech's View Tech electronic publication browser and Dassault Systemes SA's Enovia are combined, a virtual 3D model is generated.The digital mockup allows the engineering information to directly update the technical publication information. If a system such as CATIA could be integrated into a Video Reference System (VRS), then it could be possible that a technician would point the camera to the aircraft component, the digital model identifies the component and the IETM automatically displays the appropriate information.This example of artificial intelligence is already under development at companies like Boeing and Dassault. An augmented reality display is a concept where visual cues are presented to users on a head-mounted, see-through display system.The cues are presented to the technician based on the identification of components on a 3D model and correlation with the observed screen. The cues are then presented as stereoscopic images projected onto the object in the observed scene.In addition a "Private Eye" system could provide a miniature display of the maintenance procedure that is provided from a palm- size computer. Limited success hascurrently been seen in similar systems for the disabled. The user of a Private Eye system can look at the object selected and navigate without ever having to touch the computer. Drawbacks from this type of system are mental and eye fatigue, and spatial disorientation.Out of all the technologies, speech recognition has developed into an almost usable and effective system. The progression through maintenance procedures is driven by speaker-independent recognition. A state engine controls navigation, and launches audio responses and visual cues to the user. Voice recognition software is available, although set up and use has not been extremely successful.Looking at other industries, industrial manufacturing has already started using "Palm Pilot" personal digital assistants (PDAs) to aid technicians in troubleshooting. These devices allow the technician to have the complete publication beside them when they are in tight spaces. "It would be nice to take the electronic publications into the aircraft, so we are not constantly going back to the work station to print out additional information," said Jet Aviation's Berchtold.With all the advantages that a ETM/ IETM offers it should be noted that electronic publications are not the right solution all of the time, just as CBT is not the right solution for training in every situation. Only you can determine if electronic publications meet your needs, and most technical publication providers offer demo copies for your review. B/CA IllustrationPhoto: Photograph: BAE Systems' Christine Gill prepares a maintenance manual for SGML conversion BAE Systems; Photograph: Galaxy Scientific provides the FAA's human factors group with online IETM support.; Photograph: Raytheon's Class 4 IETM "REPS" allows a user to see text and diagrams simultaneously with hotlinks to illustrated parts catalogs.外文翻译资料译文部分文章出处:民航商业杂志，2000-11-20,5-87-88交互式电子技术手册的电子出版物可以提高数字飞机和模拟技术的效率。
外文文献翻译原文+译文
外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。
完整英语课文翻译 泛读教程2第三版(刘乃银)
第一单元：梦想的阴暗之面艾力克斯? 哈利许多人怀有美好的愿望，期望能成为作家，但是能够梦想成真的人不多。
艾力克斯? 哈利也想成为作家，可是他成功了。
阅读下面这篇文章，看一看他成功的原因。
许多青年人对我说，他们想成为作家。
我一直鼓励这样的人，但是我也向他们解释“成为作家”和写作之间存在着巨大的差别。
多数情况下这些年轻人梦寐以求的是财富与名誉，从未想到要孤身一人长久地坐在打字机旁。
“你们渴望的应该是写作，”我对他们说，“而不应该是当作家。
”事实上，写作是一项孤单寂寞而又收入微薄的工作。
有一个被命运之神垂青的作家，就有成千上万个永远无法实现梦想的人。
即使那些成功人士也经常受到长久的冷落，穷困不堪。
我便是其中之一。
我放弃了在海岸警卫队做了二十年的工作，为的是成为一名自由撰稿人，这时，我根本没有前途可言。
我所拥有的只是一位住在纽约市的朋友，乔治? 西姆斯，他和我是在田纳西州的赫宁一起长大的。
乔治为我找了个家，位于格林威治村公寓大楼中的一间腾空的储藏室，而他是那幢大楼的管理员。
房子里冷嗖嗖的，没有卫生间，不过这没什么。
我马上买了一台旧的手动打字机，感觉自己颇象一位名符其实的作家。
然而，大约一年后，我的写作生涯依然没有任何起色，我开始怀疑自己。
卖出一篇小说是如此艰难，以至我几乎填不饱肚子。
但是，我清楚的是我想写作，我已梦寐以求了许多年。
我并不准备成为一名到死时还在想假如的人。
我会坚持把我的梦想付诸实践-- 即使这梦想意味着不稳定的生活和对失败的恐惧。
这是希望的阴暗面，任何心存梦想的人都必须学会在这阴暗面下生存。
后来有一天，我接到了一个电话，由此改变了我的一生。
这并不是一位代理人或编辑打来电话，主动要求与我签大的稿约。
恰恰相反-- 是一声鸣笛，诱使我放弃梦想。
打电话来的是海岸警卫队的老熟人，现在在旧金山。
他曾经借给我几美元，喜欢催我还给他。
“我什么时候才能拿到那十五美元，艾力克斯？”他逗我说。
“等我下一次卖出作品吧。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：English literature has a long and rich history, with countless works that have been translated into various languages around the world. From ancient epics like Beowulf and The Odyssey to modern classics like To Kill a Mockingbird and Harry Potter, English literature has captured the hearts and minds of readers for centuries.第二篇示例：The world of academic research is vast and ever-growing, with a wealth of knowledge and information being produced every day. One important aspect of this research is the publication of English-language academic articles. These articles cover a wide range of topics across various fields, from science and technology to social sciences and humanities.第三篇示例：English literature is a treasure trove of human culture and knowledge. The literary works of great writers from around theworld offer insights into the human experience, emotions, and imagination. Through the process of translation, these literary masterpieces are made accessible to a global audience, allowing people from different cultures and backgrounds to connect and appreciate the beauty of language and storytelling.第四篇示例：Abstract:Introduction:English literature holds a prominent position in the field of international academia, with a vast number of research articles, books, and journals being published in English. For researchers and scholars in non-English speaking countries, access to English literature is essential for staying up-to-date with the latest developments in their respective fields. However, understanding and interpreting English texts can present significant challenges due to linguistic, cultural, and contextual differences.Challenges in Translating English Literature:。
《写作教程》(刘海平主编)
刘海平主编新世纪大学英语系列教材《写作教程》（Book 2）上海：上海外语教育出版社2008年5月版。
Narrative WritingWhat you are going to learn in this part is another type of writing: narration. It often goes hand in hand with description. The only difference between them is that to narrate is to tell a story while to describe is to show a word picture. As a story, the narrative essay should include a plot, a climax and an ending, and it can be written either in the first person or in the third person. It is true that the main component of a narrative is the story, but details must be carefully selected to support, explain, and enhance the story.Exploring the Meaning of LifeWriting StrategyPrinciplesIn this unit, we will focus on the narrative writing essay. To narrate is to tell a story or give an account of a single experience or a series of related events. Narration often goes hand in hand with description. The experience or event may be in the past (past narration), may be what people usually do, or may be going on now (present narration). To write the narrative essay, all we have to do is tell what happened/has happened/ is happening in a coherent way. However, we should keep the following principles in mind:* A narrative essay, as a story, should have a plot (including time, place, and characters), a climax, and an ending.* A successful narrative is based on relevant details that contribute to bringing out its main ideas or the narrator's purpose of writing.* A narrative can be written either in the first person or in the third person, singular or plural.*A narrative essay should follow a logical time sequence: a chronological order (presenting events as they naturally occur in the story) or a flashback (taking the readers back in time to reveal an incident that occurred before the present scene of the essay),* A narrative usually contains dialogue to reveal actions or personality traits of the speakers. By presenting conversations, writers show rather than tell, often creating emphasis or a more dramatic effect.Task 1 Read to learn about writingSample ARead the following essay about a wedding, and pay attention to* how the author begins her narration;*how she presents the events;* what effect the dialogue at the end of the essay brings.My Sister’s WeddingIt is difficult to forget the day when my sister got married and moved away. It happened on 3 March 1993 and I can remember vividly the weeding ceremony, the dinner and the emotional farewell she took from me.①I helped her to dress up; it was what younger sisters are for. I helped her on with the heavy saree. It was spun with expensive thread, as my father did not want to spare any expense. ②She was his favorite and he wanted her to be given away with maximum pomp. They made a fuss when they saw that she was not ready. Finally, they left I insisted on riding with my sister, so that one of the escort party had to travel with my Dad. She didn't like it at all.The ceremony was long and exciting. My sister sat through it all with bowed head, as she was supposed to. I looked at her. She looked like the Goddess of Wealth herself. It was impossible to believe that as recently as yesterday, she had been running about in jeans.③The wedding was over and we went to the hall for the next stage of the celebrations, the sumptuous vegetarian dinner. The couple sat on their thrones while the crowd went to congratulate them. I was standing beside my sister, with a permanent smile fixed on my face and accepting all the gifts on her behalf. One eccentric uncle of ours actually heaved a standing fan in. I believe he just had to be the man who gave the biggest present.④The dinner over, we went home. I was surprised that as soon as we reached home, my sister asked for dinner. She had been so excited that she had not eaten. And what with all the cousins teasing her mercilessly. At about 11:00 p.m. came the part we dreaded the most: my sister‟s official farewell to us. She said nothing: just hugged all of us and cried .our mother cried the most of all. Finally she reconciled herself, gave the groom a long lecture on how he should take care of her darling and left them go. My father was a man of few words. He was all smiles and said nothing, but I knew that he was storing up his feelings for later. ⑤After they had left, I went into my room. I looked about. It looked so empty without my sister. We had been sharing that room since we were born. I lay in bed unable to sleep for at least two hours.”⑥"Then I felt thirsty and went to get a drinkAs I passed the hall, I saw my father sitting in the darkness. He was trying to come to terms with the loss of tile darling of his life. I went up to him, put my arms around him and kissed him. “You still got me, Pa,” I said.⑦“Yes, Geetha,” he said, “but for how long?”⑧Taken from GCE …O‟ Level Challenging EnglishEssays by Redspot Publishing, 2001①The firs person narration: introducing the time and events.②Detailed description with a reason.③A related detail about the narrator‟s sister.④Telling what they were doing during the dinner.⑤The emotional farewell.⑥Description of the narrator‟s loneliness.⑦Comforting her father.⑧A more emotional ending.Sample BIn our life, many things (big or small) happen every day, and many people are quite observant. Suppose you see a butterfly struggling to come out of its cocoon. Try to write a narrative essay to tell people a philosophic story. The following sample essay is just for your reference. Read it carefully and try to answer the questions after it.A man found the cocoon of a butterfly. One day, a small opening appeared. He sat and watched the butterfly for several hours as it straggled to force its body through that little hole. Then it seemed to stop making any progress. It appeared as if it had gotten as far as it could, and it could go no further.So the maul decided to help the butterfly. He took a pair of scissors and snipped off the remaining bit of the cocoon.The butterfly then emerged easily. But it had a swollen body and small, shriveled wings.The man continued to watch the butterfly because he expected that, at any moment, the wings would enlarge and expand to be able to support the body, which would contract in time.Neither happened! In fact, the butterfly spent the rest of its life crawling around with a swollen body and shriveled wings. It never was able to fly.What the man in his kindness and haste, did not understand was that the restricting cocoon and the struggle required for the butterfly to get through the tiny opening were God's way of forcing fluid from the body of the butterfly into its wings so that it would be ready for flight once it achieved its freedom from the cocoon.Sometimes struggles m-e exactly what we need in our lives. If God allowed us to go through our lives without any obstacles, it would cripple us. We would not be as strong as we could have been. We could never fly!Taken from the website: /a_butterfly_story.htm1.Questions on content and structure1. What purpose does the beginning paragraph serve?2. Why is this narrative essay written in the third person?3. Is the story told in the chronological order? If so, what are the adverbials of time and se- quence?4. What is the conclusion the writer draws after telling us the story?Sample CLife is enjoyable to some people while it can be hard to others. The following sample is an account of what happened to an old woman on her eightieth birthday. Simple as it is, the story shows us some aspects of the family relationship and 9ives us insights into the frustrations lonely people suffer. Now read it, paying attention to its structure, and then retell the story by answering the questions that follow.The PresentIt was the old lady‟s birthday.She got up early to be ready for the post. From the second floor flat she could see the postman when he came down the street, and the little boy from the ground floor brought up her letters on the rare occasions when anything came.Today she was sure there would be something. Myra wouldn't forget her mother's birthday, even if she seldom wrote at other times. Of course Myra was busy. Her husband had been made Mayor, and Myra herself had got a medal for her work for the aged.The old lady was proud of Myra, but Enid was the daughter she loved. Enid had never married, but had seemed content to live with her mother, and teach in a primary school round the comer.One evening, however, Enid said, "I've arranged for Mrs. Morrison to look after you for a few days, Mother. Tomorrow I have to go into hospital --just a minor operation. I'll soon be home."In the morning she went, but never came back -- she died on the operating table. Myra came to the funeral, and in her efficient way arranged for Mrs. Morrison to come in and light the fire and give the old lady her breakfast.Two years ago that was, and since then Myra had been to see her mother three times, but her husband never.The old lady was eighty today. She had put on her best dress. Perhaps – perhaps Myra might come. After all, eighty was a special birthday, another decade lived or endured just as you chose to look at it.Even if Myra did not come, she would send a present. The old lady was sure of that. Two spots of color brightened her cheeks. She was excited -- like a child. She would enjoy her day.Yesterday Mrs. Morrison had given the flat an extra clean, and today she had brought a card and a bunch of marigolds when she came to do the breakfast. Mrs. Grant downstairs had made a cake, and in the afternoon she was going down there to tea. The little boy, Johnnie, had been up with a packet of mints, and said he wouldn't go out to play until the post had come."I guess you'll get lots and lots of presents," he said. "I did last week when I was six."What would she like? A pair of slippers perhaps. Or a new cardigan. A cardigan would be lovely. Blue's such a pretty color. Jim had always liked her in blue. Or a table lamp. Or a book, a travel book, with pictures, or a little clock, with clear black numbers. So many lovely things.She stood by the window, watching. The postman turned round the comer on his bicycle. Her heart beat fast. Johnnie had seen him too and ran to the gate.Then clatter, clatter up the stairs, Johnnie knocked at her door."Granny, granny," he shouted, "I've got your post."He gave her four envelopes. Three were unsealed cards from old friends. The fourth was sealed, in Myra's writing. The old lady felt a pang of disappointment."No parcel, Johnnie?""No, granny."Maybe the parcel was too large to come by letter post. That was it. It would come later by parcel post. She must be patient.Almost reluctantly she tore the envelope open. Folded in the card was a piece of paper. Written on the card was a message under the printed Happy Birthday -- Buy yourself something nice with the check, Myra and Harold.The check fluttered to the floor like a bird with a broken wing. Slowly the old lady stooped to pick it up. Her present, her lovely present. With trembling fingers she tore it into little bits.Taken from College English, Book One Questions on content and structure1. What happened or what was the story about'?2. When did it happen?3. Where did it happen.'?4. Who was involved?5. Why did it happen?6. How did it happen?TASK 2 Enlarge your vocabularyA A descriptive essay is generally arranged according to space order while a narrative essay is usually organized according to time order. Time order is the simplest and most coherent and natural way of telling a stol3'. There are two kinds of adverbial phases indicating time or sequence. The first kind consists of one-word expressions of sequence such as first, then, next, last, etc. The second, kind consists of time expressions of more than one word such as in the morning, two years ago, in the afternoon, at other time, etc., which we could find in Sample C. Now underline the adverbial phrases indicating time in the following paragraph, which shows how culture can influence a person.From the moment of his birth the customs into which he is born shape his experience and behavior. By the time he can talk, he is the little creature of his culture, and by the time he is grown and able to take parting in its activities, its habits arc his habits, its beliefs his beliefs, its impossibilities his impossibilities.Taken from Patterns of Culture by Ruth BenedictB If you do not like the classification mentioned above, we may just look at that is, words frequently used hi a narrative to indicate time relations between events. Time transitions helpThe following are some sentences from a short story. With the help of time transitions, put them in the light order so that the story will flow smoothly.l. When he returned to England for a visit twenty years later, he decided to go back to his old university.2. When David Williams left the university, he went to Australia.3. David was delighted when he discovered that his old professor was still teaching there.4. He went to visit the old man, after they had an interesting talk, the professor went out get something.5. He looked at the date on it and saw that it had been given to the students the week before.6. David picked the paper up and read it through.7. While he was away, David saw an examination paper on the desk.8. When the professor came back, David said to him. "Professor, I'm certain that these are exactly the same questions that you asked us in our examinations twenty years ago! How is that possible?"10. "Yes, that's right." agreed the professor calmly. "The questions are the same, but the answers have changed."Taken from Intermediate Stories for ReproductionTASK 3 Write your own essayThe following essay topics are offered for your own writing practice. Select one or more topics that you are interested in and write your own narrative essay(s).1. The day Mother (or Father) cried2. The day everything went wrong ( or right )3. The happiest moment in my life1. A bad habit that got me into trouble3. The toughest experience I ever had6. My best holiday or special occasion7. An event that gave a hard lesson8. A very special first day or last dayTASK 4 Learn to write your essayRewriting is one of the most significant and rewarding steps of writing. It offers you an opportunity to discover ways of improving your writing by identifying problems and working out intelligent solutions. The following is a sample student essay. Read it, and try to revise it.Sample Student Essay CET-4For this part, you are given 30 minutes to write a composition about An Early Morning Walk in three paragraphs. You are given the first sentence of the first two paragraphs and the last sentence of the third paragraph. Your part of the composition should be about 100 words, not including the words given. Remember to write clearly.1. One morning I got up very early, and everything around was very quiet.2. When I arrived at the park, I found, to my surprise, that there were so many people there.3.Taking early morning walks makes a person healthy and wise.An Early Morning WalkOne morning I get up early, and everything g around was very quiet. The sun had just risen, shining brilliantly, everything seemed to be covered with a layer of golden silk. There were only some birds singing occasionally in the tall trees. I tripped on the way toward the park, breathing the fresh air, feeling extremely happy.When I arrived d at the park, I found, to my surprise, that there were so many people there. Men and women, boys and girls, all were enjoying themselves by various activities. Some were doing morning exercises, some were playing badminton, some old people were having their teawhile talking to each other cheerfully.I wandered around the park, to my delight, I found a few middle-school students talking to each other in English in the southeast corner of the park. I went to them at once and spoke to them in English, we became friends right away. I was very glad to find another opportunity to practice my spoken English. On the way home, I thought early morning walk was really helpful. Taking early morning walks makes a person healthy and wise.Revised Version An Early Morning WalkOne morning I got up very early, and everything around was very quiet. The sun had just risen, shining brilliantly, and everything seemed to be covered with a layer of golden silk. There were only some birds singing occasionally in the tall trees. I walked toward the park, breathing the fresh air and feeling extremely happy.When I arrived at the park, I found, to my surprise, that there were many people there. Men and women, boys and girls, all were enjoying themselves in their various activities. Some were doing morning exercises, some were playing badminton, and some old people were having their tea while talking to each other cheerfully.I wandered around the park. To my delight, I found a few middle-school students talking to each other ill English in one corner of the park.. I went up and spoke to them in English; we soon became friends. I was very glad to find another opportunity to practice my spoken English. On the way home, I thought an early morning walk was really good and healthy. Taking early morning walks makes a person healthy and wise.TASK 5 Additional readingHave you ever told lies to anyone? How do you feel when s/he realizes that you are dishonest? Here is a very good narrative essay about the most successful lesson the writer has ever learned in his life. Read it first and then answer the questions.I grew up ill the south of Spain in a little community called Estepona. I was 16 when one morning, my father told me I could drive him into a remote village called Mijas, about 18 miles away, on the condition that I take the car to be serviced at a nearby garage. Having just learned to drive and hardly ever having the opportunity to use the car, I readily accepted. I drove Dad into Mijas and promised to pick him up at 4 p. m.. then drove to catch a couple of movies at a theater near the garage. However, I became so interested in the films that I didn't pay any attention to the time. When the last movie had finished, I looked down at my watch. It was six o'clock. I was two hours late!I knew Dad would be angry if he found out I'd been watching movies. He'd never let me drive again. I decided to tell him that the car needed some repairs and that they had taken longer than had been expected. I drove up to the place where we had planned to meet and saw Dad waiting patiently on the corner. I apologized for being late and told trim that I'd come as quickly as I could, but the car had needed some major repairs. I'll never forget the look he gave me."I'm disappointed that you feel you have to lie to me, Jason.""What do you mean? I'm telling the truth."Dad looked at me again. "When you did not show up, I called the garage to ask if there were any problems, and they told me that you had not yet picked up the car. So you see, I know there were no problems wi th the car.” A feeling of guilt ran through me as I weakly confessed to my trip to the movie theater and the real reason for my being late. Dad listened intently as a sadness passed through him."I'm angry, not with you but with myself. You see, I realize that I have failed as a father if after all these years you feel that you have to lie to me. I have failed because I have brought up a son who cannot even tell the truth to his own father. I'm going to walk home now and think seriously about where I have gone wrong all these years."But Dad, it's18 miles to home. It's dark. You can't walk home"My protests and my apologies were useless. I had let my father down; and I was about to learn one of the most painful lessons of my life. Dad began walking along the dusty road. I quickly jumped in the car and followed behind, hoping he would weaken. I begged all the way, telling him how sorry I was, but he simply ignored me, continuing on silently, thoughtfully and painfully. For I18 miles I drove behind him, at a speed of about five milesSeeing my father in so much physical and emotional pain was the most distressing and painful experience that I have ever faced. However, it was also the most successful lesson I have never lied to him since.Taken from College English (new edition), Fast Reading 21. On what condition could the boy drive the car？2. What did he promise to do'?3. Why was he two hours late'?4. What did he decide to do then?3. How did his father know his son was not honest?6. How did the father react to his son's explanation?7. What was the "punishment" the father made for himself'?8. Why was the lesson the most successful one the boy had ever learned'?。
老人与海英文文献
文档来源为:从网络收集整理.word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.衡水学院毕业论文英文文献翻译学生姓名: 牟艳婷系别: 中国语言文学系专业: 汉语言文学年级: 2009级学号: 1022指导教师: 高永衡水学院教务处印原文The Old Man And the SeaHemingwayHe was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish. In the first forty days a boy had been with him. But after forty days without a fish the boy's parents had told him that the old man was now definitely and finally salao, which is the worst form of unlucky, and the boy had gone at their orders in another boat which caught three good fish the first week.It made the boy sad to see the old man come in each day with his skiff empty and he always went down to help him carry either the coiled lines or the gaff and harpoon and the sail that was furled around the mast. The sail was patched with flour sacks and, furled, it looked like the flag of permanent defeat.The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the tropic sea were on his cheeks.The blotches ran well down the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords But none of these scars were fresh. They were as old as erosions in a fishless desert.Everything about him was old except his eyes and they were the same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated."Santiago ," the boy said to him as they climbed the bank from where the skiff was hauled up. "I could go with you again. We've made some money."The old man had taught the boy to fish and the boy loved him.."No," the old man said. "You're with a lucky boat. Stay with them.""But remember how you went eighty-seven days without fish and then we caught big ones every day for three weeks.""I remember," the old man said. "I know you did not leave me because you doubted.""It was papa made me leave. I am a boy and I must obey him.""I know," the old man said. "It is quite normal." "He hasn't much faith." "No," the old man said. "But we have. Haven't we?" "Yes," the boy said. "Can I offer you a beer on theTerrace and then we'll take the stuff home.""Why not?" the old man said,"Between fishermen."They sat on the Terrace and many of the fishermen made fun of the old man and he was not angry. Others, of the older fishermen, looked at him and were sad. But they did not show it and they spoke politely about the current and the depths they had drifted their lines at and the steady good weather and of what they had seen.The successful fishermen of that day were already in and had butchered their marlin out and carried them laid full length across two planks, with two men staggering at the end of each plank, to the fish house where they waited for the ice truck to carry them to the market in Havana. Those who had caught sharks had taken them to the shark factory on the other side of the cove where they were hoisted on a block and tackle, their livers removed, their fins cut off and their hides skinned out and their flesh cut into strips for salting.When the wind was in the east a smell came across the harbor from the shark factory; but today there was only the faint edge of the odor because the wind had backed into the north and then dropped off and it was pleasant and sunny on the Terrace."Santiago," the boy said. "Yes," the old man said. He was holding his glass and thinking of many years ago. "Can I go out to get sardines for you for tomorrow?" "No. Go and play baseball. I can still row and Rogelio will throw the net." "I would like to go. If I cannot fish with you, I would like to serve in some way.""You bought me a beer," the old man said."You are already a man." "How old was I when you first took me in a boat?" "Five and you nearly were killed when I brought the fish in too green and he nearly tore the boat to pieces. Can you remember?""I can remember the tail slapping and banging and the thwart breaking and the noise of the clubbing. I can remember you throwing me into the bow where the wet coiled lines were and feeling the whole boat shiver and the noise of you clubbing him like chopping a tree down and the sweet blood smell all over me.""Can you really remember that or did I just tell it to you?""I remember everything from when we first went together." The old man looked at him with his sun-burned, confident loving eyes. "If you were my boy I'd take you out and gamble," he said. "But you are your father's and your mother's and you are in a lucky boat.""May I get the sardines? I know where I can get four baits too.""I have mine left from today. I put them in salt in the box.""Let me get four fresh ones.""One," the old man said. His hope and his confidence had never gone. But now they were freshening as when the breeze rises. "Two," the boy said. "Two," the old man agreed. "You didn't steal them?" "I would," the boy said. "But I bought these.""Thank you," the old man said. He was too simple to wonder when he had attained humility. But he knew he had attained it and he knew it was not disgraceful and it carried no loss of true pride. "Tomorrow is going to be a good day with this current," he said. "Where are you going?" the boy asked."Far out to come in when the wind shifts. I want to be out before it is light.""I'll try to get him to work far out," the boy said. "Then if you hook something truly big we can come to your aid.""He does not like to work too far out." "No," the boy said. "But I will see something that he cannot see such as a bird working and get him to come out after dolphin." "Are his eyes that bad?" "He is almost blind." "It is strange," the old man said. "He never went turtle-ing[. That is what kills the eyes."From the old man and the sea 译文老人与海[美]海明威他一个老人，划着小船独自在墨西哥湾中捕鱼；八十四天了还没有捕到过一条鱼。
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淮阴工学院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系部：计算机工程专业：计算机科学与技术姓名：刘海平学号： 10213120外文出处：Digital Avionics SystemsConference,2005. DASC 2005.The 24th附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文解决嵌入式OPENGL难题－使标准、工具和APIS能在高度嵌入和安全的环境中一起工作摘要作为定义和表现屏幕图象来说，嵌入式的HMIS正在使用OpenGL来表现API.由于图形加速子系统和商业驱动的出现，这一趋势能被很好的支持。
同时，嵌入的图形工具和软件厂商已经在他们的API中支持OpenGL。
因为其高度的嵌入和关键的安全环境，完整的OpenGL不是一个狭窄的标准。
为了能获得低价格/低功耗的硬件设备和减少获得关键安全证书的驱动的复杂性，必须包含OpenGL的子集。
近些年，移动图形工业已经从定义合适的OpenGL子集的工业联盟的努力中获得利益。
这些子集，或外形,存在于趋向为广泛的不同的嵌入式市场的应用的不同版本提供服务。
它很清楚如此定义明确的标准罐子和将会有一种在嵌入式和关键安全的图形业上的有益的影响，提供空前的便携和简单的HMI程序. 图形工具和软件厂商正在支持新的标准的水平是不清晰的。
对于终端开发者来说，这些要求是非常高的，就像既不支持或很难的保证的API的可靠性。
这篇论文在对厂商和开发者征税方面提出了些建议，获得用户接口和用OPENGL标准来确保工程的成功和HMI软件的广泛调度的建议。
背景图形处理单元（GPUs）在过去 10 年内, 嵌入式的系统经历了基本的变化的平台显示技术。
这些变化已经主要被两个相似技术所控制，使用了OPENGL的显示硬件和高级的以光栅为基础的EGS系统。
平面显示已经在支持嵌入式尺寸和宽度限制方面有了很大的提高。
以光栅为基础的EGS已经在解决增强的方法方面提供了足够的马力，特别是建立在日常的OPENGL硬件上。
那些渲染引擎或图形芯片是处理图形和创建或渲染图形的移动处理设备的一部分。
在桌面系统方面，硬件渲染引擎起处于统治地位，导致了两个高性能的处理器的分离，这两个处理器目前存在于大部分的系统中。
一个是一般计算，一个是处理和显示图形。
GPU的发展已经在很大程度上被较好的游戏能力和好的工作站和桌面图形处理的需求所控制。
GPU技术在嵌入式系统中寻得了一片生存空间，能提供在高级的在线的显示系统中很难或不可能达到的显示能力。
这些嵌入式的GPU被嵌入到不同的桌面式的图形卡片中，是GPU的特征：随身携带的存储器，硬件加速光设备，转换设备，光栅设备。
大型的桌面式图形公司提供有特色的硬件，在军事方面得到了广泛的使用。
一个嵌入式的GPU如下：目前大部分的GPU技术被用到嵌入式的系统中，它已经在桌面式图形加速方面占据一席之地。
对于GPU有个大胆的设想：将其功耗限制在5~15瓦。
这些设计在嵌入式的环境中能提供一个相等的功耗给桌面式或手提式的设备，并能提供一个可用的软件驱动程序。
OpenGL是目前大部分的共同的标准所提供的驱动程序。
作为一个嵌入式标准的OpenGLGPU的出现是伴随着那些新设计的标准而出现的，这些新设计的标准的出现是为了适应能充分利用硬件优势的图形程序的发展。
OpenGL是一个比较底层的应用程序接口，能提供支持2D和3D的几何绘图的函数的软件接口。
一些主要的OpenGL所支持的头文件如下：几何矩阵变换视口和裁剪变换纹理变换图形传递途径状态的管理几何变换缓存这些函数得到了能被GPU执行的逻辑的传递途径所支持。
这个传递途径在三角形、点、线和变换、裁剪颜色、纹理信息方面期望有一个几何规范，这些三角形、点、线和变换、裁剪颜色、纹理信息通常被用来转换几何图形，使这些几何图形能变成一种绘图模式存于帧缓存中。
在较新的GPU中，那些代表标准几何图形处理的固定的函数传递途径已经增强了顶点和像素明暗的操作,能允许更多传递途径函数的可编程性。
应用程序接口同OpenGL类似，是伴随着其它流行的标准而发展起来的，比如Mircrosoft Direct3D,能在GPU传递途径方面提供可以画图的软件接口。
OpenGL是一个经过多年发展的标准的应用程序接口，最初是通过图形工业先锋Silicon Graphics TM的努力。
在模拟、游戏、计算机辅助制造和专业图形处理市场方面，已经获得了广泛的应用。
此外它还成为嵌入式应用的事实上的标准，在许多平台上是非常有用的。
OpenGL还打算提供一个标准接口到多图形绘图设备上，允许一个应用能伴随着厂商在图形芯片的信心而运行。
OpenGL能在嵌入式电子设备市场上成为一个关键的标准，主要归功于其超强的处理能力和跨平台的的特性。
作为一个应用程序接口，OpenGL经历了15年的发展。
当更多的应用去扩展能力途径时，OpenGL的经成功版本的发行，给这个标准带来了更多的需要和更多的复杂性。
OpenGL是一个典型的用驱动体系结构来执行的。
OpenGL给绘图设备封装了一个底层接口，给那些需要使用硬件特性的应用程序提供一个高级的接口。
当OpenGL在发展时，它的驱动程序也随着发展。
为一个桌面式高级的终端图形硬件提供的现代OpenGL驱动使其能轻松地运行上百万条的直线的代码。
嵌入式变量之所以能变得越来越小，主要得益于OpenGL的子集的划分。
OpenGL子集在下一个移动GPU技术的浪潮中是一个关键的技术。
它的目标是更多的集成芯片市场。
OpenGL和移动的GPU在最近几年，一些具有高级绘图技术和低功耗的GPU的移动计算机开始在市场上出现。
这些设备是目前移动技术的一个主要的发展领域，它们的目标是单个的电话、移动游戏系统、PDA、汽车行业、医药行业以及其他的深入的嵌入式的应用。
当移动游戏发掘出其潜在的市场时，移动设备制造商开始从事GPU驱动程序的开发。
通常一个标准的图形应用程序接口，太大或太昂贵而不能在这些设备上得到应用，比如OpenGL，所以检测设备驱动和设备制造商使用这些应用程序接口的子集。
这些提供应用程序接口子集制造商的目标是明确的市场。
这些应用必须被写进带有较小的子集的工作中去。
这通常意味着它们不能被轻易从一个子集环境插入到另一个子集环境中去。
SoC设计的出现是因为明确定义的应用程序接口子集的移动GPU技术的出现。
在SoC设计中，GPU用来和处理器一起使用的，这个处理器可以将数字媒体处理核心封装到一个芯片上。
这样一个设计能被集成到一个很小的、低廉的应用上，比如：手提式医疗设备，电话，自动通信显示等等。
移动的GPU在嵌入式和关健的安全市场有很明显的应用。
通常，在系统设计中大胆的设想和简单的设计是关键因素。
移动GPU技术将在这些领域有很大的影响。
当新类型的设备开始出现并且能提供OpenGL性能的时候，必须从事针对这些设备的潜在的关键安全的OpenGL的开发。
介绍应用程序接口标准化OpenGL对于关键安全系统是一个很好的标准，并且应该被使用，就像API一样快速的发展。
标准化的子集能对OpenGL在关键安全和高度嵌入的环境中的应用起到一个关键作用。
Khronos所定义的OpenGL扩展标准对于OpenGL子集的标准化是一个重要的发展。
Khronos是一个将OpenGL融入到嵌入式和多媒体市场的一个工业联盟。
Khronos 被所有的大型的图形芯片制造商、移动电话制造商和移动软件发展协会所支持。
当清除多余的性能和着重强调简单和小的足迹时，扩展的OpenGL是定义明确的OpenGL 子集，包括移动设备。
用来提供一个需要嵌入式平台的高级图形的有用的子集。
既然全部的OpenGL规范是庞大的而且支持全部规范的图形子集系统是资源透彻的，需要一个定义明确的子集来提供一个对于嵌入应用的目标绘图能力。
扩展的OpenGL就是这样的一个子集。
工具和应用程序接口OpenGL图形开发者使用几个策略去成功创建OpenGL软件，包括以工具为基础的发展和手写代码。
这两种途径都能在系统中利用软件模块性、高层接口的封装性。
比如，一个数字映射库，用户接口库，或在系统中重用的字体渲染库。
这些工具和SDK能使支持的特性的假设成为潜在的OpenGL驱动和图形设备。
如果一个应用是为了适合驱动程序能力被限制的环境中，这些假设当然大部分需要接受挑战。
许多工具使用代码生成来操作。
显示定义被放入了用户接口中，并且这些工具使用代码生成来创建OpenGL软件执行显示操作。
这样OpenGL软件能包含成千上万的直线代码，其中大部分是几何定义。
对于所有的OpenGL环境来说，这个代码的有用性将被限制除非能足够灵活地去考虑所有输出需要支持的OpenGL子集。
除了工具输出限制其灵活性外，如果一个可重用的OpenGL库已经被写入一个特定结构中，比如OpenGL显示列表或标准的glBegin-glEnd范例，它在驱动程序不支持这个范例的平台上将是无用的。
有些技术途径能被用来考虑减轻这些问题。
结论嵌入式OpenGL是一个关键技术，它已经并且将继续被用在关键安全的嵌入式系统中。
从桌面和工作站市场上引来的GPU技术已经被广泛的应用。
使用了OpenGL的新的嵌入式的芯片的出现将增加它的使用领域。
到时功耗、价格、重量的壁垒将被打破。
为了能在所有的应用领域利用OpenGL的优点，OpenGL子集的广泛使用带来了编程和集成方面的挑战。
这些子集代表标准化OpenGL的努力和提供一个共同的可依赖的子集应用。
虽然处理不同的OpenGL子集的方法被使用，但这些方法正经历着性能和复杂性方面的考验。
一个更灵活的方法是考虑几何规范，像数据。
不注意OpenGL和其子集的结果是关键安全应用发展将付出巨大的代价。
当不同的OpenGL环境被需要，或者应用低代价的SoC或移动绘图GPU被需要，必须严厉地审察OpenGL策略以确保以得到便携。
有两种选择：一种是花大代价去重新应用，另一种是利用不同的标准。
参考文献[1] OpenGL ES Safety Critical Profile Specification, V 1.0. The Khronos Group, 2005[2] OpenGL Common/Common-Lite Profile Specification, V 1.0.02, The Knronos Group, 2004[3] Bennet, Paul A., Applications of Display Prototyping and Rehosting Tools to the Development of Simulator, Flight Training Device, and Cockpit Displays, American Institute if Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1997[4] Snyder, Mark I., A Data-based Paradigm for Rapid Development of Advanced Avionics Displays, Proc. Digital Avionics Systems Conference, Indianapolis, IN, 2003[5] Storey, Neil, and Faulkner, Alastair, Data Management in Data Driven Safety-Related Systems, Proc, 20th Systems Safety Conference, Denver, CO., 2002附件2：外文原文SOLVING THE EMBEDDED OPENGL PUZZLE –MAKING STANDARDS, TOOLS, AND APIS WORK TOGETHER IN HIGHLY EMBEDDED AND SAFETY CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTSMark Snyder, Quantum3D, Glendale, AZAbstractEmbedded graphical Human Machine Interfaces (HMIs) are increasingly making use of the OpenGL rendering API as a standard for defining and rendering screen graphics. This trend is supported by the emergence of hardware accelerated graphics subsystems and commercially available driver software. Meanwhile, embedded graphics tool and software vendors have adopted OpenGL in various forms as the rendering API they support. For highly embedded and safety critical environments, however, full OpenGL is not a narrow enough standard. In order to achieve low-cost/low power hardware implementations and reduce driver complexity to achieve safety-critical certification, OpenGL subsets must be embraced.In recent years, the mobile graphics industry has benefited from the efforts of industry consortiums to define capable OpenGL subsets. These subsets, or profiles, exist in various versions intended to facilitate the development of applications for widely differing embedded markets, from cell phone graphics to safety critical high-powered embedded graphics subsystems. It is clear that such well-defined standards can and will have a beneficial impact on the embedded and safety-critical graphics industries, offering unprecedented portability and simplicity for HMI applications. What is not as clear is the level to which graphics tool and software vendors are supporting the new standards. The stakes are high for the end developer, as reliance on API capabilities that are either unsupported or difficult to certify can present serious system integration and certification pitfalls.This paper presents recommendations in such areas as tool selection, standards to levy on vendors and developers, approaches for achieving user interfaces and font rendering using the OpenGL standards, and recommendations to ensure the successful engineering and wide deployment of HMI software.BackgroundGraphical Processing Units (GPUs)Over the past 10 years, display rendering technology for platform embedded systems has undergone fundamental changes. These changes have been driven primarily by two twin technological thrusts –flat-panel display hardware and advanced raster-based EGS systems using OpenGL. Flat panels have enabled an increase in display resolution while still supporting embedded size and weight constraints. Raster based EGS, particularly based on commodity OpenGL hardware, has provided the horsepower to drive the increased resolution.The rendering engine, or graphics chip, is the part of the mobile computing device that processes graphics and creates or renders the display. On the desktop, hardware rendering engines dominate, resulting in two separate high performance processors being present in most systems –one for general computing, and one for processing and displaying graphics. The development of the GPU, has been largely driven by the desire for better video gaming capability, but also by the desire for better workstation and desktop graphical processing.GPU technology has found a niche in embedded systems, providing advanced display capabilities that were difficult or even impossible to achieve in legacy graphical display systems. These embedded GPUs are embedded variants of desktop or laptop graphics cards, featuring GPUs, onboard texture memory, and hardware accelerated lighting, transformation, and rasterization. Offerings featuring hardware from major desktop graphics companies are being widely used in military applications. An embedded GPU is shown in Figure 1.Figure 1. Embedded GPUMost GPU technology deployed in embedded systems today has its roots in desktop or laptop based graphics accelerators. Power consumption for the GPU alone can range from 5 to 15W. These designs can provide power equivalent to a desktop or laptop within an embedded environment, provided the supporting driver software is available. OpenGL is by far the most commonly used standard to supply these drivers.OpenGL as an Embedded StandardThe advent of the GPU has been accompanied by widespread use of new standards designed to facilitate development of graphical applications that take advantage of the hardware. One such lowlevel Applications Programming Interface (API) is OpenGL. OpenGL provides a software interface that supports 2D and 3D definition of geometry and rendering functions. Some of the major functions OpenGL supports include: Matrix-based geometry transformationsViewport and clipping regionsTextured geometryGraphics pipeline state managementGeometry cachingThese functions are supported through a logical pipeline that the GPU implements. The pipeline expects geometry specification in the form of triangles, points, and lines, along with transformation, clipping, color, and texture information used to convert thegeometry into the form rendered into the frame buffer. In newer GPUs, the fixed function pipeline which represents standard methods of processing geometry has been augmented with vertex and pixel shader operations, which allow more programmability of the pipeline functions. APIs like OpenGL, along with other popular standards such as Microsoft Direct3D, provide software interfaces to draw graphics in the GPU pipeline. The GPU pipeline for OpenGL is shown in Figure 2, where the blue API bubble on the left represents OpenGL.Figure 2. OpenGL PipelineOpenGL is a standardized API that has evolved over many years, initially through the efforts of graphics industry pioneer Silicon GraphicsTM. It has achieved widespread adoption in the simulation, gaming, CAD, and professional graphics markets, and is the de-facto standard for embedded applications. It is widely available on many platforms. OpenGL is also meant to provide a standard interface to multiple graphics rendering devices, allowing an application to run with confidence on graphics chips from multiple vendors. It is a key standard in the embedded avionics market due to its power and cross platform nature.OpenGL as an API has undergone much growth in the past 15 years or so. As more classes of applications sought to exploit its capabilities, successive versions of thestandard have evolved, bringing more calls and more complexity to the standard. OpenGL is typically implemented using a driver architecture. OpenGL drivers encapsulates a low-level interface to the rendering hardware, and presents a high-level interface to applications that need to use the hardware’s featur es. As OpenGL has grown, so have its drivers. A modern OpenGL driver for a desktop high-end graphics card can easily run into millions of lines of code. Embedded variants can be smaller, depending on what subset of OpenGL they support. OpenGL subsets are a key technology in the next wave of mobile GPU technology, targeted for more integrated markets.OpenGL and Mobile GPUsIn the last few years, mobile computers featuring advanced rendering technology using low-power GPUs have begun to appear on the market. These devices, targeted for cell phone, mobile game systems, PDAs, automotive uses, medical uses, and other deeply embedded applications, are currently one of the major development areas in mobile technology. As mobile gaming reaches its market potential, mobile device manufacturers have begun to address the GPU in their device development. Often a standard graphics API, such as OpenGL, is too large or costly to implement on these devices, so COTS driver and device manufacturers rely on subsets of the API. These subsets manufacturers to offer capabilities targeted to specific markets. Applications must be written to work with the smaller subsets, which often means they cannot be ported easily from one subset environment to another.Mobile GPU technology enabled by well-defined API subsets has led to the emergence of System On Chip (SoC) designs. In a SoC design, the GPU is combined with the processor to encapsulate a complete general purpose and digital media processing core on a single chip. Such a design can be integrated into very small, low cost applications such as handheld medical equipment, cellular phones, automotive telematics displays, etc.Mobile GPUs have an obvious application in embedded and safety-critical markets. Oftentimes, power consumption, weight, and simplicity of design are key factors in system design, and mobile GPU technology will have a big impact in these areas. Asentirely new classes of devices begin to emerge and offer OpenGL capabilities, the potential usage of OpenGL by safety-critical applications targeting these devices must be addressed.RecommendationsEmbracing API StandardizationWhile OpenGL is a good standard for safety criticalsystems and should be used, it has grown large as an API. Standardized subsets provide a key to using OpenGL in the safety-critical and deeply embedded environments.The OpenGL ES standard by the Khronos Group is an important development in standardized special purpose subsets of OpenGL. Khronos is an industry consortium designed to foster the adoption of OpenGL into embedded and multimedia markets. Khronos is supported by all major graphics chip manufacturers, mobile phone manufacturers, and the mobile software development community. OpenGL ES is a well-defined subset of OpenGL that is designed to provide a capable subset for advanced graphics on demanding embedded platforms, including mobile devices while eliminating redundant capability and stressing simplicity and small footprint.. Since the full OpenGL specification is large and graphics subsystems that support the full spec are resource intensive, a well-defined subset is required to provide a target rendering capability for embedded applications. OpenGL ES is that subset.Tools and APIsOpenGL graphics developers typically employ several strategies to successfully create the OpenGL software to draw screens, including tool-based development and hand-code. Both approaches can make use of software modularity, encapsulating higher level interfaces, such as a digital map library, user interface library, or font rendering library into SDK’s for reuse in the system. These tools and SDKs may make assumptions about supported features of the underlying OpenGL driver and graphics hardware. If a goal of the application is to be portable to environments where driver capability may be limited, these assumptions will almost certainly need to be challenged.Many tools operate using code generation to generate code representing a display definition. Display definitions are entered into a user interface, and the tool then employs code generation to create OpenGL software implementing the display [3]. Such OpenGL software can encompass tens or even hundreds of thousands of lines of code, most of it devoted to geometry specification. Usefulness of this code for all OpenGL environments may be limited unless its code generation is flexible enough to take into account all OpenGL subsets the output might need to support. The code generation approach is illustrated in Figure 4.In addition to tool output limiting flexibility, if a reusable OpenGL library has been written to rely on certain constructs, such as OpenGL display lists or the standard glBegin-glEnd paradigm, it will not be useful on platforms where the driver does not support this paradigm. There are some technical approaches that can be considered to alleviate some of these problems.ConclusionsEmbedded OpenGL is a key technology that has been and will continue to be used on safety-critical embedded systems. GPU technology borrowed from the desktop and workstation markets has largely been used for these applications. The advent of new embedded chipsets employing OpenGL will increase this usage and potentially extend it into new areas where cost, power, and weight barriers are being broken down.In order to take advantage of OpenGL in all these application areas, the widespread usage of OpenGL subsets presents a programming and integration challenge. Subsets, such as the OpenGL ES Safety-Critical profile from the Khronos group, represent efforts to standardize OpenGL and provide a common subset applications can rely on.Software approaches to handling differing OpenGL subsets can be employed, but these approaches can suffer performance and complexity issues. A more flexible approach is to consider geometry specification as dataThe result of failing to pay attention to OpenGL and its subsets can be costly for a safety-critical application development. When portability to differing OpenGL environments is desired, or the ability to employ low cost SoC or mobile rendering GPUs is needed, the OpenGL strategy must be rigorously scrutinized to ensure such portabilitycan be achieved. The alternative is costly rework of the application to address differing standards.References[1] OpenGL ES Safety Critical Profile Specification, V 1.0. The Khronos Group, 2005[2] OpenGL Common/Common-Lite Profile Specification, V 1.0.02, The Knronos Group, 2004[3] Bennet, Paul A., Applications of Display Prototyping and Rehosting Tools to the Development of Simulator, Flight Training Device, and Cockpit Displays, American Institute if Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1997[4] Snyder, Mark I., A Data-based Paradigm for Rapid Development of Advanced Avionics Displays, Proc. Digital Avionics Systems Conference, Indianapolis, IN, 2003 [5] Storey, Neil, and Faulkner, Alastair, Data Management in Data Driven Safety-Related Systems, Proc, 20th Systems Safety Conference, Denver, CO., 2002Email Addresses Mark Snyder, msnyder@24th Digital Avionics Systems ConferenceOctober 30, 2005。