组织行为学-英文高级版

组织行为学文章英文版

An Examination of the Relationship Among Structure,Trust,and Conﬂict Management Styles in Virtual TeamsXiaojing Liu,Richard J.Magjuka,and Seung-hee Lee I n today’s competitive environment,successful organizations that are able to utilize advanced information technology to establish a dynamic form to adapt to the ever-changing landscape and customer requirements always gain a competitive advantage in global competition (Porter &Lilly,1996).The virtual team has become one of the building blocks of a successful organization.In this article,a virtual team is deﬁned as ‘‘a group of people with complementary competencies executing simul-taneous,collaborative work processes through elec-tronic media without regard to geographic location’’(Chinowsky &Rojas,2003,p.98).Virtual teams can offer a range of beneﬁts toorganizations,among them encouraging constructive dialogue and knowledge,nurturing a community of workers,triggering deeper processing of content through interaction,and offering ﬂexible adaptation to complex tasks (Duarte &Snyder,1999;Conrad &Donaldson,2004;Palloff &Pratt,2005;Lee,Bonk,Magjuka,Su,&Liu,2006).However,a virtual team can also face challenges and issues that must beaddressed for a successful team operation.Fromexisting telework research,Workman,Kahnweiler,and Bommer (2001)summarize three attributes of virtual environments that are barriers to successful virtual collaboration:elevated ambiguity,increased isolation,and a less-structured environment.For example,in virtual environments lack of informal interactions,the constraints of dispersed asynchronous communication context,and limited capabilities of transmittingsocial &2008International Society for Performance ImprovementThe emergence of new technolo-gies has made it increasingly easy for distributed collaboration in both edu-cational and noneducational settings.Although the effectiveness in tradi-tional settings of the dynamics of small group work has been widely researched,there is limited researchthat offers evidence on how teams can work effectively in a virtual environment.The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship among team structure,trust,andconﬂict management style,in addi-tion to their impact on teamwork effectiveness in a virtual environment.An experimental design was used toassess the effects of structure on team performance.Forty-four groups,di-vided into hierarchical and nonhier-archical groups,worked on an online simulation project in an online MBAcourse.The results suggest that team structure is strongly associated with team performance,whereas trust and a collaboration conﬂict manage-ment style contribute to teamworksatisfaction.cues may render an environment that is low in social presence and interactivity.Such an environment can create difﬁculties for effective communication and collaboration (Montoya-Weiss,Massey,&Song,2001).Thus it has been suggested that virtual teams may have to make extra efforts in communication and collaboration for a successful operation.Walther (1996)suggests that in some instances a level of interaction that surpasses face-to-face interaction could occur thanks to strong involvement,intense relationships,and reciprocation.Although the effectiveness of small group work in traditional settings has beenwidely researched,there is still limited researchwith evidence concerning how teams can work effectively in a virtual environment.In particular,there is a lack of research on linking the social,task,and technological dimensions to the entry,process,and outcome variables of the teamwork process (Carabajal,LaPointe,&Gunawardena,2003)in a virtual environment.Existing theory about team-work processes may not be transferable to a virtual setting because introduction of media technology may have changed or altered the dynamics of thegroup process.For example,conﬂict in a virtualteam may persist longer without being noticed (Grifﬁth,Mannix,&Neale,2003),or trust development—which is generally regarded as a prerequisite for developing shared commitment—may be undermined from the lack of a personal human touch (Crossman &Lee-Kelley,2004).The purpose of this study is to add to the existing knowledge about virtual teamwork by examining the roles of team structure,trust,and conﬂict variables in the effectiveness of virtual teamwork.This study intends to answer several research questions:(1)Would there be signiﬁcant differences in team performance or satisfaction if virtual teams were structured differently?(2)Are there any signiﬁcant relationships between trust and virtual team performance or satisfaction?(3)Are there any signiﬁcant relationships between team conﬂict management styles and virtual team performance or satisfaction?Literature ReviewTeam StructureIn this article,team structure refers to the division of a team’s work environment into subtasks assigned to individual members or subteams.Such division can dictate the distribution of information and responsi-bilities of each team member.In teamwork,two types of structures were usually studied to understand their effects on team performance (Moon et al.,2004;Urban,Bowers,Monday,&Morgan,1995).Hierarchical structure refers to those structures in which team members have specialized roles or hold information and capabilities that are unique toExisting theory about teamwork processes may not be transferable to a virtual setting because introduction of media technology may have changed or altered the dynamics of the group process.each other.Such division of roles results in high interdependency among team participants.Nonhierarchical structure refers to those structures in which team members have nonspecialized roles and have fewer interdependencies in accomplishing a common team goal(Urban et al., 1995).In general,team structure deﬁnes the nature and patterns of relationships and the division of work among individuals in groups(Wong &Burton,2000).Studies that examine the relationship between team structure and team performance in organization settings revealed diversiﬁed results. Researchers,for instance,have proposed that a high degree of group division can reinforce individual accountability,and therefore it can prevent participants from slacking off or freeloading,which commonly impairs group performance in a virtual environment(Lin&Hui,1999; Pugh et al.,1963;Lin,Yang,Arya,Huang,&Li,2005).In a study that compared the problem-solving performance in two types of structure,the group with hierarchical structure indicated higher perceptions of intersubjectivity—that is,a‘‘shared collective understanding’’—and deep processing in group learning during the initial weeks of activity.Over time,however,these levels equalized across group structures(Rose,2004). In another study,Joung and Keller(2004)evaluated two types of structure during online group debate.The results suggested that the group with hierarchical structure demonstrated greater use of critical thinking skills and revealed more critical and dynamic interaction patterns than the nonhierarchical group.Nevertheless,some studies also suggested that nonhierarchical structure seemed to have outperformed hierarchical structure(Urban et al.,1995;Bowers,Urban,&Morgan,1992;Kleinman&Serfaty,1989). For example,Urban et al.(1995)studied teams in the context of military training and found that those with nonhierarchical structures were associated with superior performance compared to hierarchical structures when working under a high workload.Team structures were associated with patterns of communication structures.The teams with hierarchical structures tended to rely on question-and-answer sequences to elicit information and resources more than nonhierarchical teams did.This communication pattern of hierarchical teams was less effective than that of nonhierarchical teams,which,because of their similar roles,could communicate more clearly or were able to anticipate each other’s needs rather than waiting on the others to ask for information.The contradictory results of the relationship between structure and performance in the extant literature may have reﬂected the effect of structure under different task environments.Structural contingency theory posits that no structure is better across teams in organizational settings.However,hierarchical structures may work better than nonhierarchical structures in less complex environments,while nonhier-archical structures may work better than hierarchical structures in complex environments(Moon et al.,2004).Research indicates that therules of structural contingency theory are equally applicable in a virtual organization whose members are bounded by a common goal and who ground their work in communications through information technology (Moon et al.,2004;Burns&Stalker,1961).In an unstable or dynamic environment,nonhierarchical,or informal, structure is argued to be an effective way of organizing virtual teams because it allowsﬂexibility for workers to communicate according to the changing demands of the task(Burns&Stalker,1961;Hinds&McGrath, 2006).Virtual environments are generally regarded to be associated with added complexity and uncertainty,though this is not always the case.In their study,Hinds and McGrath(2006)found that in a distributed virtual team environment,dividing tasks in a nonhierarchical,independent way (for example,reducing task interdependences between work sites)reduces the need for frequent communication and therefore minimizes the waiting time and miscommunications that are due to the nature of delayed feedback in virtual communications.In this study,following Hinds and McGrath’s study(2006)and Urban et al.(1995),we hypothesize that in virtual groups that engage in complex problem-solving tasks(such as ill-deﬁned problems with no clear-cut answers),teams with nonhierarchical structures may be able to communicate more efﬁciently(by minimizing waiting time)and more effectively(thanks to their shared knowledge, which allows them to anticipate each other’s needs and explain information more thoroughly).Hypothesis1.Nonhierarchical structures outperform hierarchical structures on their virtual team performance in complex task environments.TrustIn this article,trust is deﬁned as‘‘an emergent state comprising team member intentions to accept vulnerability based on positive expectations of the intentions or behavior of another’’(Rousseau,Sitkin,Burt,& Camerer,1998,p.395).The positive effect of trust on team outcomes is widely documented.For instance,trust can enhance collaboration among team members and reduce the cost of team operations by eliminating extra effort needed to monitor team members(Serva&Fuller,2004).In addition,studies have consistently found that trust can have an inﬂuence on team effectiveness by way of its impact on team processes such as problem solving,decision making,and communication(Kifﬁn-Petersen, 2004).For example,Zand(1972,as cited in Kifﬁn-Petersen,2004)found that teams with high trust demonstrated creative and diversiﬁed patterns of behavior that improved the team’s problem solving.In contrast,low-trust teams showed a defensive pattern of behaviors that interfered with informationﬂow within the team,thus negatively affecting the quality of problem ck of trust has proven to negatively inﬂuence team members’satisfaction with teamwork and their willingness to continue to work with the team(Golembiewski&McConkie,1975).A workrelationship characterized by trust tends to enhance open communication and collaboration,reconcile conﬂict,and increase commitment to a team (Smith&Barclay,1997).Although some claim that working in virtual teams can produce additional challenges owing to the absence of social cues that can transfer interpersonal affections,including trust,research actually suggests that such absence does not necessarily hinder development of trust in virtual teams but may merely prolong the process of trust building(Walther, 1996;Henttonen&Blomqvist,2005).Studies also suggest that trust can play the same important roles in the functioning of virtual teams as in traditional teams(Morris,Marshall,&Kelleyrainer,2002;Henttonen& Blomqvist,2005).A synthesis of existing research suggests that development of trust is associated with continuous interactions and communications and repeated interpersonal exchange(Wilson,Straus,&McEvily,2006;Crossman&Lee-Kelley,2004).As in traditional teams,social communications(greetings, exchanges of personal information)can play an important role in developing trust in virtual teams(Henttonen&Blomqvist,2005). Contemporary theory of‘‘swift trust’’(Jarvenpaa&Leidner,1999)posits that highly active,proactive,and enthusiastic actions can strengthen trust.Compared to nonhierarchical structures,we hypothesize that a hierarchically structured team whose members possess more specialized roles may have to engage in more frequent reciprocal information exchange and take a more active role in seeking information and providing responses to others;this is due to high interdependence among team members(Moon et al.,2004).Such actions may in fact expose team members to more communication and interactions and therefore foster the development of trust.Hypothesis2a.Trust will be positively associated with virtual team performance.Hypothesis2b.Trust will be positively associated with virtual team satisfaction.Hypothesis2c.Hierarchical teams have a higher level of trust than nonhierarchical teams.Conﬂict ManagementConﬂict is an inevitable part of working in teams.In general,conﬂict refers to differences or discrepancies in team members’ideas,opinions,or ways of doing things.Modern organizational theories no longer view conﬂict as a negative sign of organizational issues but tend to regard it as an intrinsic component in organizational dynamics(Medina,Munduate, Dorado,Martı´nez,&Cisneros,2004).A moderate amount of conﬂict is argued to be‘‘essential for attaining and maintaining an optimum level of organizational effectiveness’’(Rahim&Bonoma,1979,p.1325).Whether conﬂict can be used for effective performance relies on strategic conﬂict-handling styles.It has been suggested that how conﬂict is handled is more important to the success of teams than the conﬂict itself (Paul,Seetharaman,Samarah,&Mykytyn,2004).According to Rahim (1992)and Montoya-Weiss et al.(2001),there are various ways to manage conﬂict in a team:avoidance,accommodation,competition,collaboration, and compromise.An avoidance approach to conﬂict management is characterized by evasiveness and failure to directly address conﬂicting viewpoints.An accommodation conﬂict management style reﬂects obligations to others.A competition conﬂict management style is deﬁned as pursuit of one’s own interest without careful regard for others,while a collaboration management style attempts to identify and achieve outcomes for mutual beneﬁt.A compromise management style is characterized byﬁnding mutually accepted solutions through negotiating differences.Past small group research indicates that more cooperative conﬂict management styles are more likely to be associated with positive individual and team outcomes than less cooperative conﬂict management styles(Lin,2003;Paul et al.,2004).The same positive effects were also found in virtual teams.A study that examined a culturally diverse group supported by a groupware system concluded that the groups that lean toward a higher level of collaboration style of conﬂict management perceived higher quality in decision making.Integration of diverse views resulted in integrative decisions and thus improved group agreement (Paul et al.,2004).A competition management style is traditionally viewed as having a negative effect on team performance in that it can result in less social integration and team cohesion(Montoya-Weiss et al.,2001;Cohen &Bailey,1997).Montoya-Weiss et al.(2001)propose that conﬂict theory developed in face-to-face settings may not be fully applicable to asynchronous teams, owing to fundamental differences(communication protocols,reduced social presence,or media richness)in a virtual environment.For example, competition conﬂict management behaviors of a team member may not be conspicuous to other members of the team in an asynchronous virtual environment,and the negative effects may be mitigated in asynchronous virtual teams(Tan,Watson,Clapper,&McLean,1998).In fact,it is possible that competitive behaviors such as aggressive emotions or competitive dominance may not be interpreted as such,but rather be viewed as a means of achieving efﬁciency and effectiveness in a lean,asynchronous commu-nication environment(Montoya-Weiss et al.,2001;Lin,2003).Hypothesis3a.A collaboration conﬂict management style in virtual teams is positively associated with team performance.Hypothesis3b.A collaboration conﬂict management style in virtual teams is positively associated with virtual team satisfaction.Hypothesis3c.A collaboration conﬂict management style in virtual teams is positively associated with trust.Hypothesis3d.A competition conﬂict management style in virtual teams is not associated with virtual team performance.Hypothesis3e.A competition conﬂict management style in virtual teams is not associated with virtual team satisfaction. Research MethodologyResearch SettingThe present study was conducted in an online MBA program at a large midwestern university.The participants were enrolled in a capstone management course.Subjects were separated into project groups of four to six people to work on an online simulation project.Each team was asked to adopt the view of a senior manager responsible for running a business venture,assuming responsibility for a$100million company in the electronic sensor manufacturing industry.The simulations required management teams to evaluate situations and make decisions to stimulate their company’s growth.Teams set a strategy and applied strategic concepts and techniques in forming and implementing a business plan, and they were asked to integrate theﬁrm’s production,marketing,human resources,research and development,ﬁnancial,and pricing plans.The project lasted four weeks.InstrumentsThe22-item questionnaire contained three dimensions:trust,conﬂict management resolution,and teamwork satisfaction.Trust measured subjects’perceptions of trust between themselves and their teammates.Trust scales(10items)were adapted from Jarvenpaa and Leidner(1999)and Mayer,Davis,and Schoorman(1995).Sample items included‘‘I really wish I had a good way to oversee the work of other team members on the project’’and‘‘Overall,the people in my group are very trustworthy.’’Cronbach’s alpha for the trust dimension was.851.Conﬂict management resolution measured scores on two types of strategy used by a subject when working in a team:competition conﬂict management(ﬁve items)and collaboration conﬂict management(three items).Scales of conﬂict management solutions were adapted from previous research(Montoya-Weiss et al.,2001;Paul et al.,2004).Theﬁve items of the collaboration approach to conﬂict management measured the degree of team members’attempts to identify and achieve outcomes that integrated the interests of all parties involved.A sample item for the collaboration conﬂict management approach scale is‘‘Team members seek a resolution that will be good for all of us.’’Subjects were asked to rate on a5-point scale(15strongly agree,55strongly disagree)the degree to which team members agreed with theﬁve statements.For the competition approach to conﬂict management,there are three items measuring the degree to which the conﬂict was a win-lose situation and how each team member might pursue his or her own interest withoutregard for others(such as‘‘Team members treat conﬂict as a win-lose contest’’).The coefﬁcient alphas for the collaboration and competition scales were.826and.806,respectively.Both variables were used as continuous variables in this article.Aggregating individual scores of conﬂict management styles to the team level is logically justiﬁed because the question items were designed to measure the characteristics of the work team(Alper,Tjosvold,&Law, 2000).In addition,the James,Demaree,and Wolf TWG(J)procedure (1984)was used to estimate the interrater reliability of members within each team for the variables of competition and collaboration management conﬂict styles.The median TWG(J)for the two variables across the44 teams were.96,and.90respectively.Both are above.70,which is considered the indicator of sufﬁcient agreement within a group.These test results indicated that the ratings of group members are reasonably homogeneous and can be aggregated to the group level.Teamwork satisfaction included four items that measured subjects’degree of satisfaction with the teamwork process(‘‘Looking back on the whole course,I am satisﬁed with our teamwork project’’),team output(‘‘I think I learned many meaningful lessons throughout team projects’’), overall value(‘‘Overall,I believe that the whole teamwork process of our team is valuable to driving us toward team goals’’),and team decision-making quality(‘‘Overall,I believe that our team came up with the best solution as we expected’’).Team performance was measured by theﬁnal proﬁt score from team simulations.This score presented an objective measure of team performance,reﬂecting the ability of the team to use knowledge and skills learned from the curriculum to make judicious decisions for their simulated industry.Two kinds of team structure were used in the study:hierarchical and nonhierarchical.Teams that used hierarchical structure divided the individual work on the basis of the functionality of the company. Each member was responsible for one specialized area of the company, such as research and development,marketing,product development,ﬁnance,and so forth.Under this structure,each team member had a specialized role and needed to coordinate closely with other divisions to make a decision associated with a product.In a nonhier-archical structure,each team member was responsible for one product.Each member had to assume responsibility for all areas associated with that product.Under this structure,team members could make relatively independent decisions without consulting others but had to coordinate with others on the strategic goals of the company.Teams were randomly assigned to the two types of structure.Each team was asked to follow the instruction protocol of the structure assigned.The members of hierarchical teams were required to take specialized functional roles while those of nonhierarchical teams were asked to take a broader range of similar roles that covered several areas of a product.A dummy variable was used to code the structure;1referred tohierarchical structure,and0was used to refer to nonhierarchical structure.Data CollectionData were collected from all208members of44teams.Six teams’datawere later dropped from the study because the team did not followinstructions closely in structuring their teams.Seventeen teams usedhierarchical structure,while21used nonhierarchical structure.The22-item questionnaire that measured trust,conﬂict management resolution,and teamwork satisfaction was administrated during the midterm of thecourse.The return rate of the questionnaires was about95%.FindingsTable1shows correlations of all the variables measured ormanipulated in this experiment.As indicated in the table,team structurewas negatively correlated with team performance(r5À.323,p o.05).The nonhierarchical structure was associated with higher team performance.The trust level of the group was positively correlated with the collaboration conﬂict management style(r5.754,p o.01)and negativelyassociated with the competition conﬂict management style(r5À.561,p o.01).In addition,the level of trust had a positive relationship withteam satisfaction(r5.561,p o.01).The competition management stylewas negatively correlated with the collaboration management style(r5À.581,p o.01).In ourﬁrst hypothesis(H1),we proposed that a nonhierarchicalstructure would outperform a hierarchical structure in a virtual workingteam;the data supported this hypothesis.Table2contains the ANOVAresults that measured whether groups differed signiﬁcantly in their performance and other variables measured.The results revealed that the1M123451.Structure.5512.Trust 4.11.01713.Collaboration conﬂict4.28.129.754(ÃÃ)1management1.72.081À.561(ÃÃ)À.581(ÃÃ)1petition conﬂictmanagement5.Team performance$9,339À.323(Ã).216.195.00116.Team satisfaction 4.15À.057.561(ÃÃ).664(ÃÃ)À.310(Ã).493(ÃÃ)Ãp o0.05.ÃÃp o0.01.nonhierarchically structured groups had signiﬁcantly better performance than hierarchical groups (F 53.88,p o 0.05),thus supporting H1.Hierarchical regression analyses (Table 2)were conducted to examine the effect of structure,trust,and conﬂict management variables on team performance,as well as satisfaction with teamwork.The results demonstrated a statistically signiﬁcant effect of structure on team performance.The team structure variable accounted for an appreciable amount of total variance (R 25.105).However,structure did not have a signiﬁcant effect on overall team satisfaction.Our second hypothesis (H2a and H2b)focused on the relationship between trust and team effectiveness:performance and satisfaction.Table 3shows that there is no direct effect of trust on team performance.Although this result did not support H2a,it did show a statistically signiﬁcant effect of trust on team satisfaction (R 25.394),and trust accounted for a considerable amount of variance,thus supporting hypothesis H2b.From the correlation analysis (Table 1),a higher level of trust was associated with a collaboration conﬂict management style.This suggested that teams with a high level of trust and whose members placed high conﬁdence in their teammates’abilities and behaviors tended to lean toward a more collaborative approach to solving conﬂicts.Table 2suggests that the two groups did not differ signiﬁcantly in terms of trust level,conﬂict management styles,or team satisfaction.Therefore,H2c was not supported.Table 3indicated a signiﬁcant effect of the collaboration conﬂict management style on team satisfaction (R 25.227)but no signiﬁcant effect on team performance.Thus H3a was refuted,and H3b was supported.According to Table 1correlation results,the trust level of the group was positively correlated with its collaboration conﬂict manage-ment style (r 5.754,p o .01).This result supported by H3c.Table 3showed that the competition conﬂict management style had no signiﬁcant effect on either team performance or satisfaction,supporting H3d and H3e.Although a correlation analysis showed negative2Mean (SD )Dependent VariableHierarchical Group Nonhierarchical Group F ,df Signiﬁcance Level Trust4.134 4.142.011,1.917Collaboration conﬂict management4.268 4.351.661,1.440Competition conﬂict management1.646 1.69.237,1.629Team performance$10,971$7,498 4.204,1.048ÃTeam satisfaction4.15 4.12.115,1.736Ãp o 0.05.relationships between a competition conﬂict management style and team satisfaction,the regression analysis did not show a signiﬁcant effect. Discussion and ConclusionThere are several importantﬁndings of this study worthy of further discussion and investigation.StructureThe results of this study indicated a signiﬁcant effect of team structure on team performance.In the present study,the teams with a non-hierarchical structure outperformed those with a hierarchical structure,a ﬁnding consistent with Urban et al.(1995).Interpretation of thisﬁnding should not exclude considerations of the task environment.The teams worked in an asynchronous online environment,which is commonly believed to bring a higher degree of vagueness,complexity,and lack of structure(Workman,Kahnweiler,&Bommer,2001)into virtual team-work process than face-to-face settings.These attributes may increase the degree of difﬁculty of communication in virtual teamwork.For hierarchically structured teams,each person held a specialized role,and extensive communication was needed for team members to make decisions and maintain routine operations of the team in order to achieve the goal of accomplishing a complex task such as running a simulated industry.Effective communication may be disrupted by possible misunderstandings and disputes stemming from a lack of visual cues in asynchronous virtual teaming environments.Thus it was possible that team members had to spend extra resources on maintenance of the team’s daily communications that may not add to team performance.However, in nonhierarchical teams,each person had a higher degree of autonomy 3Team Performance Team SatisfactionR2b R2b Structure.105ÃÀ.042Ã.003À.149 Trust.046.030.394ÃÃ.105 Collaboration conﬂict management.049.431.227ÃÃ.709ÃÃCompetition conﬂict management.057.282.000À.009 R2Total.257.624F 2.837Ã13.742**df4,334,33Ãp o0.05.ÃÃp o0.01.。

组织行为学英文

Open and Responsive
© 2013 Cengage Learning
3
Learning Outcome
Identify the important system components of an organization.
© 2013 Cengage Learning
Components of an Organization
Chapter 1 Organizational Behavior and Opportunity
Learning Outcomes
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Define organizational behavior. Identify four action steps for responding positively in times of change. Identify the important system components of an organization. Describe the formal and informal elements of an organization. Identify factors that contribute to the diversity of organizations in the economy. Describe the opportunities that change creates for organizational behavior. Demonstrate the value of objective knowledge and skill development in the study of organizational behavior.

组织行为学ppt英文版

E X H I B I T 1-3a
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 1-3b
Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 1-3c
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles
E X H I B I T 1-1a
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 1-1b
Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 1-1c
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S (cont’d)
6. Describe why managers require a knowledge of OB.
7. Explain the need for a contingency approach to the study of OB.
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
TENTH EDITION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER AND LISTENING TO MY LECTUER,I HOPE THTAT YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:
1. Define organizational behavior (OB). 2. Describe what managers do. 3. Explain the value of the systematic study of

组织行为学英文版Ch_12_tppi

Stress Level • Low • High
Intellectual Abilities • Effective • Ineffective
Leader’s Experience • Ineffective • Effective
Research is supporting the theory. theory.
The dimensions of the two studies are very similar
© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.
12-8
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid®
Draws on both studies to assess leadership style
12-15
Fiedler’s Cognitive Resource Theory
A refinement of Fiedler’s original model: model:
Focuses on stress as the enemy of rationality and creator of unfavorable conditions A leader’s intelligence and experience influence his or her reaction to that stress
Assumes that leadership style is fixed (based on orientation revealed in LPC questionnaire) Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open

组织行为学罗宾斯英文版PPT整理

Chapter1 Introduction to organizational behavior✓Organizational Behavior:The systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within organizations✓Systematic Study of Determinants of Employee Performance:➢Actions or Behaviors：Productivity, Absenteeism, Turnover , Organizational citizenship➢Attitudes– Job Satisfaction: a. Possible link between satisfaction and productivityb.Satisfaction appears to be negatively related to absenteeism andproductivityc.Humanistic responsibility to provide employees with challenging,intrinsically rewarding, and satisfying job✓Organization: a. Consciously coordinated social unitb. Composed of two or more peoplec. Functions to achieve a common goal or set of goalsd. Formal roles define and shape the behavior of its members✓OB Encompasses Behavior in Diverse Organizations: Manufacturing:Service firms Schools Hospitals Churches Military units Charitable organizations Local, state, and federal government agencies✓Contributing Disciplines(Level of Analysis):➢Micro (individual): Psychology➢Macro (group processes and organization) : Sociology, Social Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science✓Toward an OB discipline P4 1.1✓Goals of Organizational Behavior: explanation, prediction, control✓Challenges and Opportunities: a.Increasing age of typical workerb.More women and minorities in the workplacec.Requirements to meet global competitiond.Severed loyalty bonds between employees and employers ✓What is Quality Management?➢Intense focus on customer→Outsiders -- purchasers of products and services→Insiders -- interact with and serve others in the organization➢Concern for continual improvement→Commitment to never be satisfied→“Very good” is not good enough→Quality can always be improved➢Improvement in quality of everything the organization does“Quality” applies not only to the final product, but to→How organization handles deliveries→How rapidly it responds to complaints→How politely the phones are answered➢Accurate measurement→Uses statistical techniques to measure every critical performance variable in operations➢Empowerment of employees→Involves people on the line in the improvement process→Teams are widely used as empowerment vehicles for finding and solving problems ✓ A Managerial Perspective：a. Improving People Skills b. Managing Work Force Diversityc. Responding to Globalizationd. Empowering Peoplee.Stimulating Innovation andChange f. Coping with “Temporariness” g. Helping Employee Balance Work-Life Conflicts h. Declining Employee Loyalty i. Improving Ethical Behavior✓Levels of OB Analysis: Individual Level Group Level Organization System Level Chapter2 Job Attitudes✓What the fundamental values of the organizational development can be found in the general manager’s approach to management? Respect, Support, Trust, Innovation ✓What contribution to the organization can be found in those values?A good work environment will be benefit to employees’ self-realization and theestablishment of team and learning organization.✓Attitude:Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something. When I say I like my job, I am expressing my attitude about work.✓Three components of Attitudes : Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral✓What are the Major Job Attitudes?➢Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics➢Job Involvement: Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. High level of both job involvement andpsychological employment are positively related to organizational citizenship and jobperformance. High job involvement is also related to reduced absences and lowerresignation rates.➢Psychological Empowerment (PE): a. Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. b. Good leaders empower theiremployees by involving them in decisions, making them feel their work is important,and giving them discretion to do their own thing. c. Higher level of Job Involvement andPE are positively related to Organizational citizenship and job performance.✓other Major Job Attitudes:➢Organizational Commitment: Identifying with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to remain a member.✧The three forms of OC:Affective – emotional attachment to organization (e.g. pro-environmental firms)Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying with an org (e.g. high salary)Normative -moral or ethical obligations with employers (e.g. personal promise) There appears to be a positive relationship between organizational commitment andjob productivity.---has strong relation to performance, especially for new employees.---In general, affective commitment is most likely to relate to organizational outcomes such as performance and turnover.➢Perceived Organizational Support (POS)a.Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contributionand cares about their well-being.b.People perceive OS is higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved indecision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.c.High POS is related to higher OB outcomes (performance).➢Employee Engagementa. The degree of an individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job.b. Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.c. According to researches, they contribute high customer satisfaction, highprofits, and lower level turnover and accidents.✓Is there cognitive dissonance?--Your friends or relatives won’t disagree with you because of the close relation.--People do seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. (E.g. I don’t marry her because love her.)✓The relationship between attitudes and behavior:a.Important attitudes reflect our fundamental values, self-interest, or identification withindividuals or groups we value. These attitudes tend to show a strong relationship to our behavior.b.The more you talk about your attitude on a subject, the more likely you are toremember it, and the more likely it to shape your behavior. (e.g. changing a job)c.Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior tend to occur when social pressures tobehave in certain ways hold exceptional power.d.The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers tosomething with which we have direct personal experience.✓the closer the match between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship Chapter3 Moods, Emotions and Organizational Behavior✓Why Were Emotions Excluded from OB Study?➢Myth of rationality – emotions were the antithesis of rationality and should not be seen in the workplace➢Belief that emotions of any kind are disruptive in the workplace✓Emotional Terminology:➢affect: A generic term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people experience➢emotion: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or somethingShort termed and action-oriented.➢Mood: Feelings that tend to be less intense and longer-lasting than emotions and often lack a contextual stimulusP27 3.1✓The Basic Emotions:➢positive emotions→positive affect: The mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as excitement, self-assurance, and cheerfulness at the high end with boredom,sluggishness, and tiredness at the low end.→negative affect: At zero input, when no stimulus is provided, most people experience a mildly positive mood. In fact, positive moods tend to be morecommon than negative ones.➢negative emotions➢negative affect: The mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end with relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end.✓The Functions of Emotions:➢Emotions and Rationality: Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help in understanding the world around us.➢Evolutionary Psychology : Theory that emotions serve an evolutionary purpose: helps in survival of the gene pool. The theory is not universally accepted✓Sources of Emotions and Moods:➢Personality➢Day of the week and time of the day: More positive interactions will likely occur mid-day and later in the week➢Weather: no impact according to the research➢Stress: Increased stress worsens moods➢Social Activities: Physical, informal, and epicurean activities increase positive mood ➢Sleep: Lack of sleep increases negative emotions and impairs decision making➢Exercise: Mildly enhances positive mood➢Age: Older people experience negative emotions less frequently➢Gender: Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more intensely and display more frequent expressions of emotions. Could be due tosocialization✓Emotional Labor: An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at workEmotional dissonance is when an employee has to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling anotherFelt vs. Displayed Emotions:➢Felt Emotions: the individual’s actual emotions➢Displayed Emotions: the learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job→Surface Acting is hiding one’s true emotions→Deep Acting is trying to change one’s feelings based on display rules ✓Emotional Intelligence:A person’s ability to:1)Be self-aware (to recognize his or her own emotions as experienced), 2)Detectemotions in others, and 3)Manage emotional cues and information.Moderately associated with high job performanceEmotional Intelligence on Trial➢The case for: a. Intuitive appeal – it makes sense b. EI predicts criteria that matter –positively correlated to high job performance c. Study suggests that EI isneurologically based➢The case against: a. EI is too vague a concept b. EI can’t be measured c. EI is so closely related to intelligence and personality that it is not unique when thosefactors are controlled✓OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction➢Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills and help us understand and analyze new information➢Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase creativity✓More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more motivated workforce➢Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively➢Negotiation – Emotions may impair negotiator performance➢Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions from employees, called emotional contagion✓Even More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely carry over to the next day ➢Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative emotions are more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work✓How Can Managers Influence Moods?➢Use humor to lighten the moment➢Give small tokens of appreciation➢Stay in a good mood themselves – lead by example➢Hire positive people✓Does the degree to which people experience emotions vary across cultures?Do people’s interpretations of emotions vary across cultures?Do the norms for the expressions of emotions differ across cultures?“YES” to all of the above!Chapter 5 Perception and Decision-making✓Perception：The process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment✓Factors influencing perception：➢The perceiver：Attitudes，Motives，Interests，Experience，expectations➢The target：Novelty，Motion，Sound，Size，Background，proximity➢The Situation：Time，Work setting，Social setting✓Attribution Theory：trying to explain the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.✓The three determining factors of attribution theory：➢Distinctiveness➢Consensus➢Consistency→Fundamental attribution error:1. When making judgments about the behavior of other people, we tend tounderestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence ofinternal or personal factors2.Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive workers.3. Individuals whose intellectural and interpersonal abilieties are weakest are mostlikely to overestimate their performance and abilty.✓The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision making：Who makes decisions? What decisions to make?All the decisions are closed related to perceptions. (data collection and analysis)✓The Six Steps of Rational Decision-making model：➢Define the problem➢Identify the decision criterria➢Allocate weithgts to teh criteria➢Develop the alternatives➢Evaluate teh alternatives➢Select the best alternative➢Example:bicycle parking problem➢Bounded Rationality➢Intuitive decision making✓Common Biases and Erorrs in Decision Making：anchoring bias, confirmation bias, availabe bias, escalation of commitment, risk aversion, hindsight bias✓Organizatioal Constraints on Decision making: performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system-imposed time constraints, historical precdidents✓Three Ethical Decision Criteria:➢Utilitarianism（providing the greatest benefits for the greatest number功利主义，实用主义）➢Rights(respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals,eg.right to privacy, free speech ,and due process)➢Justice(imposing and enforceing rules afaily and impartially to ensure justice or an equitalbe distribution of benefits and costs.) Comment on the three choices.✓Three-component Model of Creativity:➢Expertise(abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise )➢Creative thinking skills(personality ——creativity, the ability to use analogies, and the talent ot see the familiar in a different light)➢Intrinsic task motivation (interesting , involving , exciting, satisfying,persionally challengfing jobs, etc.)Chapter8 Groups✓Group: Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal, and further subclassified into command, task, interest, or friendship categories.✓Four Types of Groups:Command group, Task group, Interest group, Friendship group✓Why People Join Groups: (benefits)➢Security Reduce the insecurity of “standing alone”; feel stronger, fewer self-doubts, and more resistant to threats➢Status Inclusion in a group viewed by outsiders as important; provides recognition and status➢Self-esteem Provides feelings of self-worth to group members, in addition to conveying status to outsiders➢Affiliation Fulfills social needs. Enjoys regular interaction; can be primary source for fulfilling need for affiliation➢Power What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible; power in numbers➢Goal achievement Some tasks require more than one person; need to pool talents, knowledge, or power to complete the job. In such instances, management may rely onthe use of a formal group✓Basic Group Concepts:➢Roles→Role research conclusions: a.People play multiple roles b.People learn roles from stimuli around them c.People can shift roles rapidly when the situation demandsd.People experience major role conflict between roles➢Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are adopted and shared by the group’s members→The Hawthorne Studies→Conformity and the Asch Studies➢Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group→Relationship of Cohesiveness to Productivity→Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Make the group smaller b.Encourage agreement on group goals c.Increase the time spent together d.Increase thestatus and perceived difficulty of group membership→More Ways Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Stimulate competition with other groups b.Give rewards to the group rather than members c.Physicallyisolate the group➢Size→How Size Effects a Group: a.Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks rge groups are consistently better at problem solving c.Social loafing - tendency toexpend less effort in a group than as an individual d.Increases in group size areinversely related to individual performance➢Composition: Diversity increases effectiveness due to the variety of viewpoints.Diversity promotes conflict, which stimulates creativity, which leads to improveddecision making. May take more time to work smoothly. May lead to turnover ➢Status: A prestige grading, position, or rank within the group. It may be formally imposed by the group, or informally acquired through characteristics such aseducation, age, gender, skill, or experience→Effects of High Status: a.Resist conformity or receive more freedom b.Do not need or care about social rewards c.Members must believe status hierarchy isequitable d.Inequities produce corrective behaviors and conflict✓Individual versus Group Decision Making:➢Individual: More efficient, Speed, No meetings, No discussion, Clear accountability, Consistent values➢Group: More effective, More information and knowledge, Diversity of views, Higher-quality decisions, Increased acceptance✓Symptoms of Group Think: a.Group members rationalize any resistance to their assumptionsb.Members pressure any doubters to support the alternative favored by the majorityc.Doubters keep silent about misgivings(doubts) and minimize their importanced.Groupinterprets members’ silence as a “yes” vote for the majorityVariables Influencing Group Think: Group’s cohesiveness, Leader’s behavior, Insulation from outsiders, Time pressures, Failure to follow methodical decision-making procedures✓GroupShift: A special case of groupthink. The decision of the group reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during the group discussion, whether shift is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant prediscussion norm.✓Selecting the Best Decision-Making Technique:➢Brainstorming➢Nominal group technique➢Electronic meetingsChapter9 Teams✓Reasons for Team Popularity: a.Outperform on tasks requiring multiple skills, judgment, and experience b.Better utilization of employee talents c.More flexible and responsive to changing events d.Facilitate employee participation in operating decisions e.Effective in democratizing the organization and increasing employee motivation✓Work Group: A group who interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help one another perform within each member’s area of responsibility. Individuals work alone, not collectively, on a task. Performance is the summation of all of the group member’s individual contributions.✓Work Team:Generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Their individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs.✓Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams P123 9.1✓Four Types of Teams P124 9.2➢Problem-Solving Teams: a.Share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved. b.Rarely given authority to unilaterally implement any oftheir suggested actions c.Typically composed of 5-12 hourly employees from thesame departmentExample: Quality Circles➢Self-Managed Work Teams: a.Collectively control pace of work b.Determine work assignments anize breaks d.Collectively choose inspection procedurese.Select their own members and evaluate each other’s performancef.Generallycomposed of 10-15 people➢Cross-Functional Teams: a.Members from diverse areas within and between organizations b.Exchange information c.Develop new ideas and solve problemsd.Coordinate complex projects f.Development is time-consuming due to complexity anddiversityExamples: Task Force and Committees➢Virtual Teams: Computer technology ties physically dispersed members together to achieve a common goal→Differentiating factors from other teams: Absence of para-verbal and non-verbal cues, Limited social context, Ability to overcome time and space constraints✓Creating Effective Teams:Effectiveness of teams is defined by:➢Objective measures of the team’s productivity➢Manager’s ratings of team performance➢Aggregate measures of member satisfactionA Team Effectiveness Model P126 9.3✓Turning Individuals into Team Players: To perform well as team members, individuals must be able to 1)Communicate openly and honestly 2)Confront differences and resolve conflicts 3)Sublimate personal goals for the good of the team✓The Challenge in Shaping Team Players:➢Greatest where... a.The national culture is highly individualistic b.Introduced into organizations that historically value c.individual achievement➢Less demanding... a.Where employees have strong collectivist values, such as Japan or Mexico b.In new organizations that use teams as their initial form for structuringwork✓Shaping Team Players:➢Selection: Ensure that candidates can fulfill their team roles in addition to having the technical skills required for the job➢Training: Provide workshops in problem-solving, communication, negotiation, conflict-management, coaching, and group-development skills➢Rewards: Rework reward systems to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive onesChapter 10 Communication✓Functions of Communication➢Control - both formal and informal➢Motivation - clarification and feedback➢Emotional expression - fulfillment of social needs➢Information - facilitating decision making✓The Communication ProcessSource, Encoding, Channel, decoding, Receiver✓Downward Communication：Assign goals，Provide job instructions，Inform employees of policies and procedures，Point out problems that need attention，Offer feedback about performance，Letters and email from leaders to members of the team✓Upward Communication：Provide feedback to higher-ups，Inform them of progress toward goals，Relay current problems，Keep managers aware of how employees feel，Ideas on how things can be improved✓Lateral Communication：Save time and facilitate coordination，Formally sanctioned or informally created，Enhance efficient and accurate transfer of information，Can create dysfunctional conflicts when formal vertical channels are breached✓Oral Communication：➢Advantage: Speed , Feedback➢Disadvantage: Potential for distorted message, Content at destination is different from the original✓Written Communication:➢Advantage: Provide a tangible and verifiable record, Can be stored for an indefinite period of time, Physically available for later reference, Well thought-out, logical, andclear➢Disadvantage: Time consuming, Lack of feedback, No guarantee how reader will interpret it✓Non-verbal Communication:➢Kinesics - Gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body➢Body movement -Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication➢Intonations - Change the meaning of the message➢Facial expression -Characteristics that would never be communicated if you read a transcript of what is said➢Physical distance - Proper spacing is largely dependent cultural norms✓Formal Small-Group Networks P140 10.3✓Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria p140 10.4✓The Grapevine:Not controlled by management, Perceived as being more believable and reliable, Largely used to serve self-interest, Appear in response to situations: Important to us, Where there is ambiguity, Under conditions that arouse anxiety✓Computer-Aided Communication: Electronic mail (e-mail), Intranet and Extranet links, Videoconferencing✓Barriers to Effective Communication: Filtering, Selective Perception, Information Overload, Gender Styles, Emotions, Language✓ A Cultural Guide: Assume differences until similarity is proved, Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation, Practice empathy, Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis✓Improving Feedback Skills: 1. Focus on specific behaviors 2. Keep feedback impersonal 3.Keep feedback goal oriented 4. Make feedback well timed 5. Ensure understanding 6. Direct negative feedback toward behavior that is controllable by the recipient✓Improving Active Listening Skills: 1. Make eye contact 2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions 3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures 4. Ask questions 5.Paraphrase 6. Avoid interrupting the speaker 7. Do not over talkChspter11 Leadership✓Leadership: Ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. The source of influence may be formal, provided by managerial rank in an organization. Non-sanctioned leadership(不具制裁力的领导) is the ability to influence that arises from outside of the formal structure of the organization.✓Trait Theories: Assumes that leaders are born, Characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders, Personality traits in leaders that non-leaders do not possess, Characteristics of individuals who meet the definition of leader, Provides the basis of selecting the right person for leadership✓Traits Consistently Associated with Leadership:Drive and ambition, Desire to lead and influence others, Honesty and integrity, Self-confidence, Intelligence, In-depth technical knowledge✓Traits Alone Do Not Explain Leadership: Ignore situational factors. Leaders must take “the right actions”“The right actions” differ by situation✓Behavioral Theories: Assumes people can be trained to lead Researched the behaviors of specific leaders. Critical behavioral determinants of leadership. Specific behaviors identify leaders. Provides the basis of design for training programs✓Ohio State Studies:Sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.Developed two categories of leadership behavior.:→Initiating structure - attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals.→Consideration - concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction ✓University of Michigan Studies: Locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appear related to measures of performance effectivenessTwo dimensions:→Employee-oriented - emphasize interpersonal relations→Production-oriented - emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job✓Limitations of Behavioral Theories:Did not identify consistent relationships between leadership behavior and group performance. Missing consideration of the situational factors that influence success and failure. Could not clarify situational factors✓Contingency Theories:➢Fiedler Leadership Model -Proper match of leader’s style of interacting with subordinates➢Path-Goal Model -Leader assists followers in attaining goals and ensures goals are compatible with overall objectives➢Leader-Participation Model - Leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure ✓Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire: Individual’s basic leadership style is a key factor in leadership success. Assumed that individual leadership style is fixed,。

(完整word版)组织行为学主要概念中英文对照

组织行为学主要概念中英文对照ability 能力absenteeism 缺勤率achievement motivation 成就动机achievement need成就需要achievement/power theory 成就/权力理论affective component of an attitude 态度的情感成分affiliation need 亲和需要arbitrator 仲裁者attitude 态度attribution 归因attributional bias 归因偏见attributional model 归因模型authority 权威、权力behavioral component of an attitude 态度的行为成分behavior theories of leadership 领导的行为理论boundaryless organization 无边界组织brainstorming 头脑风暴法bureaucracy 官僚结构centralization 集权chain of command 指挥链change 变革change agent 变革代理人channel 渠道,通道channel richness 通道丰富性charisma 领导魅力；领导者的超凡魅力charismatic leadership 具有超凡魅力的领导者chief executive officer(CEO) 首席执行官classical conditioning 经典条件反射coercive power 强制权cognitive component of an attitude 态度的认知成分cognitive conflict 认知冲突cognitive dissonance 认知不协调；认知失调cognitive evaluation theory 认知评价理论cohesiveness 内聚力；凝聚力collaborating 合作collectivism 集体主义collegial model 学院模型command group 命令群体communication 沟通communication media 沟通媒介communication process 沟通过程communication networks 沟通网络compromising 妥协conceptual skills 概念分析技能conciliator 调停者conflict 冲突conflict management 冲突管理conflict process 冲突过程conformity 从众content theories of motivation 内容型激励理论contingency model of leadership 领导的权变模型contrast effects 对比效应core dimensions of jobs 工作的核心纬度core values 核心价值观counseling 咨询cross-cultural communication 跨文化沟通cross-function teams 跨职能团队culture 文化decentralization 分权decisions 决策decoding 译码；解码delegation 授权Delphi technique 德尔菲法departmentalism 部门化dependent variables 因变量distributive bargaining 分配谈判distributive justice 分配公平downward communication 下行沟通dysfunctional conflict 功能失常性冲突employee stock ownership plans（ESOPs）员工持股计划encoding 编码environment 环境equity theory 公平理论ERG theory ERG理论esteem needs 尊重需要existence needs 生存需要expectancy 期望expectancy theory 期望理论expert power 专家权力face-to-face communication 面对面的沟通Fiedler contingency model 费德勒权变模型formal group 正式群体formalization 正规化formalization stage 正规化阶段forming 形成functional conflict 功能正常性冲突fundamental attribution error 基本归因错误Gain sharing plan 收益分享计划goal setting 目标设置goal-setting theory 目标设置理论group 群体groupthink 群体思维growth need 成长需要halo effect 晕轮效应Hawthorne experiment 霍桑效应hierarchy of needs theory 需要层次理论higher-order needs 高层次需要horizontal conflict 横向冲突human relations 人际关系human skills 人际技能hygiene factors 保健因素illegitimate political behavior 非法的政治行为incentives 刺激；诱因independent variables 自变量individual differences 个体差异individualism 个人主义informal group 非正式群体informal leaders 非正式领导informal network 非正式网络informal organization 非正式组织information-based power 信息权information technology 信息技术instrumental values 工具性价值观integrative bargaining 整合谈判intergroup conflict 群体间冲突internal locus of control 内部控制点internals 内控者interorganizational conflict 组织间冲突interpersonal conflict 人际冲突intragroup conflict 群体内冲突intraorganizational conflict 组织内冲突intrapersonal conflict 个人内部冲突intuitive decision making 直觉决策lateral communication 横向沟通Leader-Member exchange(LMX) theory 领导－员工交换理论leader-participation model 领导参与模型leadership 领导leadership style 领导方式leading 领导learning 学习learning organization 学习型组织learning theory 学习理论Least-Preferred Co-worker(LPC) questionnaire 最难共事者问卷legitimate political behavior 合法的政治行为legitimate power 合法权利locus of control 控制点lower-order needs 低层次需要Maslow`s theory of needs 马斯洛需求理论Machiavellianism 马基雅维里主义maintenance factor 保健因素Management By Objectives(MBO) 目标管理Management By Walking Around(MBWA) 走动式管理managerial grid 管理方格图managers 管理者；经理matrix organization 矩阵组织matrix structure 矩阵结构Meclelland`s theory of needs 麦克利兰的需求理论mechanistic organizations 机械组织meditation 调停mediator 调停者models of organizational behavior 组织行为模型Motivating Potential Score(MPS) 激励的潜在分数Motivation 激励；动机motivation-hygiene theory 激励－保健理论motivational factors 激励因素motivational patterns 激励类型Need 需要needs theories 需要理论negative reinforcement 负强化neglect 忽略；疏忽negotiation 谈判；协商network 网络nominal group 名义群体Nominal Group Technique(NGT) 名义群体法nonverbal communication 非言语沟通norm 常规；规范；定额；平均数norming 规范化operant conditioning 操作性条件反射organic organizations 有机组织organization 组织Organizational Behavior(OB) 组织行为organizational culture 组织文化organizational citizens 组织公民organizational design 组织设计organizational development 组织发展organizational politics 组织政治organizational socialization 组织社会化organizational structure 组织结构organizational life cycle 组织生命周期organizing 组织Participation 参与participative counseling 参与式咨询participative leader 参与式领导者participative management 参与式管理path-goal theory 途径－目标理论perception 知觉perceptual biases 知觉偏见perceptual error 知觉错误performance-outcome expectancies 绩效－产出期望performance-satisfaction-effort loop 绩效－满意－努力环personal-based influence 个人影响力personal power 个人权力personality 个性；人格personality-job fit theory 个性－工作匹配理论personality traits 人格特质piece rate 计件工资piece-rate pay plans 计件工资计划piecework system 计件工作系统planned change 有计划的变革polarization 极化political behavior 政治行为political power 政治权利politics 政治positive reinforcement 正强化position power 职位权力power 权力power distance 权力距离power need 权力需要power tactics 权力战术，权术prejudice 偏见；成见problem-solving teams 问题解决小组procedural justice 程序公正性procedure 程序process consultation 过程咨询production-oriented leader 以生产导向的领导productivity 生产力profit-sharing plan 利润分享计划projection 投射psychological success 心理成功psychological costs 心理成本psychological contract 心理契约psychological distance 心理距离punishment power 惩罚性权力quality circles 质量圈qualify of life 生活质量Qualify of Work Life(QWL) 工作生活质量quantity of life 生活数量rationality 理性realistic job previews 实际工作预览reference group 参照群体reciprocal interdependence 互惠的相互依赖reengineering 工程再造refreezing 重新冻结referent power 参照性权力reinforcement 强化reinforcement theory 强化理论reinforcement schedule 强化程序relatedness need 相互关系需要reliability 信度resistance to change 变革阻力reward power 奖励权role 角色selective perception 选择性知觉self-actualization 自我实现self-efficacy 自我效能self-esteem 自尊self-managing teams 自我管理小组self-serving bias 自我服务偏见sensitivity training 敏感性训练shared value 共同价值观situational leadership theory 领导的情境理论skill-based pay 技能工资skill variety 技能多样化social comparison theory 社会比较论social-learning theory 社会学习理论Social Readjustment Rating Scale 社会再适应评估量表Socialization 社会化span of control 控制幅度specification 专业化stereotyping 刻板印象storming 风暴阶段stress 压力stressors 施压源substitutes for leadership 领导的替代物survey feedback 调查反馈synergy 协同作用task significance 任务重要性task structure 任务结构task team 任务小组；任务团队task uncertainty 任务不确定性team building 团队建设technical skills 技术技能technology 技术total quality management(TQM) 全面质量管理traits theories of leadership 领导特质理论transactional leaders 交易型领导turnover 离职率two-factor model of motivation 双因素激励理论type A personality A型人格type B personality B型人格uncertain avoidance 不确定性规避unity of command 统一指挥upward feedback 上行反馈upward communication 上行沟通valence 效价validity 效度value system 价值观体系values 价值观variable-pay programs 可变报酬计划vertical conflict 纵向冲突work force diversity 劳动力多元化work group 工作群体work specialization 工作专业化written communication 书面沟通。

组织行为学英文-Corporate social performance and organizational attractiveness perspective employees

Methods
Ⅰ Choose companies
Ⅱ Corporate social performance ratings Organization reputation ratings Organizational attractiveness ratings Ⅲ Control variables
Choose companies
Because we originally planned to investigate the relationships of the KLD ratings with Fortune's annually published reputation ratings, we included only companies that were in both the KLD database and the Fortune ratings. We then eliminated companies that were unknown to four management department faculty members and five business school seniors who were representative of our intended respondents.
Signaling theory
Propositions based on signaling theory suggest that An organization's social policies and programs may attract potential applicants by serving as a signal of working conditions in the organization. Because a firm's CSP is thought to signal certain values and norms, it seems likely that it influences applicants' perceptions of working conditions in the organization and, therefore, the attractiveness of the organization as an employer.

组织行为学(ppt255页)(英文版).pptx

Attitudes
Types of Attitudes
The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
Desire to reduce dissonance
• Importance of elements creating dissonance • Degree of individual influence over elements • Rewards involved in dissonance
Planning
Organizing
Management Functions
Controlling
Leading
Management Functions (cont’d)
Management Functions (cont’d)
Management Functions (cont’d)
Management Functions (cont’d)
Self-Perception Theory
An Application: Attitude Surveys
Sample Attitude Survey
EXHIBIT
3-5
Job Satisfaction
➢ Measuring Job Satisfaction
– Single global rating – Summation score
4. Networking
• Socializing, politicking, and interacting with others
Allocation of Activities by Time
E X H I B I T 1-2
Enter Organizational Behavior

组织行为学英文介绍

Questions for Consideration
• What is perception, and why is it important for understanding the workplace? • To what extent does personality affect behaviour? • Does understanding emotions lead to better understanding of how people interact?
Chapter 2, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition. Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
Perception and Personality, and Emotions Questions for Consideration
Exhibit 2-1 Figure-Ground Illustrations
Chapter 2, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition. Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.
• The Perceiver • The Target • The Situation
Chapter 2, Stephen P. Robbins and Nancy Langton, Organizational Behaviour, Third Canadian Edition. Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

组织行为学双语讲义_总2

四、瑞文标准推理测验（SPM）的构成
E组
12题
由易到难
D组 C组 B组系列关系图形整合
整合、互换抽象推理
1题
A组
比较、推理图形组合
类同、比较、图形组合
知觉辨别力图形比较图形想象
瑞文推理测验的优点：测验对象不受文化、种族、语言等条件限制，适用的年龄范围也很广：5岁半-70岁的人，既可采取团体测验的方式也可个别施测。

思考题

你认为严肃的工作氛围与轻松快乐的工作气氛相比，哪种气氛能够达到较高的工作效率？为什么？有效的领导在决策前是否应该征求下属的意见？
10
chapter01
补充内容：个体差异
chapter01
11
自尊测试：你的自尊水平如何？
指导语：请坦率回答下列问题，对于每个陈述，写出最符合你情况的数字：1=绝大多数情况如此； 2=常常如此；3=有时如此；4=偶尔如此；5=几乎从不如此。 1. 你是否常觉得自己无力做好每一件事 2. 你在同龄人中讲话时，是否常感到害怕和焦虑 3. 在社交场合，你能否很好地展示自己 4. 你是否常常觉得自己可以把所有事情做好
chapter01
12

5. 与陌生人交谈时，你是否感到很自然 6. 你是否觉得很难为情 7. 你否觉得自己是个成功者 8. 你是否总受害羞的干扰 9. 你是否总觉得自己不如你所认识的其他人 10. 你是否总觉得自己无足轻重
chapter01
13

11. 你是否总对未来的工作抱有信心 12. 在陌生人之中，你是否常常很肯定自己 13. 你是否有这样的信心，总有一天人们会尊重和仰慕你 14. 你是否常常对自己的能力很有信心 15. 你是否总对与别人相处的友好关系表示担忧

组织行为学英文介绍 Introduction

Macro
Level of Analysis
Organizational Sociology (OS)
Strategic Management
Meso
Organization Theory (OT) Decrease in Productivity Organizational Behavior (OB)

Psychology Sociology
The Study of
Organizational
Behavior
Social Psychology
Anthropology Political Science
Gholipour A. 2007. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Gholipour A. 2007. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Goals of Organizational Behavior
Prediction Explanation
Control
Gholipour A. 2007. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
– Need more sensitivity to cultural differences
Gholipour A. 2007. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Trend 2: Changing Workforce
Primary and secondary diversity More women in workforce and professions Different needs of Gen-X, Gen-Y, and babyboomers Diversity has advantages, but firms need to adjust through:

组织行为学英文 Organizational Behavior (Lussier)

Kelley’s Attribution Model
Distinctiveness – is performance highly distinctive relative to other tasks? Consensus – is performance highly similar (in consensus) to other people’s performance? Consistency – is performance highly consistent over time? The answers to these questions will lead to an internal or an external performance attribution.
Organizational Behavior
Definition: the study of actions OF PEOPLE at work that affect performance in the workplace. Goal? To explain and predict behavior Behaviors/Outcomes of concern? Both cognitive and affective
II. a. Models of Attribution
Your book – Attribution is the process of determining the reason for behavior. Kelley’s model is useful for explaining causes/reasons for other’s behavior or performance. Weiner’s model is useful for explaining causes/reasons for our own behavior or performance.

组织行为学罗宾斯英文版PPT整理

Chapter1 Introduction to organizational behavior✓Organizational Behavior:The systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within organizations✓Systematic Study of Determinants of Employee Performance:➢Actions or Behaviors：Productivity, Absenteeism, Turnover , Organizational citizenship➢Attitudes– Job Satisfaction: a. Possible link between satisfaction and productivityb.Satisfaction appears to be negatively related to absenteeism andproductivityc.Humanistic responsibility to provide employees with challenging,intrinsically rewarding, and satisfying job✓Organization: a. Consciously coordinated social unitb. Composed of two or more peoplec. Functions to achieve a common goal or set of goalsd. Formal roles define and shape the behavior of its members✓OB Encompasses Behavior in Diverse Organizations: Manufacturing:Service firms Schools Hospitals Churches Military units Charitable organizations Local, state, and federal government agencies✓Contributing Disciplines(Level of Analysis):➢Micro (individual): Psychology➢Macro (group processes and organization) : Sociology, Social Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science✓Toward an OB discipline P4 1.1✓Goals of Organizational Behavior: explanation, prediction, control✓Challenges and Opportunities: a.Increasing age of typical workerb.More women and minorities in the workplacec.Requirements to meet global competitiond.Severed loyalty bonds between employees and employers ✓What is Quality Management?➢Intense focus on customer→Outsiders -- purchasers of products and services→Insiders -- interact with and serve others in the organization➢Concern for continual improvement→Commitment to never be satisfied→“Very good” is not good enough→Quality can always be improved➢Improvement in quality of everything the organization does“Quality” applies not only to the final product, but to→How organization handles deliveries→How rapidly it responds to complaints→How politely the phones are answered➢Accurate measurement→Uses statistical techniques to measure every critical performance variable in operations➢Empowerment of employees→Involves people on the line in the improvement process→Teams are widely used as empowerment vehicles for finding and solving problems ✓ A Managerial Perspective：a. Improving People Skills b. Managing Work Force Diversityc. Responding to Globalizationd. Empowering Peoplee.Stimulating Innovation andChange f. Coping with “Temporariness” g. Helping Employee Balance Work-Life Conflicts h. Declining Employee Loyalty i. Improving Ethical Behavior✓Levels of OB Analysis: Individual Level Group Level Organization System Level Chapter2 Job Attitudes✓What the fundamental values of the organizational development can be found in the general manager’s approach to management? Respect, Support, Trust, Innovation ✓What contribution to the organization can be found in those values?A good work environment will be benefit to employees’ self-realization and theestablishment of team and learning organization.✓Attitude:Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something. When I say I like my job, I am expressing my attitude about work.✓Three components of Attitudes : Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral✓What are the Major Job Attitudes?➢Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics➢Job Involvement: Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. High level of both job involvement andpsychological employment are positively related to organizational citizenship and jobperformance. High job involvement is also related to reduced absences and lowerresignation rates.➢Psychological Empowerment (PE): a. Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. b. Good leaders empower theiremployees by involving them in decisions, making them feel their work is important,and giving them discretion to do their own thing. c. Higher level of Job Involvement andPE are positively related to Organizational citizenship and job performance.✓other Major Job Attitudes:➢Organizational Commitment: Identifying with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to remain a member.✧The three forms of OC:Affective – emotional attachment to organization (e.g. pro-environmental firms)Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying with an org (e.g. high salary)Normative -moral or ethical obligations with employers (e.g. personal promise) There appears to be a positive relationship between organizational commitment andjob productivity.---has strong relation to performance, especially for new employees.---In general, affective commitment is most likely to relate to organizational outcomes such as performance and turnover.➢Perceived Organizational Support (POS)a.Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contributionand cares about their well-being.b.People perceive OS is higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved indecision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.c.High POS is related to higher OB outcomes (performance).➢Employee Engagementa. The degree of an individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job.b. Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.c. According to researches, they contribute high customer satisfaction, highprofits, and lower level turnover and accidents.✓Is there cognitive dissonance?--Your friends or relatives won’t disagree with you because of the close relation.--People do seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. (E.g. I don’t marry her because love her.)✓The relationship between attitudes and behavior:a.Important attitudes reflect our fundamental values, self-interest, or identification withindividuals or groups we value. These attitudes tend to show a strong relationship to our behavior.b.The more you talk about your attitude on a subject, the more likely you are toremember it, and the more likely it to shape your behavior. (e.g. changing a job)c.Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior tend to occur when social pressures tobehave in certain ways hold exceptional power.d.The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers tosomething with which we have direct personal experience.✓the closer the match between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship Chapter3 Moods, Emotions and Organizational Behavior✓Why Were Emotions Excluded from OB Study?➢Myth of rationality – emotions were the antithesis of rationality and should not be seen in the workplace➢Belief that emotions of any kind are disruptive in the workplace✓Emotional Terminology:➢affect: A generic term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people experience➢emotion: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or somethingShort termed and action-oriented.➢Mood: Feelings that tend to be less intense and longer-lasting than emotions and often lack a contextual stimulusP27 3.1✓The Basic Emotions:➢positive emotions→positive affect: The mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as excitement, self-assurance, and cheerfulness at the high end with boredom,sluggishness, and tiredness at the low end.→negative affect: At zero input, when no stimulus is provided, most people experience a mildly positive mood. In fact, positive moods tend to be morecommon than negative ones.➢negative emotions➢negative affect: The mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end with relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end.✓The Functions of Emotions:➢Emotions and Rationality: Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help in understanding the world around us.➢Evolutionary Psychology : Theory that emotions serve an evolutionary purpose: helps in survival of the gene pool. The theory is not universally accepted✓Sources of Emotions and Moods:➢Personality➢Day of the week and time of the day: More positive interactions will likely occur mid-day and later in the week➢Weather: no impact according to the research➢Stress: Increased stress worsens moods➢Social Activities: Physical, informal, and epicurean activities increase positive mood ➢Sleep: Lack of sleep increases negative emotions and impairs decision making➢Exercise: Mildly enhances positive mood➢Age: Older people experience negative emotions less frequently➢Gender: Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more intensely and display more frequent expressions of emotions. Could be due tosocialization✓Emotional Labor: An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at workEmotional dissonance is when an employee has to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling anotherFelt vs. Displayed Emotions:➢Felt Emotions: the individual’s actual emotions➢Displayed Emotions: the learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job→Surface Acting is hiding one’s true emotions→Deep Acting is trying to change one’s feelings based on display rules ✓Emotional Intelligence:A person’s ability to:1)Be self-aware (to recognize his or her own emotions as experienced), 2)Detectemotions in others, and 3)Manage emotional cues and information.Moderately associated with high job performanceEmotional Intelligence on Trial➢The case for: a. Intuitive appeal – it makes sense b. EI predicts criteria that matter –positively correlated to high job performance c. Study suggests that EI isneurologically based➢The case against: a. EI is too vague a concept b. EI can’t be measured c. EI is so closely related to intelligence and personality that it is not unique when thosefactors are controlled✓OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction➢Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills and help us understand and analyze new information➢Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase creativity✓More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more motivated workforce➢Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively➢Negotiation – Emotions may impair negotiator performance➢Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions from employees, called emotional contagion✓Even More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely carry over to the next day ➢Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative emotions are more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work✓How Can Managers Influence Moods?➢Use humor to lighten the moment➢Give small tokens of appreciation➢Stay in a good mood themselves – lead by example➢Hire positive people✓Does the degree to which people experience emotions vary across cultures?Do people’s interpretations of emotions vary across cultures?Do the norms for the expressions of emotions differ across cultures?“YES” to all of the above!Chapter 5 Perception and Decision-making✓Perception：The process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment✓Factors influencing perception：➢The perceiver：Attitudes，Motives，Interests，Experience，expectations➢The target：Novelty，Motion，Sound，Size，Background，proximity➢The Situation：Time，Work setting，Social setting✓Attribution Theory：trying to explain the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.✓The three determining factors of attribution theory：➢Distinctiveness➢Consensus➢Consistency→Fundamental attribution error:1. When making judgments about the behavior of other people, we tend tounderestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence ofinternal or personal factors2.Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive workers.3. Individuals whose intellectural and interpersonal abilieties are weakest are mostlikely to overestimate their performance and abilty.✓The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision making：Who makes decisions? What decisions to make?All the decisions are closed related to perceptions. (data collection and analysis)✓The Six Steps of Rational Decision-making model：➢Define the problem➢Identify the decision criterria➢Allocate weithgts to teh criteria➢Develop the alternatives➢Evaluate teh alternatives➢Select the best alternative➢Example:bicycle parking problem➢Bounded Rationality➢Intuitive decision making✓Common Biases and Erorrs in Decision Making：anchoring bias, confirmation bias, availabe bias, escalation of commitment, risk aversion, hindsight bias✓Organizatioal Constraints on Decision making: performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system-imposed time constraints, historical precdidents✓Three Ethical Decision Criteria:➢Utilitarianism（providing the greatest benefits for the greatest number功利主义，实用主义）➢Rights(respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals,eg.right to privacy, free speech ,and due process)➢Justice(imposing and enforceing rules afaily and impartially to ensure justice or an equitalbe distribution of benefits and costs.) Comment on the three choices.✓Three-component Model of Creativity:➢Expertise(abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise )➢Creative thinking skills(personality ——creativity, the ability to use analogies, and the talent ot see the familiar in a different light)➢Intrinsic task motivation (interesting , involving , exciting, satisfying,persionally challengfing jobs, etc.)Chapter8 Groups✓Group: Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal, and further subclassified into command, task, interest, or friendship categories.✓Four Types of Groups:Command group, Task group, Interest group, Friendship group✓Why People Join Groups: (benefits)➢Security Reduce the insecurity of “standing alone”; feel stronger, fewer self-doubts, and more resistant to threats➢Status Inclusion in a group viewed by outsiders as important; provides recognition and status➢Self-esteem Provides feelings of self-worth to group members, in addition to conveying status to outsiders➢Affiliation Fulfills social needs. Enjoys regular interaction; can be primary source for fulfilling need for affiliation➢Power What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible; power in numbers➢Goal achievement Some tasks require more than one person; need to pool talents, knowledge, or power to complete the job. In such instances, management may rely onthe use of a formal group✓Basic Group Concepts:➢Roles→Role research conclusions: a.People play multiple roles b.People learn roles from stimuli around them c.People can shift roles rapidly when the situation demandsd.People experience major role conflict between roles➢Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are adopted and shared by the group’s members→The Hawthorne Studies→Conformity and the Asch Studies➢Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group→Relationship of Cohesiveness to Productivity→Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Make the group smaller b.Encourage agreement on group goals c.Increase the time spent together d.Increase thestatus and perceived difficulty of group membership→More Ways Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Stimulate competition with other groups b.Give rewards to the group rather than members c.Physicallyisolate the group➢Size→How Size Effects a Group: a.Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks rge groups are consistently better at problem solving c.Social loafing - tendency toexpend less effort in a group than as an individual d.Increases in group size areinversely related to individual performance➢Composition: Diversity increases effectiveness due to the variety of viewpoints.Diversity promotes conflict, which stimulates creativity, which leads to improveddecision making. May take more time to work smoothly. May lead to turnover ➢Status: A prestige grading, position, or rank within the group. It may be formally imposed by the group, or informally acquired through characteristics such aseducation, age, gender, skill, or experience→Effects of High Status: a.Resist conformity or receive more freedom b.Do not need or care about social rewards c.Members must believe status hierarchy isequitable d.Inequities produce corrective behaviors and conflict✓Individual versus Group Decision Making:➢Individual: More efficient, Speed, No meetings, No discussion, Clear accountability, Consistent values➢Group: More effective, More information and knowledge, Diversity of views, Higher-quality decisions, Increased acceptance✓Symptoms of Group Think: a.Group members rationalize any resistance to their assumptionsb.Members pressure any doubters to support the alternative favored by the majorityc.Doubters keep silent about misgivings(doubts) and minimize their importanced.Groupinterprets members’ silence as a “yes” vote for the majorityVariables Influencing Group Think: Group’s cohesiveness, Leader’s behavior, Insulation from outsiders, Time pressures, Failure to follow methodical decision-making procedures✓GroupShift: A special case of groupthink. The decision of the group reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during the group discussion, whether shift is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant prediscussion norm.✓Selecting the Best Decision-Making Technique:➢Brainstorming➢Nominal group technique➢Electronic meetingsChapter9 Teams✓Reasons for Team Popularity: a.Outperform on tasks requiring multiple skills, judgment, and experience b.Better utilization of employee talents c.More flexible and responsive to changing events d.Facilitate employee participation in operating decisions e.Effective in democratizing the organization and increasing employee motivation✓Work Group: A group who interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help one another perform within each member’s area of responsibility. Individuals work alone, not collectively, on a task. Performance is the summation of all of the group member’s individual contributions.✓Work Team:Generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Their individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs.✓Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams P123 9.1✓Four Types of Teams P124 9.2➢Problem-Solving Teams: a.Share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved. b.Rarely given authority to unilaterally implement any oftheir suggested actions c.Typically composed of 5-12 hourly employees from thesame departmentExample: Quality Circles➢Self-Managed Work Teams: a.Collectively control pace of work b.Determine work assignments anize breaks d.Collectively choose inspection procedurese.Select their own members and evaluate each other’s performancef.Generallycomposed of 10-15 people➢Cross-Functional Teams: a.Members from diverse areas within and between organizations b.Exchange information c.Develop new ideas and solve problemsd.Coordinate complex projects f.Development is time-consuming due to complexity anddiversityExamples: Task Force and Committees➢Virtual Teams: Computer technology ties physically dispersed members together to achieve a common goal→Differentiating factors from other teams: Absence of para-verbal and non-verbal cues, Limited social context, Ability to overcome time and space constraints✓Creating Effective Teams:Effectiveness of teams is defined by:➢Objective measures of the team’s productivity➢Manager’s ratings of team performance➢Aggregate measures of member satisfactionA Team Effectiveness Model P126 9.3✓Turning Individuals into Team Players: To perform well as team members, individuals must be able to 1)Communicate openly and honestly 2)Confront differences and resolve conflicts 3)Sublimate personal goals for the good of the team✓The Challenge in Shaping Team Players:➢Greatest where... a.The national culture is highly individualistic b.Introduced into organizations that historically value c.individual achievement➢Less demanding... a.Where employees have strong collectivist values, such as Japan or Mexico b.In new organizations that use teams as their initial form for structuringwork✓Shaping Team Players:➢Selection: Ensure that candidates can fulfill their team roles in addition to having the technical skills required for the job➢Training: Provide workshops in problem-solving, communication, negotiation, conflict-management, coaching, and group-development skills➢Rewards: Rework reward systems to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive onesChapter 10 Communication✓Functions of Communication➢Control - both formal and informal➢Motivation - clarification and feedback➢Emotional expression - fulfillment of social needs➢Information - facilitating decision making✓The Communication ProcessSource, Encoding, Channel, decoding, Receiver✓Downward Communication：Assign goals，Provide job instructions，Inform employees of policies and procedures，Point out problems that need attention，Offer feedback about performance，Letters and email from leaders to members of the team✓Upward Communication：Provide feedback to higher-ups，Inform them of progress toward goals，Relay current problems，Keep managers aware of how employees feel，Ideas on how things can be improved✓Lateral Communication：Save time and facilitate coordination，Formally sanctioned or informally created，Enhance efficient and accurate transfer of information，Can create dysfunctional conflicts when formal vertical channels are breached✓Oral Communication：➢Advantage: Speed , Feedback➢Disadvantage: Potential for distorted message, Content at destination is different from the original✓Written Communication:➢Advantage: Provide a tangible and verifiable record, Can be stored for an indefinite period of time, Physically available for later reference, Well thought-out, logical, andclear➢Disadvantage: Time consuming, Lack of feedback, No guarantee how reader will interpret it✓Non-verbal Communication:➢Kinesics - Gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body➢Body movement -Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication➢Intonations - Change the meaning of the message➢Facial expression -Characteristics that would never be communicated if you read a transcript of what is said➢Physical distance - Proper spacing is largely dependent cultural norms✓Formal Small-Group Networks P140 10.3✓Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria p140 10.4✓The Grapevine:Not controlled by management, Perceived as being more believable and reliable, Largely used to serve self-interest, Appear in response to situations: Important to us, Where there is ambiguity, Under conditions that arouse anxiety✓Computer-Aided Communication: Electronic mail (e-mail), Intranet and Extranet links, Videoconferencing✓Barriers to Effective Communication: Filtering, Selective Perception, Information Overload, Gender Styles, Emotions, Language✓ A Cultural Guide: Assume differences until similarity is proved, Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation, Practice empathy, Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis✓Improving Feedback Skills: 1. Focus on specific behaviors 2. Keep feedback impersonal 3.Keep feedback goal oriented 4. Make feedback well timed 5. Ensure understanding 6. Direct negative feedback toward behavior that is controllable by the recipient✓Improving Active Listening Skills: 1. Make eye contact 2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions 3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures 4. Ask questions 5.Paraphrase 6. Avoid interrupting the speaker 7. Do not over talkChspter11 Leadership✓Leadership: Ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. The source of influence may be formal, provided by managerial rank in an organization. Non-sanctioned leadership(不具制裁力的领导) is the ability to influence that arises from outside of the formal structure of the organization.✓Trait Theories: Assumes that leaders are born, Characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders, Personality traits in leaders that non-leaders do not possess, Characteristics of individuals who meet the definition of leader, Provides the basis of selecting the right person for leadership✓Traits Consistently Associated with Leadership:Drive and ambition, Desire to lead and influence others, Honesty and integrity, Self-confidence, Intelligence, In-depth technical knowledge✓Traits Alone Do Not Explain Leadership: Ignore situational factors. Leaders must take “the right actions”“The right actions” differ by situation✓Behavioral Theories: Assumes people can be trained to lead Researched the behaviors of specific leaders. Critical behavioral determinants of leadership. Specific behaviors identify leaders. Provides the basis of design for training programs✓Ohio State Studies:Sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.Developed two categories of leadership behavior.:→Initiating structure - attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals.→Consideration - concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction ✓University of Michigan Studies: Locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appear related to measures of performance effectivenessTwo dimensions:→Employee-oriented - emphasize interpersonal relations→Production-oriented - emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job✓Limitations of Behavioral Theories:Did not identify consistent relationships between leadership behavior and group performance. Missing consideration of the situational factors that influence success and failure. Could not clarify situational factors✓Contingency Theories:➢Fiedler Leadership Model -Proper match of leader’s style of interacting with subordinates➢Path-Goal Model -Leader assists followers in attaining goals and ensures goals are compatible with overall objectives➢Leader-Participation Model - Leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure ✓Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire: Individual’s basic leadership style is a key factor in leadership success. Assumed that individual leadership style is fixed,。

组织行为(英语)

人员安置和培训) 人员安置和培训
IV. Networking. Socializing, politicking, and interacting with outsiders.(社会化活动、政治活动以及与外部的相互交往)
2、Enter Organizational Behavior
Organizational Behavior (often abbreviated OB ) is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups ,and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization’s effectiveness. (组织行为学是一个研究领域，它探讨个体、群体以及结构对组织内部行为的影响，目的是应用这些知识改善组织绩效。)
芬兰人的平等主义价值观，向富人收取更多的钱。交通罚款基于违规者的收入而不是恶劣行为，如900万美元，约22万美元的罚款。
IV. Overseeing Movement of Job to Countries with Low-Cost Labor V. Managing People During the War on Terror
(4) Anthropology
是社会认识人类及其活动的研究。人类学家对于文化和环境的研究使我们得以了解不同国家或不同组织中人产的基本价值观、态度和行为的差异。
4. Challenges and Opportunities for OB

(完整word版)组织行为学主要概念中英文对照

组织行为学主要看法中英文比较ability 能力absenteeism 少勤率achievement motivation 成就动机achievement need成就需要achievement/power theory 成就 /权益理论affective component of an attitude 态度的感情成分affiliation need 亲和需要arbitrator 仲裁者attitude 态度attribution 归因attributional bias 归因成见attributional model 归因模型authority 声威、权益behavioral component of an attitude 态度的行为成分 behavior theories of leadership 领导的行为理论boundaryless organization 无界线组织brainstorming 脑筋风暴法bureaucracy 官僚结构centralization 集权chain of command 指挥链change 改革change agent 改革代理人channel 渠道 ,通道channel richness 通道丰富性charisma 领导魅力；领导者的超凡魅力charismatic leadership 拥有超凡魅力的领导者chief executive officer(CEO) 首席执行官classical conditioning 经典条件反射coercive power 逼迫权cognitive component of an attitude 态度的认知成分cognitive conflict 认知矛盾cognitive dissonance 认知不协调；认知失调cognitive evaluation theory 认知议论理论cohesiveness 内聚力；凝聚力collaborating 合作collectivism 集体主义collegial model 学院模型command group 命令集体communication 沟通communication media 沟通媒介communication process 沟通过程communication networks 沟通网络compromising 妥协conceptual skills 看法解析技术conciliator 调停者conflict 矛盾conflict management 矛盾管理conflict process 矛盾过程conformity 从众content theories of motivation 内容型激励理论contingency model of leadership 领导的权变模型contrast effects 对照效应core dimensions of jobs 工作的核心纬度core values 核心价值观counseling 咨询cross-cultural communication 跨文化沟通cross-function teams 跨职能团队culture 文化decentralization 分权decisions 决策decoding 译码；解码delegation 授权Delphi technique 德尔菲法departmentalism 部门化dependent variables 因变量distributive bargaining 分配谈判distributive justice 分配公正downward communication 下行沟通dysfunctional conflict 功能失态性矛盾employee stock ownership plans〔 ESOPs〕员工持股方案encoding 编码environment 环境equity theory 公正理论ERG theory ERG 理论esteem needs敬爱需要existence needs生计需要expectancy 希望expectancy theory 希望理论expert power 专家权益face-to-face communication 当面的沟通Fiedler contingency model 费德勒权变模型formal group 正式集体formalization 正规化formalization stage 正规化阶段forming 形成functional conflict功能正常性矛盾fundamental attribution error 根本归因错误Gain sharing plan 收益分享方案goal setting 目标设置goal-setting theory 目标设置理论group 集体groupthink 集体思想growth need 成长需要halo effect 晕轮效应Hawthorne experiment 霍桑效应hierarchy of needs theory 需要层次理论higher-order needs 高层次需要horizontal conflict 横向矛盾human relations 人际关系human skills 人际技术hygiene factors 保健因素illegitimate political behavior非法的政治行为incentives 刺激；诱因independent variables 自变量individual differences 个体差异individualism 个人主义informal group 非正式集体informal leaders 非正式领导informal network 非正式网络informal organization 非正式组织information-based power 信息权information technology 信息技术instrumental values 工具性价值观integrative bargaining 整合谈判intergroup conflict 集体间矛盾internal locus of control 内部控制点internals 内控者interorganizational conflict 组织间矛盾interpersonal conflict 人际矛盾intragroup conflict 集体内矛盾intraorganizational conflict 组织内矛盾intrapersonal conflict 个人内部矛盾intuitive decision making 直觉决策lateral communication 横向沟通 Leader-Member exchange(LMX) theory 领导－员工交换理论 leader-participation model 领导参加模型 leadership 领导leadership style 领导方式leading 领导learning 学习learning organization 学习型组织learning theory 学习理论Least-Preferred Co-worker(LPC) questionnaire 最难共事者问卷legitimate political behavior 合法的政治行为legitimate power 合法权益locus of control 控制点lower-order needs 低层次需要Maslow`s theory of needs 马斯洛需求理论Machiavellianism 马基雅维里主义maintenance factor 保健因素Management By Objectives(MBO) 目标管理Management By Walking Around(MBWA) 走动式管理managerial grid 管理方格图managers 管理者；经理matrix organization 矩阵组织matrix structure 矩阵结构Meclelland`s theory of needs 麦克利兰的需求理论mechanistic organizations 机械组织meditation 调停mediator 调停者models of organizational behavior 组织行为模型Motivating Potential Score(MPS) 激励的潜藏分数Motivation激励；动机motivation-hygiene theory 激励－保健理论motivational factors 激励因素motivational patterns 激励种类Need 需要needs theories 需要理论negative reinforcement 负增强neglect 忽略；粗心negotiation 谈判；协商network 网络nominal group 名义集体Nominal Group Technique(NGT) 名义集体法nonverbal communication 非语言沟通norm 老例；标准；定额；平均数norming标准化operant conditioning 操作性条件反射organic organizations 有机组织organization 组织Organizational Behavior(OB) 组织行为organizational culture 组织文化organizational citizens 组织公民organizational design 组织设计organizational development 组织睁开organizational politics 组织政治organizational socialization 组织社会化organizational structure 组织结构organizational life cycle 组织生命周期organizing 组织Participation 参加participative counseling 参加式咨询participative leader 参加式领导者participative management 参加式管理path-goal theory 路子－目标理论perception 知觉perceptual biases 知觉成见perceptual error 知觉错误performance-outcome expectancies绩效－产出希望performance-satisfaction-effort loop 绩效－满意－努力环personal-based influence 个人影响力personal power 个人权益personality 个性；人格personality-job fit theory 个性－工作般配理论personality traits 人格特质piece rate 计件薪水piece-rate pay plans 计件薪水方案piecework system 计件工作系统planned change 有方案的改革polarization 极化political behavior 政治行为political power 政治权益politics 政治positive reinforcement 正增强position power 职位权益power 权益power distance 权益距离power need 权益需要power tactics 权益战术，机谋prejudice 成见；成见problem-solving teams 问题解决小组procedural justice 程序公正性procedure 程序process consultation 过程咨询production-oriented leader 以生产导向的领导productivity 生产力profit-sharing plan 收益分享方案projection 投射psychological success 心理成功psychological costs 心理本钱psychological contract 心理契约psychological distance 心理距离punishment power 处分性权益quality circles 质量圈qualify of life生活质量Qualify of Work Life(QWL)工作生活质量quantity of life 生活数量rationality 理性realistic job previews 实质工作预览reference group 参照集体reciprocal interdependence 互惠的相互依赖reengineering 工程再造refreezing 重新冻结referent power 参照性权益reinforcement 增强reinforcement theory 增强理论reinforcement schedule 增强程序relatedness need互有关系需要reliability信度resistance to change改革阻力reward power 奖励权role 角色selective perception 选择性知觉self-actualization 自我实现self-efficacy 自我效能self-esteem 自尊self-managing teams 自我管理小组self-serving bias 自我效劳成见sensitivity training 敏感性训练shared value 共同价值观situational leadership theory 领导的情境理论skill-based pay 技术薪水skill variety 技术多样化social comparison theory 社会比较论social-learning theory 社会学习理论Social Readjustment Rating Scale社会再适应评预计表Socialization 社会化span of control 控制幅度specification 专业化stereotyping 刻板印象storming 风暴阶段stress 压力stressors 施压源substitutes for leadership 领导的取代物survey feedback 检查反应synergy 共同作用task significance 任务重要性task structure 任务结构task team 任务小组；任务团队task uncertainty 任务不确定性team building 团队建设technical skills 技术技术technology 技术total quality management(TQM) 全面质量管理traits theories of leadership 领导特质理论transactional leaders 交易型领导turnover 离职率two-factor model of motivation 双因素激励理论type A personality A 型人格type B personality B 型人格uncertain avoidance 不确定性闪避unity of command 一致指挥upward feedback 上行反应upward communication 上行沟通valence 效价validity 效度value system 价值观系统values 价值观variable-pay programs 可变酬金方案vertical conflict 纵向矛盾work force diversity 劳动力多元化work group 工作集体work specialization 工作专业化written communication 书面沟通。

组织行为学-英文高级版

组织行为学文章 英文版