现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter10
现代英语词汇学概论.ppt
make sure
run short of
keep after (反复提醒）
get at （批评）
move in on （准备）攻击；影响
sit down under (忍受）
make do with (凑合着用）
poke one’s nose into (探听，干涉）
make a clean breast of (和盘托出）
界)
Animal Crackers
It’s raining _c_a_ts_ and dogs!
I’ve got a _f_ro_g____ in my throat.我得
了咽喉炎。
Those are just _c_ro_c_o_d_il_e_tears.
He’s taken the _li_o_n_‘s_ share.
V. Use of idioms
In order to use the idioms appropriatehe following features of idioms:
3. Semantic opacity 语义的不透明性
Idioms are usually semantically opaque,ie.metaphorical rather than literal.
a feather in sb's cap "an honour, success, of which one can be proud"
词汇学全十章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.What is a word?/ The definition of word.（名词解释）A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. The relationship between sound and meaning.（填空或简答）The relationship between sound and meaning are arbitrary and conventional. （这两个单词要会拼写）3.Why are there differences between sound and form?/ Explain the reasons that sound isdifferent from form.（简答）1）The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.2）Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years3）A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.4）Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.4.V ocabulary(简答)All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The term ‘vocabulary’ is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect,a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.5.The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words. Classification of words(P10这一小节是重中之重，大题小题都会出到，请结合课本认真复习)6.分类标准(选择填空)Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into contents words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.7.The characteristics of basic words stock (简答)1)All national character2)Stability3)Productivity4)Polysemy5)Collocability8.All national character is the most important of all features that may differentiate words ofcommon use form all others. （选择或填空）9.nonbasic words(名词解释)1)Terminology (术语) consist of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academicareas.(重点)2)Jargon（行话）refers to the specialized vocabulary by which members of particular arts,sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves.（重点）3)Slang（了解）4)Argot （黑话）generally refers to the jargon of criminals.5)Dialectal words （方言）are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.6)Archaisms （古语）are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restrictedonly to specialized or limited use.7)Neologisms（新词）are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken onnew meanings.（重点）10.Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. (名词解释或填空)11.Functional words do not have notions of their own. (名词解释或填空)12.Content words include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13.Functional words are also called empty words or form words. They include prepositions,conjunctions, auxiliaries, articles and pronouns.14.the functions of native words:Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language. Therefore, what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.15.Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowedwords, native words have two other features: (选择填空或简答)1)Neutral in style2)Frequent in use 要注意native words一共有5+2=7个特点16.外来语的分类：(选择填空或简答)According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes.1)denizens2)aliens3)Translation-loans4)Semantic-loans17.Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the Englishlanguage. （名词解释）18.Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. （名词解释）19.课本第20页练习中的选择、判断、填空都要仔细看，可能会出到原题Chapter 2 The Development of The English Vocabulary1.英语的三个发展阶段及其时间（简答，填空，选择，三个阶段及其时间都要记住）1)Old English (450-1150)2)Middle English (1150-1500)3)Modern English (1500-up to now)2.Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English （选择，填空）3.Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000words. It was highly inflectedlanguage just like modern German. （古英语的特点，选择，填空）4.Middle English retained much fewer inflection. If we say that Old English was a fullendings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.(中期英语的特点，选择，填空)5.In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can beconcluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language. (现代英语的特点，选择，填空)6.There are three main sources of new words:1)the rapid development of modern science and technology2)social, economic and political changes3)the influence of other cultures and languages7.Modes of vocabulary development (重点，简答)1）Creation2）Semantic change3）Borrowing8.Creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.9.第33页课后题中的天空、判断好好看看Chapter 3 Word Formation 11.morpheme: the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.’ (名词解释)2.allomorphs: Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to theirposition in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.(名词解释)3.types of morphemes （要求会画42页的表）4.free morpheme: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to befree. (名词解释)5.We might see that free morphemes are free root.6.bound morphemes: morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. (名词解释)7.bound root: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just likea free root. It is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. (名词解释)8.what is affixes? Illustrate it with examples. 论述题,这是个重点，课本第41页整页，按上课时画的来回答9. A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed withhold total loss ofidentity. (名词解释)10.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in acompound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate.11.we will use stem only because it can replace root and also refer to any form which is largerthan a root.12.第44页课后题三个都要好好看一下Unit 4 Word Formation II1.The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. Themost productive are affixation, compounding and conversation.（选择，填空）2.Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming orderivation affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation. (名词解释)3.Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. (名词解释)4.Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.(前缀的特点)5.We classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups:1)Negative prefixes:2)Reversative prefixes3)Pejorative prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo-4)Prefixes of degree or size5)Prefixes of orientation and attitude6)Locative prefixes7)Prefixes of time and order8)Number prefixes9)Miscellaneous prefixes（这九种及其例子都要记住，选择题给出例子要知道是属于哪种前缀）6.Suffixes is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. （名词解释）7.Suffixes has only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change thegrammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class. (后缀的特点)8.记住几种后缀及其例子，给出一个后缀要选出是什么意义的后缀pounding: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words byjoining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compoundings.（名词解释）pounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.11.Characteristics of compounds/ The differences between compounds and free words (简答)1)Phonetic features2)Semantic features3)Grammatical features12.动词复合词的两种构成形式：(简答)1）Conversation2）Backformation13.Conversation is the formation of new words by conversation words of one class to anotherclass. (名词解释)14.短语动词转换成名词的两种方法：1)Words like hand-out, stand-by are all converted from phrasal verbs. Such conversation isvery common in English. The examples cited here keep their original order, hand-out from hand out, stand-by from stand by.2)Sometimes, when a phrasal verb is turned into a noun, the verb and particle should beinverted.15. Characteristics of full conversation: a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an indefinite article or –(e) to indicate singular or plural number.16. 熟记以下例子，给出例子，要知道是属于完全转类，一般出选择题或判断题：Common adjectives:a white; a native; finals; drinkables; a liberal; a Republican; necessaries; valuablesParticiples and others:a given; a drunk; young marrieds; newly-weds17. Characteristics of words partially conversation:Nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. What’s more, they retain some of the adjective features18. 部分转类例子（同16）the poor, the rich, the young, the wounded, the poorer, the more affluent, the most corrupt19. Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. (名词解释)20. Four groups of blends(简答)1) head + tail2) head +head3) head +word4) word +tail21. examples: (选择或判断，要求同前)motel (head + tail)sitcom(head + head)medicare (head +word)22. clipping is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. (名词解释)23. Four common types of clipping (简答)1) Front clipping2) Back clipping3) Front and back clipping4) Phrase clipping24. examples(要求同前)quake, phone (front clipping)flu, fridge, (front and back clipping)pub, pop, zoo (phrase clipping)25. Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（名词解释）26. Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. (首字母缩略词)Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. (首字母拼音词)27. examples：VOA, c/o, p.c. TV (Initialisms)AIDS, N-bomb (Acronyms)28. Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.(名词解释)29. examples:donate, beggar, babysitter (back-formation)30. Words from Proper Names include names of people, names of places, names of books and trade names.31. examples:Faraday, Ohm, Volta, Quixote (names of people)China (names of places)Utopia, odyssey, Babbit (names of books)Nylon, orlon, Dacron, rayon (trdaenames)31.课本第73页练习，选择，填空和判断都要仔细看Chapter 5 Word Meaning1.Reference is the relationship between language and the world. (名词解释)2.Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objectiveworld in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on whereas meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. (名词解释)3.Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. (名词解释)4.注意1、2、3的区别5.Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. As weknow, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, and most words can be said to be non-motivated. That is, the connection of the sign and meaning does not have a logical explanation. Nevertheless, English does not have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent. (名词解释或简答)6.Four motivations:（简答）1)Onomatopoeic motivation (拟声理据)2)Morphological motivation (形态理据)3)Semantic motivation (语义理据)4)Etymological motivation (词源理据)7.types of meaning 要会画表8.grammatical meanings refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicatesgrammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. (名词解释)9.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning. It is known thatgrammatical meaning surfaces only in use. But lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the notion that the word conveys. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.10.Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning ) is the meaning given in thedictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. (名词解释)11.概念意义的特点：constant and relatively stable12.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. (名词解释)13.four types of associative meaning: connotative, stylistic, affective and collective.（填空，选择或简答）14.connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptualmeaning. (名词解释)15.stylistic meaning: Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features,which make them appropriate for different contexts. (名词解释)16.stylistic meaning normally classify into formal, neural and informal.17.examples:domicile (very formal, official) residence(formal)abode(poetic)home(general)diminutive (very formal) tiny (colloquial)wee(colloquial, dialectal)记住这些例子，要知道这些是说的词的”stylistic meaning”18.affective meaning: Affective meaning indicated the speaker’s attitude towards the person orthing in question. (名词解释)19.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.20.collocative meaning: this meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in itscollocation.21.课本第92页课后题选择，填空，判断Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field1.论述题(按课堂上讲答)Please illustrate two approaches to polysemy with examples.The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.2.The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation.3.Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both insound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. (名词解释)4.Types of Homonyms (简答)1）Perfect homonyms2）Homographs3）Homophones5.Perfect homonyms are identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. （名词解释）6.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. （名词解释）7.Homophones are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning. （名词解释）8.Homophones constitute the largest number and the most common. (填空或选择)9.Origins of Homonyms (简答)1）Change in sound and spelling2）Borrowing3）Shortening10.Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants (难点，这个课本上整段都要仔细看，不一定会出什么形式的题)Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. 1) The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. 2) One important criterion is to see their etymology. 3) The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness. 4) In dictionaries, a polysemant have meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries. 11.Synonyms: one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or verynearly the same essential meaning. In other words, synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as I part of speech. (名词解释)12.Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relativesynonyms.13.Absolute synonyms: Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words shichare identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meaning.14.Discrimination of synonyms:（论述或简答，注意如果出简答题，则不用举例子，直接答每一段的前一句话就行，但如果是论述，以下都答）The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation, connotation, and application.1)Difference in denotation. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning. For example,timid and timorous are synonymous, but the former isapplied to both the state of mind in which a person may happen to be at the moment,and to the habitual disposition, and the latter only to the disposition. Therefore,timid has a wider range of meaning than timorous.2)Difference in connotation. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecoloring of words. For example, among the group of policeman, constable, bobbyand cop. Policeman and constable are stylistically neutral, yet the former is usedboth in British English and American English while the latter is only British. B obbyis colloquial, used only in British English and cop is slangy.3)Difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but different inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into differentsentence patterns. For example, answer and let are synonyms, but we allow sb to dosth and let sb do sth.15.Antonymy （同上题，简答或论述,另外这里面的例子要记住，选择填空或判断中出现要知道属于哪一类反义词）Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. There are a variety of ‘oppositeness’. They can be classified into three major groups.1)Contradictory terms. These antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. Theyare so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit nopossibility between them. The assertion of one is the denial of the other. In otherwords, if one of the pair is true, then the other cannot be. For example, an animal iseither dead or alive, and there exists no such a case where the animal is both deadand alive. The same is applicable to present/absent, male/female, boy/girl, true/false,same/different and so on.2)Contrary terms. Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale runningbetween two poles or extremes. Antonyms such as rich/poor, old/young, big/smallrepresent two points at both ends of the pole. The two opposites are gradable andone exists in comparison with the other. (other examples: old/young, open/close,rich/poor, hot/cold, beautiful /ugly这几个答大题是不用写，小题时认识就行)3)Relative terms. This third type consist of relational opposites such as parent/child,husband/wife, predecessor/successor, employer/employee, sell/buy, give/recive. 16.Hyponymy 这部分题量不多，记住其中的例子，可能会出选择、填空或判断，比如flower是rose 的什么词？答案：superordiante17.Semantic field这一部分也是出小题，比如给出一堆蔬菜名称，问这是什么语义场，答案a field of vegetable. 或者其他的语义场，fruit, color, relatives and so on.仔细看一下课本上的例子18.课本123页课后题，选择，填空，判断Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning1.Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, andtransfer. Of these, extension and narrowing by far the most common.2.Extension is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has nowbecome generalized. （名词解释）3.Narrowing is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specializedsense. (名词解释)4.examples: meat, wife, girl （例子要求同前）5.Elevation refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to position ofimportance. (名词解释)6.Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposition of semantic elevation. It is processwhereby of good origins fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.(名词解释)7.examples: silly, knave, criticize8.Transfer: words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean somethingelse have experienced the process of semantic transfer.(名词解释)9.causes of changes (简答)1）Extra-linguistic factorsa.historical reasonb.class reasonc.psychological reason2) Linguistic factorsa. shortening of phrasesb. borrowingc. analogyChapter 8 Meaning and Context1.linguistic context : Context is used in different sense. In a narrow sense, it refers to the words,clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context, which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. (名词解释)2.extra-linguistic context: Context is used in different sense in a broad sense, it includes thephysical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (名词解释)3.Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context.4.Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. Themeaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring words.(名词解释)5.Grammatical context: In some case, the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structurein which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. (名词解释)6.The role of context: (简答)1)elimination of ambiguity2)indication of referents3)provision of clues for inferring word meaning7.Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy, homonymy and grammatical structure.8.课后习题Chapter 9 English Idioms1. Characteristics of idioms(简答)1)semantic unity2)structural stability2. Please explain the structural stability of idioms(简答)1) The constituents of idioms cannot be replaced.2) The word order cannot be inverted or changed.3) The constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) Many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.3. According to grammatical functions we classify idioms into five groups.4. Idioms can be classified into 5 groups: (简答)1) Idioms nominal in nature2) Idioms adjectival in nature3) Idioms verbal in nature4) Idioms adverbial in nature5) Sentence idioms5. Idioms nominal in nature: Idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences. （名词解释）6. Idioms verbal in nature can be divided into phrasal verbs and verb phrases.7. Phrasal verbs are idioms which are composed of a verb plus a prep and/or a particle. (名词解释)8. As far as sentence types are concerned, sentence idioms embrace declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative sentences. In terms of complexity they can be further divided into simple, compound and complex sentences.9. Idioms are generally felt to be informal.10. Apart from the stylistic features, idioms manifest apparent rhetorical colouring in such respects as of phonetic manipulation, lexical manipulation and figures of speech. （填空或简答）11. Phonetic manipulation: (1) Alliteration (2) Rhyme12. 应用举例：eat like a horse -----simileBlack sheep, a dark horse------metaphor13. Metonymy: This refers to idioms in which the name of one thing is used for that of another associated with it. (名词解释)14. 课本179页练习，选择，填空，判断，简答。
现代英语词汇学
2.
Chapter 10 小词的使用与理解
II. 注意动词的微妙用法
1. 2. She is under contract to star in two films a year. (扮演主角） Have you seen any movies staring Woody Allen. （以…为主演的）
Chapter 10 小词的使用与理解
III. 注意否定的应用
4. 否定的强调表示法
Chapter 10 小词的使用与理解
II. 注意动词的微妙用法
Characterize, feature, star 分析：
1. 2. 3. 4. The nation is characterized by industry and courage. Industry and courage characterizes the nation. The language of poetry is characterized by metaphor. Metaphor characterizes the language of poetry.
Chapter 10 小词的使用与理解
III. 注意否定的应用 1. 形式否定，意义肯定
His escape was nothing short of miraculous. （简直可以说） He is little short of a genius. （简直可以说）
Chapter 10 小词的使用与理解
Chapter 10 小词的使用与理解
III. 注意否定的应用
3. 双重否定
He is too wise not to know it. = He is so wise that he surely knows it. He is too much a man of the world not to know better. = he is so world-wise that he knows what to do and what not to do.
《英语词汇学》笔记1-10章
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. According to semanticists（意义学家）, a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’（全民性）is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.（全民性）13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释：1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary（词汇）: The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon（专门术语）: It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms（古语词）: Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms（新词语）: Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words（外来词）: Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens（同化词）: Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens（非同化词）: Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans（译借词）: Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans（借义词）: Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot（黑话）: It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words（实词）: Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words（本族语）: Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题：1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答：It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock（基本词汇）?①. All national character.（全民性）②. Stability（稳定性）③. Productivity（多产性）④. Polysemy（多义性）⑤. Collocability（搭配性）Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答：①. Neutral in style（文体上中性）. Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use（使用频繁）. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答：A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms（新词语）with examples.答：Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答：V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency（使用频率）, words may fall into the basic word stock（基本词汇）and nonbasic vocabulary（非基本词汇）. Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use；②By notion（实义）, words can be divided into content words（实义词）and functional words （功能词即虚词）, content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences；③By origin（起源）, words can be grouped into native words（本族语词）and borrowed words （外来语词）. Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集：1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages：Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English（古英语）.6. The introduction of Christianity（基督教）at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English （古英语）has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin（英语，法语和拉丁语）---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English（当代英语）began with the establishment of printing（印刷术）in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释：1. creation（创造新词）: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change（旧词新意）: Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing（借用外来词语）: Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English（古英语）: It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English（中世纪英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English（现代英语）: It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题：1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family（印欧语系）?答：They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答：the rapid development of modern science and technology.；Social, economic and political changes.；The influences of other cultures and languages.；3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答：Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集：1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.（内部曲折词缀和派生词缀）10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释：1. morpheme（语素）: the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs（语素变体）: some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes（自由语素）: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes（黏着语素）: morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root（黏着词根）: a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes（词缀）: Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes（曲折词缀）: Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes（派生词缀）: As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root（词根）: A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem（词干）: A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题：1. What are the differences between root and stem?答：①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答：recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集：1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.（任意的和依照惯例的）3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.（语法意义）6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.（概念意义和关联意义）8. Associative meaning（关联意义）comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.（褒义词和贬义词）10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation（理据）explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning（词汇意义）in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释：1. concept（概念）: Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense（语义）: Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation（理据）: Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）: In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation（形态理据）: Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation（语义理据）: Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation（词源学理据）: The meanings of many words often relate directly。
英语词汇学复习提纲
英语词汇学复习提纲英语词汇学复习提纲Chapter 1 Terms1. word2. vocabulary3. common words4. literary words5. colloquial words6. slang words7. technical words Questions1. What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock?2. How are English words classified?3. What are the differences between function words and content words?4. What are the main reasons for the rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary? Important statements 1. The histiory of the English langague begins with the conquest and settlement of what is now England by the Angles, Saxons and the Jutes from about 450 AD.2. The Transitional period from Old English to Modern English is known as Middle English, which is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.3. In the early stages of Modern English the Renaissance brought great changes to the English vocabulary.4. The heavy borrowing made the English vocabulary extremely rich and heterogeneous. Chapter 2 Terms1. morpheme2. Allomorphe3. free morpheme4. bound morpheme5. root6. affix7. hybrid Questions1. How are English morphemes classified?2. How are Englihs words classified on the morphemic level? Important Statements1. What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes.2. The allomorphs of a morpheme do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound.3. Morphemes are important in the word-building process because the two most central and productive word-formation processes, compounding and affixation, are related to morphemes. Chapter 3 Terms1. partial conversion2. complete conversion Questions1. What are the three major processes of word-formation?2. Whyare the criteria of a compound relative? Important Statements1. There are varioius ways of forming words, but by and large, the various processes can be classified on the basis of frequency of usage, into major or minor processes.2. Any rule of word formation is of limited productivity in the sense that not all words which result from the applicationn of the rule are acceptable; they are freely acceptable only when they have gained an institutional currency in the language.3. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the base. They do not genearlly alter the word-class of the base.4. Suffixes usually change the word-class of the base. Chapter 4 Terms1. blending2. back-formation3. clipp ing4. neoclassical formation Questions1. What are the differences between initialisms and acronyms? Important Statements1. On the whole, clipped words are used in less formal situations than their full-length equivalents.2. Most of the blends are related to daily life.3. The majority of backformed words are verbs.4. Reduplicatives are characterized by being rhymed or alliterated.5. The majority of neoclassical formations are scientific and technical.6. Genuine coinage is rare.7. Some new words are coined by analogy. Chapter 5 Terms1. motivation2. denotative meaning3. connotative meaning4. stylistic meaning5. affective meaning Questions1. What is the relationship between word form and its senses?2. What are the main types of word meaning? Important Statements1. The test of a genuinely onomatopeic word is its intelligibility to a foreigner who has no knowledge of the language in question.2. Denotative meaning is the central factor in linguistic communication.3. Lexical meaning is dominant in content words, whereas grammatical meaning is dominant in funciton words. Chapter 6 Terms1. radiation2. concatination3. prima ry meanin4. central meaning5. perfect homonyms6.homophones7. homographs Important Statements1. One-meaning words are very rare. They are very often scientific terms.2. It may be said that polysemy is the rule and monosemy is the exception.3. In some cases, the primary meaning and the central meaning coincide.4. Polysemic words and homonymous words are not only good candidates for humor, they can also produce other effects such as irony or heightened dramatic power. Chapter 7Terms1. complete synonyms2. relative synonyms3. hyponymy4. marked member5. unmarked member Questions1. In what respects do synonymous words differ? Important Statements1. An agreement in denotation is the most important criterion of synonymy.2. Two words aretotally synonymous only if they are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings.3. It is important to note that two forces militate against complete synonymy: vagueness of word meaning,and connotative, stylistic and affective meanings that cluster around words.4. In most cases the native word is more spontaneous, more informal and unpretentious, whereas the foreign word is learned, abstract or even abstruse.5. In the double scale pattern of synonyms the native term usually sounds warmer and more homely than its foreign counterpart.6. In the triple scale pattern of synonyms the difference in tone between the English and the French words is often slight; the Latin word is generally more bookish.7. Synnonyms are useful for avoiding repetition and for achieving precision in meaning and variety in style.8. Lexical antonymy is often stronger than syntactic negation.9. This semantic category obviously overlaps with hyponymy: both are involved with forming relaionships between words in the same general area ofmeaning. For parctical purposes, in the case of hyponymy, one should pay attention to the question of which specific term to use, while in the case of semantic field, one’s attention should be turned toward the highly probable collocations the words of each semantic field have in common. Chapter 8 Terms1. linguistic context2. ambiguity Questions1. What are the different types of context?2. What are the functions of context in determination of word meaning? 3. What are the different types of ambiguity? Important Statements1. When we say that the context determines the sense we mean not that it imposes a sense but that it selects one that is already there.2. Words rarely can be equated on a one-to-one basis between two languages. Chapter 9 Terms1. historical cause of changes in word meaning2. social cause of changes in word meaning3. linguistic cause of changes in word meaning4. psychological cause of changes in word meaning5. metaphor6. metonymy Questions1. What are the mian causes of changes in word meaning?2. What are the tendencies in semantic change? Important Statements1. Usually a literal meaning of a word remains along with a new metaphorical one.2. Broading speaking, change of meaning refers tothe alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the additionnn of new meaning to established words. Chapter 10Terms Idiom Question What points should we attention to if we want to use idioms appropriately? Chapter 11 Questions1. What are three stages in the growth of American English?2. What are the characteristics of American English? Chapter 12Terms1. prescriptive dictionaries 2. descriptive。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳-（最新版）
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha. 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative （4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands atthe centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.(e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a wordmove gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are wordswhich are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees ofa given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake ) (3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation,。
《现代英语词汇学》(新版)复习
英语词汇学复习的内容：.一、考试题形式分为：Ⅰ.选择题(20分)：完全是考书中的理论与例子的结合,即知识点等。
1-9cahptersⅡ.填空（30分）：考定义概念。
1-10chaptersⅢ.（20分）习语英译汉：教材中汉语部分idioms: 习语的特点Ⅳ.(10分) 论述题：第三章为主Ⅴ. 树形图（依据上下义关系作图）(20分)：第二、六章二、教材内容简介陆国强编著：《现代英语词汇学》（新版），上海外语教育出版社，2003年7月第一章词的概述；第二章词的结构和词的构成方式；第三章词的理据；第四章词的语义特征；第五章词义的变化；第六章词的语义分类；第七章词的联想与搭配；第八章英语习语；第九章美国英语；第十章词的使用和理解；第十一章词汇衔接；第十二章词汇衔接和语篇连贯。
教学内容是: 词形结构构词法, 词法特点及分类, 词义转换, 英文习语, 美式英语, 词汇及文学风格, 英语词汇学, 词汇学研究方法及其新的发展方向等方面的理论与研究动态。
《现代英语词汇学教材》以现代语言理论为指导，以英语词汇为研究对象。
主要内容有单词的结构、构词法、单词的意义及词义关系、英语词汇的构成、词义的历史演变、成语及词典知识。
本课程可以使学生比较系统地掌握英语词汇的知识，比较深入地了解英语词汇的现状及历史演变过程，并能对现代英语词汇发展的趋势和所出现的现象作出分析和解释，提高运用英语的能力。
本课程特别强调和重视研究生广泛阅读英语词汇学、语言学、语义学、词源学方面的书籍，以教师精讲、学生宽学为目的。
本课程的教学目的, 在于指导学生用现代语义学和语法学的有关理论分析研究现代英语词汇现象, 揭示现代英语词汇规律。
要求学生通过英汉词汇的对比研究, 探讨英语词汇教学规律, 指导英语语言实践, 不断提高对现代英语词汇的理解, 应用和研究能力。
主要参考书汪榕培，《英语词汇学研究》，上海外语教育出版社，2000年4月第一版王文斌，《英语词汇语义学》，浙江教育出版社，2001年6月第一版汪榕培、卢晓娟编著：《英语词汇学教程》，上海外语教育出版社，1997年10月第1版.汪榕培主编：《英语词汇学高级教程》，上海外语教育出版社，2002年11月张韵斐:《英语词汇学》北京师范大学出版社.汪榕培《英语词汇学教程读本》上海外语教育出版社.1. Carter, R. (1987), V ocabulary: Applied Linguistic Perspectives. London: Allen & Unwin.2. Carter, R. & M. McCarthy, (1988), V ocabluary and Language Teaching. Harlow; Longman.教学手段：采用多媒体教学本课程要求学生能够比较全面、比较系统地了解现代英语词汇学这一领域的一些最主要、最有影响的语言学理论，能够运用词汇学理论去分析和解决词汇学习中的一些问题。
第十章 英语词典
Encyclopedic dictionaries
百科词典（Encyclopedic dictionaries） 既有语言类词典的特点，又有百科全书 的特点。在百科词典中，读者可以找到 语言词典所含有的信息，也可找到百科 知识。如：《钱伯斯英语百科词典》 （1994）。
IV. Contents of dictionaries
Desk dictionaries
案头词典（Desk dictionaries）也称为中型 词典（medium-sized dictionaries），一般收 词在50，000以上，150，000以下，这类词典 适合于中高级程度的学习者，常置于办公桌或 写字台上，形象地称为案头词典。如：《简明 牛津词典》（The Concise Oxford Dictionary）， 《韦氏新世界词典》（Webster’s New World Dictionary）等。
Diachronic dictionaries
历时词典（Diachronic dictionaries） 主要研究词汇音、义的起源与发展，每 个词项下的所有的引述都按其使用年代 来排列。这类词典很少见。
Classification 5
百科全书（Encyclopedia） 百科词典（Encyclopedic dictionaries）
Classification 4
共时词典（Synchronic dictionaries） 历时词典（Diachronic dictionaries）
Synchronic dictionaries
共时词典（Synchronic dictionaries） 就是把词汇、短语以及给定的含义看作 是某一给定时期产生而编纂的词典。我 们当前所使用的词典大都是共时词典。
Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解
Englishlexicology_英语词汇学重点讲解English lexicology英语词汇学Chapter1 basic concepts of words and vocabularyClassification of wordsChapter2 the development of the english vocabularyModes of vocabulary development 1150Chapter 3 word formationMorphemes , allomorphsChapter 4 word formation21.Affixation, prefixation suffixation ,/doc/214202390.html,pounding (characteristics formation )3.Conversion , blending , clipping , acronymy4.Initialisms , acronyms5.Back-formation , words from proper namesChapter5 word meaning1.The meanings of ‘meaning’2.Reference ,concept ,sense3.Motivation(onomatopoeic,morphological ,semantic , etymological)4.Types of meaning < grammatical , lexical , conceptual , associative> Chapter 6 sense relations and semantic field Polysemy , homonymy , synonymy , antonymyChapter 7 changes in word meaningExtension , narrowing , elevation , degradationChapter 8 meaning and context1.Types of context (extra-linguistic, linguistic)2.Role of contexta.elimination of ambiguityb.indication of referencec.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaningChapter9 english idioms1.Classification of idioms(nominal , adjectival , verbal , adverbial )2.sentence and useChapter 10 english DictionariesTypes of dictionary , three good Dictionarya.Longman dictionary of contemporaryb.Collins COBUILD english Dictionaryc. A Chinese-english DictionaryUnit 1Methods of study ,there are generally two approaches to the study of words ,namely synchronic and diachronicAims and significance of the courseLanguage study involves the study of speech sounds ,grammar and vocabulary .vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult .Willkins asserts ‘without grammar very little can beconveyed ,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed’ A good knowledge of morphological structure of english words and rules of word-formation will help learners develope their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power.V ocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary .The term vocabulary is used in different senses1.It can refers to the total number of the words in a language2.It can stands for all the words used in a particular historical period3.Also used to all the words of a given dialectClassification of wordsWords may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency ,into content words and function words by notion ,and into native words and borrowed words by originBasic word stock have characteristics1.All national character2.Stability3.Productivity4.Polysemy5.Collocability6 Neutral in style7 Frequent in useWords void (lack)of the stated characters ,do not belong to the common core of the language ,they include the following: Terminology 术语，专有名词JargonSlang 俚语，黑话ArgotDialectal wordsArchaismsNeologismsContent words(=notional words) and function words (=empty words) Native words and borrowed wordsApart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock ,in contrast to borrowed words ,native words have two other features Neutral in styleFrequent in useBorrowing words :words taken over from foreign languagesare known as borrowed words and loan words or borrowings in simple terms Loan words under four classesDenizens 同化词Aliens 异化词Translation-loans 译借词Semantic-loans 借意词The Indo-European language familyWhich can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar ,theIndo-Europe is one of them .it is thought to be a highly inflected language They accordingly fall into eight principle groups ,which can be grouped into an Eastern set : Balto-slavic, Indo-Iranian, American and Albanian; a Western set; Celtic , Italic, Hellenic,GermanicA historical overview of the english vocabularyThe first people known to inhabit the land were CeltsThe second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions450- < old > -1150-（Middle）-1500- -NOWModes of vocabulary developmentWe can concluded that modern english vocabulary develops through three channels < > creation , semantic change , borrowing Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials namely roots ,affixes and other elementsSemantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new needBorrowing has palyed a vital role in the development ofvocabulary ,particularly in earlier timesMorphemes :minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes,in other words ,th e morphemes is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words ’Chapter 5Word meaningWords are but symbols , many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference .1.reference is the relationship between language and the word .The reference a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary <随意的>and conventional <传统的>2.Concept<概念>=notionIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of ‘concept ’meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical3.Sense :generally speaking ,the meaning of ‘meaning’is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’ . ‘sense’denotes the relationships inside the language.Motivation <理据>Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaningOnomatopoeic motivation 拟声的理据Morphological motivation 形态的理据Semantic motivation 语义<联想>的理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a wordEtymological motivation 词源的理据The meaning if many words often related directly to their origins, Types of meaninga.Grammatical meaning an Lexical meaning语法和词汇意义b.Conceptual meaning and associative meaning 概念和联想意义Chapter 6The subjects that have long held the interest and attention ofsemanticists are ,polysemy 多义的, homonymy , synonymy , antonymy , and hyponymyTwo approaches to polysemyDiachronic approach and synchronic approachThe meanings were acquired by extension ,narrowing ,analogy ,transfer The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,traditionally known as radiation and concatenation HomonymyBased on the degree of similarity ,homonyms fall into three classes:perfect homonyms ,homographs and homophones1.Perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling but different meaning .Bank n. The edge of the river ,lakeBank n . An establishment for money businessBear n. A large heavy animalBear v. To put up withDate n. A kind of fruitDate n. A boy or a girl friend2.Homographs are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaningBow n. Bending the head as a greetingBow n. The device used for shooting arrowsSow v. To scatter seedsSow n. Female adult pig3.Homophones are words identical only in sound butdifferent in spelling and meaningDear n. A loved personDeer n.a kind of animalRight a. correctWrite v.to put down on paper with a penRite n. Ceremonial procedureSon n. A male child of someoneSun n. The heavenly body from which the earth gets warmth and light Of three types ,homophones constitute the largest number and are most commonOrigins of homonymsChange in sound and spellingBorrowingShortingAs homonyms are identical in sound or spelling ,particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns<双关>for desired effect of ,say, humor,sarcasm or ridicule<嘲弄> On Sunday they pray for you and on Monday they prey <折磨>on you So-called pious<虔诚的>gentleman and ladies 善男信女The sardonic tone is unmistakable 讽刺的语气是不言而喻的SynonymySynonymy is one of the characteristic features of vocabulary of natural languagesTypes of synonyms1. Absolute synonyms also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects,both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning ,including conceptual and associative meanings2. Relative synonymy also called near-synonyms are similaror nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of given quality.For example .to change a thing is to put another thing in its place ;to altera thing is to alter it in different manner and at different times .’A man change his habits ,alters his conduct ,and varies his manner of speaking’Look at stagger /reel/totter.stagger implies unsteady movement characters by a loss of balance and failure to maintain a fixed course . Stagger under a heavy load ;reel suggests a swaying or lurching so as to appear on the verge of falling .Silent沉默的，无言的，寂静的/ tacit , shine闪耀，发光/ glitter 华丽夺目，炫耀/sparkle闪耀，活跃，焕发活力和才智/glare强光，瞪眼，炫耀, different/ various, idle空闲的，懒惰的，无意义的/lazy/indolent , strange奇怪的/odd 古怪的/ queer,古怪的，可疑的large / huge庞大的/tremendous极大的，巨大的，惊人的，极好的/colossal Sources of synonyms1.BorrowingAs a result of the borrowing ,words of native origin form many couplets and triplets with those from other language2.Dialects and regional english3.Figurative an euphemistic4.Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsDiscrimination of synonymsThe differences between synonyms boil down to three areas: denotation , connotation ,and application1.Difference in denotation .‘I did not comprehend his arguments ,although i understood the language , and all the sentences’A lump of sugar一块糖, a slice of meat一片肉, a chunk ofwood , a sheet of paper A cake of soapTypes of antonyms1.Contradictory termsThe assertion of one is the denial of the otherAnother distinctive feature of this category <类型>is that such antonyms are non-gradable2.Contrary terms3.Relative termsHolds water <站得住脚的>Characters of antonyms1.Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.words denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms2.A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3.Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion .pairs of antonyms are seen as marked and unmarked terms respectively4.Contrary terms are gradable antonymsDestitute / opulent dull / livelyHyponymyHyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.That is the meaning of more specific word word is included in that of another more general word .For instance ,tulip and rose are hyponyms of flowerSuperordinate termsHammer , saw , screwdriver ,spanner, plaice, cod , herring ,sole Semantic field <领域>The massive word store of a language like english an be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas.An integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense 语义相互关联It is general belief that.....Personal address system 个人称呼KinshipTypes of changesWord-meaning changes by modes ofExtension< 扩展>,narrowing<缩小> ,degradation< 降格>,elevation< 升格>,and transferCauses of changes: it is in response to some needExtra-linguistic factors1.Historical reason2.Class reason3.Psychological 心理学的，精神上的reasonThe role of context <语境>1.Elimination of ambiguity <消除歧义>2.Indication of referents <限定所指>3.Provision of clues for inferring word -meaning <为猜测词义提供线索>①Definition②Explanation③Example④S ynonymy⑤Antonymy⑥Hyponymy⑦Relevant details⑧Word structureChapter 9Idioms consists of set phrases and short sentences ,which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas .therefore, idioms are colorful ,forcible andthought-provoking.For example ,fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with ( tolerate)In a board sense ,idioms may included colloquialisms ,slang experience, proverbs .Character of Idioms1.Semantic unityBeing phases or sentences ,idioms each consist of more than one word ,but each is a semantic unity. Idiom have their respective literal meanings .for instance, till the cows come home Keep in mind take offto no avail like a breeze2.Structural stability 结构稳定First the constituents of idioms cannot be replacedLip service <support only="" in="" words="" ,not="" fact="" bdsfid="283"> is not to be changed into mouth service . Kick the bucket bury the hatchet。
现代英语词汇学概论复习(Chapter1-10)
Word：a minimum free form of a language. With a unity of sound and meaning （both lexical meaning and grammatical meaning)，performing syntactic meaningCriteria of words: by origin （native—old English）( and loan language—borrowed English）, by level of usage(common words，literary ，colloquial，slang and technical words）；by notions(function and content words）Morpheme：smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller form. A morpheme is also two—facet language unit which possesses sound and meaning。
Classification of morphemes:Free morpheme：utter alone with meaning（a free morpheme is a word in traditional sense）man, read, writeBound morpheme: must appear with one other morpheme，u nkind, happily , receiveRoot:the basic unchangeable part of the word；convey the main lexical meaning of the word; Either free or bound(1)free roots：many roots are free morphemes, such asboy ，moon，walk(2)bound roots: derived from foreign sources。
英语词汇学10-2012.8.
through thick and thin不顾艰难险阻, 在任何情况下 He dashed through thick and thin.他不顾艰难险阻地往前
冲。
Most
English idioms are fixed in structure (1) wholly fixed idioms Easy come, easy go. 来得容易，去得快 There is no smoke without fire. 无风不起浪 Gifts blind the eyes. 吃人家嘴短，拿人家手软。
English idioms are an essential part of the general vocabulary. Idioms reflect the environment, life, history, and culture of the native speakers, and are closely associated with their innermost spirit and feeling. E.g. look up, put aside, do away with, the last straw, at the eleventh hour, as straight as an arrow, give sb. the cold shoulder, make both end meet…. They are stylistically neutral, and quite a number of them belong to informal spoken English.
10.2.5 Proverbs Proverbs may provide interesting little glimpse or clues to a people’s geography, history, social organization, social views , attitudes.
现代英语词汇学概论
词汇学考试大纲一、判断（10）二、选择（20）三、搭配（10）pound 复合构词法sit-in 代理，参加dropout 退学学生phone-in 听众热线电话直播节目breakdown 失败walk-on 跑龙套员walkout 徒步旅行take-off 起飞astray 烟灰缸 a tray for ash moonwalk a walk on the moonB.Deriverd word 派生法be（= off,from）adj. belittle 贬低de (=to remove) n. debug 除错brotherhood 兄弟情义friendship 友谊happilyC.Converted word 词类转化法He interned in the Capital Hospital.He served as an intern in the Capital Hospital.实习生D.Initialisms 首字母连写法VIP = for a very important personE.Acronyms 首字母拼音法TEFLRadar radio detecting and rangingF.Clipped word 略写ad. (=advertisement)amp(=ampere)plane(=airplane)G.Blend 拼缀词talk + marathon = talkathon 冗长的演说medical+care=medicare 医疗保险H.Back-formationhouse-sit = house sitter 看管房屋的人housekeep 自立门户，主持家务I.Words from proper nameschina 瓷器japan 漆器champagne 香槟J.Onomatopoeic word 拟声词K.Reduplication 重叠词go-go 戈戈舞的ping-pong四、名词解释（4，20分）1、context in its narrowest senseContext in its narrow sense consists of the lexical items that come immediately before andafter any word in an act of communication.For instance,the verb make is often used in the sense of constructing something by putting materials together,as in,She made coffee for all of us.I got a letter today.2、homophones/homographsWords identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.pair,pear son,sunWord identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographslead v.n. tear n.v.3、semantic field （P143）Semantic field theory is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks.The words of a semantic field are joined together by a common concept,and they are likely to have a number of collocation in common.Hence we can see that meaning resides not only in a word itself,but spreads over neighbouring word as well.Only the neighbouring words can identify the semantic field,in which we have related words which enable us to determine the meaning of the word used.One can hardly tell the meaning of I like lemon until he knows the semantic field in which lemon operates.4、allomorphs/morpheme (P21)A morpheme may take various shapes or forms.For example,the inflectionalmorpheme-(e)s of books,pigs,horses has the same meaning ‘more than one’,yet it has three different phonological forms: /-s,-z,-iz/.The three forms are variants of the same morpheme-s .They are called allomorphs.The morpheme is the smallest meaningful lingusitic unit of language,not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.One morpheme nationTwo morphemes nation+alThree morpheme nation+al+ize5、connotative meaning (P98)Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind.For instance,the denotative meaning of the word mother is female parent ,but it generally connotes love,care,and tenderness.6.verbal context in its broad sense (P154)In additon to lexical,and grammatical context ,the verbal context,in its broadest sense,may cover an entire passage,or even an entire book,and in some cases even the entire social or culture setting ,as stated at the beginning of the chapter.7、semantic motivationSemantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factor.It is a kind of mental association.When we speak of a stony heart we are comparing the heart with a stone五、简单题（2，20分）1、What is motivation?How are English words motivated?Motivation refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.Motivation can arise in three major ways:1.phonetic motivation,like miaow of the cat,the baa-baa of amotivation,like good-looking,headache, motivation ,When we speak of a stony heart we are comparing the heart with a stone.2、There are several main types of word meaning list and explain. (P95)A.Grammatical meaningGrammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm.1.word classMorden will be marked as an adjective,mordernize as a verb and mordernization as a noun.2.inflectional paradigmto walk,walks walked,to write,writes,wrote,writtenB.Lexical meaning1.denotative meaningThe denotative meaning of a word is its definitin given in a dictionary.It is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.2.connotative meaningThe denotative meaning of the word mother is female parent but it generally connotes love,care,and tenderness.3.social or stylistic meaningFormal,informal,neural4.affective meaningAffective meaning is concerned with the expression of feeling and attitudes of the speaker or writer.3、How do we classify words by level of usage?(p11)mon wordsCommon words are words connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life.For example,the repeated telephone calls only annoyed me but made my sister angry.All the words in the sentences are common words,and so this sentence could be used in both speech and writing,and on formal or informal occasions.2.literary wordsLiterary words are chiefly used in writing,especially in books written in a more elevated style,in official documents,or in formal speeches.3.colloquial wordsIn contrast with literary words,colloquial words or expressions are used mainly in spoken English,as in conversation among friends and colleagues.Tom felt so dog-tired he hit the sack early.(colloquial)4.slang wordsA slang usage is not generally used in informal conversation.5.technical wordsTechnical words refers to those words used in various specail fields.4、Make a tree diagram to arrage the following words in order of hyponymy.foodmeat vegetable fruitbeef pork mutton cabbage（卷心菜）spinach（菠菜）celery(芹菜) apple orange peach 5、Cite ONE example to illustrate what grammatical meaning is .1.word-class2.inflectional paradigm六、问答题(20分)1.The word “accident” once meant “an occurrence, an event”but it now means “an unplannedor chance event with unfortuante consequences”Analyze which type of change in meaning this belong to,why?Then list and explain the types of word-meaning changes.1.判断类型2.neutral word …been degarded into …3.four types 先罗列类型，然后分别解释并举例（每一种形式举一个词即可）举例形式参考The word “accident” once meant “an occurrence, an event”but it now means “an unplanned or chance event with unfortuante consequences”A.restriction of meaning (specialization)Restrition of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower,specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.The word “wife” once meant “woman”but it now means “married woman,in relation to her husband”B.extension of meaning(generalization)Extension of meaning,the opposite of restriction,means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.The word “picture” once meant “a paining” but it nows means “painting,drawing ,sketch ofa work of art;photographs and movies are also included”C.degeneration 衰退of meaning(pejoration 贬低)The two main forms of degenration are:1.The falling of word meaning into disrepute名誉坏，for one reason or another.Words oncerespectable or neutral [ˈnju:trəl] may shift to a less respectable ,or even derogatory [diˈr ɔgətəri] meaning.The word “silly” once meant “blessed and happy”now means “foolish”2.The second form of degeneration “may take the form of the gradual逐渐的extension to somany senses that any particular meaning which a word may have had is completely lost”. Lovely attractively or admirable beautiful now means it is used in collocation with almost any object ,such as a lovely girl/day/weather/dinner/car or chair.D.elevation高度of meaning (amelioration改善)Fond foolish now means tender and affectionate。
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter1
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料Chapter 1 A General Survey Of English Vocabulary词的定义1.0 The Definition of the term “word” 1.1 The Development of English V ocabulary英语词汇的发展史1.2 Classification of English Words词的分类1.0The Definition of the term “word”Word: a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a given syntactic function.? a minimum free form?sound?lexical and grammatical meaning?syntactic functionBound form粘着形式：Never used as sentences.Free form 自由形式：Consists entirely of two or more lesser free forms.，is a word.It’s not a phrase1.1 The Development of English Vocabulary?Native: Celtic?1st period(449-1100): Old English or Anglo-Saxon Period (OE or AS)Celtic → Anglo-Saxon (the settlement from 450 AD.) / Old Norse / Latin?2nd period (1100-1500): Middle English Period (ME)French (the Norman Conquest in 1066)Latin?3rd period (1500-present): Modern English PeriodEarly stages of Modern English (1500-1700)Latin (Renaissance)Greek (Renaissance)Contemporary English (1700-present):Three Romance Languages : French, Spanish, ItalianOther European languages: Portuguese, German, Dutch …Non-European languages (exploration, colonization, trade) The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes.?Marked progress of science and technology.?Socio-economic，political and cultural changes.?The influence of other cultures and languages.1.2 Classification of English WordsThree main criteria:By origin: 1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词By level of usage: 1. common words 普通词2. literary words 书面词3. colloquial words 口头词4. slang words 俚语5. technical words 术语By notion: 1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词By origin:1. native words 本族词2. loan words 外来词Native words: words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of old EnglishFeatures of native words:?Most are monosyllabic?forming the great majority of the basic word stockLoan / borrowed words: those borrowed from other languagesBasic word stock:?auxiliary, modal verbs, numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, the most frequently used words (essential to life)?National character?Stability?Word-forming ability?Ability to form collocationsBy level of usage:1. Common words 普通词2. Literary words 书面词3. Colloquial words 口头词4. Slang words 俚语5. Technical words 术语*There are no clear-cut boundaries between the various classes of words.Common words普通词:?connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life?The core of the common words is the basic word stock.?Stylistically neutralLiterary words书面词:?chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.?Most are of French, Latin or Greek origin.?Among the literary word, two categories are noteworthy:?archaic words (c.f. obsolete words)?poetical wordsSlang俚语:?Language, words or phrases of a vigorous, colorful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses or derived from the unconventionaluse of the standard vocabulary?Not generally used in informal conversation unless the speakers are on intimate terms?Embracing those daring and new expression that have not been accepted as standard EnglishThe chief reason for use of slang: secure freshness and noveltyTechnical words术语:?used in various fields: science, profession or trade, art, sport?increasing precision in nomenclature?one specific meaning?Latin or Greek in originBy notion:1. function words 功能词2. content words 实义词Function words:?determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries?not having much lexical meaning?serving grammatically:Behaving like grammatical signals or functional markers,Expressing the kinds of connection between content wordsConstructing acceptable English sentences?small in number and stable:In relatively closed listsBelonging to a relatively small and permanent set of words)?high frequency。
现代英语词汇学概论10-English-Idioms
9.1.2 Structural Stability
4. Many idioms are grammatically unanalyzable.
Diamond cut diamond. * Diamond cuts diamond. Like cures like. * Like cure like. as sure as eggs is eggs * as sure as eggs are eggs
Sam is a real cool cat. He never blows his stack and hardly ever flies off the handle.
WhaWt'shmaotrae,reheidkinoomwss?how to get away
with things... Well, of course, he is getting on, too. His hair is pepper and salt, but he knows how to make up for lost time by taking it easy. He gets up early, works out, and turns in early. He takes care of the hot dog stand like a breeze until he gets time off. Sam's got it made; this is it for him.
possession of an object beyond which more of the same is unnecessary
Sam is really a calm person. He never loses control of himself and hardly ever becomes too
自考英语词汇学复习大纲自己整理
C h a p t e r 1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word（he definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.）1.2 sound and meaning ：Symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and thethree letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ：1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words本地词和外来词all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性productivity 多产性 p ol ysemy 一词多义collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words外来词denizens 同化词aliens 异形词translation-loans 译借词semantic-loans 借义词1. No enough letters: alphabet from latin2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obviouscharacteristics 明显的特点C h a p t e r 2D e v e l o p m e n tIt is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis ofsimilarities in their basic word stock and grammar.2.1 Indo-European印欧语Eastern set： 东部诸语族： Western set ： 西部诸语族： Balto-Slavic 波罗的海-斯拉夫语Indo-Iranian 印度-伊朗语 Armenian 亚美尼亚语 Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语 Celtic 凯尔特语Italic 意大利语Hellenic 希腊语 ——GreekGermanic 日耳曼语Persian 波斯语 Bengali 孟加拉国语 Hindi 印地语 Romany 普吉赛语 Prussian 普鲁士语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Czech 捷克语 Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语 Russian 俄语 Norwegian 挪威语 Icelandic 冰岛语 Danish 丹麦语 Swedish 瑞典语German 德语Dutch 荷兰语Portuguese 葡萄牙语 Spanish 西班牙语 French 法语 Italian 意大利语 Roumanian 罗马尼亚语 Scottish 苏格兰语 Irish 爱尔兰语 Welsh 威尔士语 Breton 布里多尼语 Scandinavian languages 斯堪的纳维亚语 Latin 拉丁语言2.2 Historical review历史概述2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇Highly inflected 高度转折complex endings 复杂的结尾vowel changes 元音变化French words 法语词汇leveled endings水平结尾Early Modern English (1500-1700)早期现代英语Late Modern English (1700-up to the present)晚期现代英语Borrow 借词new words 新词no endings 无结尾from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。
英语词汇学试题复习参考（分章节）
英语词汇学试题复习参考（分章节）英语词汇学试题Introduction and Chapter 1Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabula ry（练习1）I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through theuse of _________construct.A. wordB. formC. morphemeD. root2.________ is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.A. SemanticsB. LinguisticsC. EtymologyD. StylisticsaA. commonB. littleC. slightD. great13. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings.A. newB. oldC. badD. good14. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.A. functionalB. notionalC. emptyD. formal15. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called _______words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.A. contentB. notionalC. emptyD. newII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and _____of words.17.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the ______ structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantics, relations, _____development, formation and ______.18.English lexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, ______,etymology, stylistics,________.19.There are generally two approaches to the study of words , namely synchronic and _______./doc/44db1986bc1e650e52ea551810a6f524cdbfcbce.html nguage study involves the study of speech sounds, grammar and_______.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 2) content words and functional words 3) native words and borrowed wordsIVVVII. Analyze and comment on the following.49. Classify the following words and point out the types of words according to notion.earth, cloud, run, walk, on, of, upon, be, frequently , the, five, but, a , never.50. Group the following borrowed words into Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans. Dream, pioneer, kowtow, bazaar, lama, master-piece, port, shirtKey to Exercises:I. 1. A2.C3.D4.A5.B6.D7.A8.B9.D10.B11.D12.A13.A14.B15.CII.16.meanings17.morphological, historical, usages 18. semantics, lexicography19.diachronic20. vocabularyIII.21. G 22. F23. E24. H25. C26. A27. J28.I29.B30.DIV.31. the basic word stock; productivity32. the basic word stock; collocability33.the basic word stock; argot34.nonbasic word stock; slang35. nonbasic word stock; jargon36. nonbasic word stock ;terminology37.nonbasic word stock; dialectal words38. nonbasic word stock ,neologisms39. nonbasic word stock; archaismsI. Each1.2.3.4.5.6.A. 500B. 800C. 1000 .D. 9007.The Normans invaded England from France in 1066. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of ______ words into English.A. FrenchB. GreekC. RomanD. Latin8.By the end of the _______century , English gradually came back into the schools, the law courts, and government and regained social status.A. 12thB. 13thC. 14thD.15th9.As a result , Celtic made only a ________contribution to the English vocabulary.A. smallB. bigC. greatD. smaller10. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and _______.A. GreekB. RomanC. IndianD. Russian11.In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian , Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from thedead language.A. SanskritB. LatinC. RomanD. Greek12.Greek is the modern language derived from _______.A. LatinB. HellenicC. Indian D . Germanic13.The five Roamance languages , namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian all belong to theItalic through an intermediate language called _______.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.27.Middle English ( ) G. sunu28. Modern English ( ) H. lernen29. Germanic family ( ) I. freight30.Sanskrit ( ) J. NorwegianIV.Study the following words or expressions and identify types of morphemes underlined.31. earth ( ) 32.contradict ( )33. predictor ( ) 34. radios ( )35. prewar ( ) 36. happiest ( )37. antecedent ( ) 38. northward ( )38. sun ( ) 40. diction ( )V. Define the following terms.41. free morphemes 42. bound morphemes 43. root 44. stem 45.affixesVI. Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.46. Describe the characteristics of Old English .47. Describe the characteristics of Middle English.48. Describe the characteristics of Modern English.VII. Answer the following questions with examples.49. What are the three main sources of new words ?50. How does the modern English vocabulary develop ?I.II.III.IV.(1)(2)(3)I．1.A.2.3.4.A . negative prefixes B. prefixes of degree or size C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes5.The prefixes in words bi lingual ,uni form and hemis phere are ________.A. number prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes6.________ are contained in words trans-world, intra-party and fore head.A.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeB. Prefixes of time and orderC. Locative prefixesD. Prefixes of degree or size7. Rugby ,afghan and champagne are words coming from ________./doc/44db1986bc1e650e52ea551810a6f524cdbfcbce.html s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames8. Omega,Xerox and orlon are words from _________./doc/44db1986bc1e650e52ea551810a6f524cdbfcbce.html s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames9.Ex-student, fore tell and post-election contain________.A.negative prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. locative prefixes10.Mackintosh, bloomers and cherub are from _______A. names of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames11.The prefixes in words new-Nazi, autobiography and pan-European are ________.A.negative prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. miscellaneous prefixes12.The prefixes in words anti-government , pro student and contra flow are _____-.A.13.A.14.15.19.anotherviolinist26. Noun and adjective suffixes ( ) F.happiness27. Denominal adjective suffixes ( ) G. arguable28. Deverbal adjective suffixes ( ) H.dependent29. Adverb suffixes ( ) I. adulthood30. Verb suffixes ( ) J. survivalIV.Study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of clipping 2) types of acronymy and write the full terms.31.quake ( ) 32. stereo ( ) 33. flu ( ) 34. pub ( ) 35. c/o ( )36. V-day ( ) 37. TB ( ) 38. disco ( ) 39.copter ( ) 40. perm ( )V.Define the following terms .41. acronymy 42. back-formation 43. initialisms 44. prefixation 45. suffixationVI. Answer the following questions with examples.46. What are the characteristics of compounds ?47. What are the main types of blendings ?48. What are the main types of compounds ?VII. Analyze and comment on the following:49. Use the following examples to explain the types of back-formation.(1) donate ----donation emote----emotion(2) loaf—loafer beg------beggar(1) I’(5) The1.IV(4 ) Noun to verb (5) Adjective (6) Miscellaneous conversion to verbChapter 5 Word Meaning (练习4)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1. A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting2._______is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SenseD. Context3.Sense denotes the relationships _______the language.A. outsideB. withC. beyondD. inside4. Most English words can be said to be ________.A. non-motivatedB. motivatedC. connectedD. related5.Trumpet is a(n) _______motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. semanticallyC. onomatopoeicallyD. etymologically6.Hopeless is a ______motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically7.In the sentence ‘ He is fond of pen ’ , pen is a ______ motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically8.Walkman is a _______motivated word.9.A.A.16.17.18.19.explains the meaning of the word.20.Lexical meaning itself has two components : conceptual meaning and _________.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) types of motivation 2) types of meaning.A B21. Onomotopooeic motivation ( ) A. tremble with fear22. Collocative meaning ( ) B. skinny23. Morphological motivation ( ) C. slender24. Connotative meaning ( ) D. hiss25. Semantic motivation ( ) E. laconic26. Stylistic meaning ( ) F. sun (a heavenly body)27. Etymological motivation ( ) G.airmail28. Pejorative meaning ( ) H. home29. Conceptual meaning ( ) I. horse and plug30. Appreciative meaning ( ) J. pen and awordIV.Study the following words or expressions and identify 1)types of motivation 2) types of meaning.31. neigh ( ) 32. the mouth of the river ( )33. reading-lamp ( ) 34. tantalus ( )35. warm home ( ) 36. the cops ( )V.41.VI.VII.I.II.III.IV.(1)Connotative meaning . It refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning,traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part of the word-meaning, but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular user of the language. For example, mother , denoting a ‘female parent’, is often associated with ‘love’,‘care’, etc..(2)Stylistic meaning. Apart feom their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, whichmake them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features form the stylistic meanings of words . For example, pregnant, expecting, knockingup, in the club, etc., all can have the same conceptual meaning, but differ in their stylisticvalues.(3)Affective meaning. It indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Wordsthat have emotive values may fall into two categories :appreciative or pejorative. For example, famous, determined are words of positive overtones; notorious, pigheaded are of negative connotations implying disapproval, contempt or criticism.(4)Collocative meaning. It consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words,it is that part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. For example, we say : pretty girl, pretty garden; we don’t say pretty typewriter. But sometimes there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words.Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field (练习5)I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.2.3.4.senseA.10.11.The antonyms husband and wife are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms/doc/44db1986bc1e650e52ea551810a6f524cdbfcbce.html position and compounding in lexicology are words of _______.A. absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contrary antonyms13.As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly ______, they are often employed in aconversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms14.From the diachronic point of view, when the word was created, it was endowed with only one meaning .The first meaning is called ______.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. basic meaning15.Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called_______.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaningII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their ____, the secondprincipal consideration is ________.17.In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one ______whereas homonyms are listed asseparate ______.18.The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas : _______, connotation ,and _____.19.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific wordis20.’. III.IV31.neckV.Define the following terms .41. radiation 42. concatenation 43. antonymy 44. hoponymy 45. semantic fieldVI.Answer the following questions. Your answers should be clear and short.46.What are the origins of homonyms ?47.What are sources of synonyms ?48.What are the characteristics of antonyms ?VII.Analyze and comment on the following.49. Divide the following words into four groups and give the superordinate terms:bark, boat, drum, harp, lute. Microscope. Mirror, destroyer, cruiser, piano, tectangle, rhomboid, rhombus, ship, spectacles, spectroscope, square, telescope, trapezium, violin.50. Write the following words into a tree-like graph:vegetable, meat, pork, beef, turnip, carrot, bread, food, cake, cornflakes, cereal.Key to exercises :I. 1. C 2.B 3.A 4.D 5.C6.B 7.A 8.B 9.A 10.B 11.C 12.A 13.B 14. A 15.CII.16. etymology, semantic relatedness 17.headword, entries 18.denotation, application 19. superordinate, subordinate 20.field theoryIII.21. F 22.J 23.E 24.A 25.G 26.C 27.B 28.I 29. D 30.HIV.31. radiation 32. perfect synonym 33. concatenation 34. homograph 35. shortening 36. homophone 37. change in sound and spelling6.The meaning of meat changed by mode of _______.A. extensionB. narrowingC. elevationD. degradation7.The meaning of fond changed by mode of _______.A. extensionB. narrowingC. elevationD. degradation8.The original meaning of minister is ______.A. head of a ministryB. a tutorC.a farmerD. servant9.The original meaning of success is ______.A.resultB. progressC. eventD. incident10.The meaning of churl changed by mode of _______.A. elevationB. extensionC. degradationD. narrowing11.The original meaning of knave is _______.A. elevationB. extensionC. degradationD. narrowing12.The original meaning of silly is ______.A. sadB. jealousC. happyD. cold13.Loud colours belongs to ______.A.transfer of sensationsB. transfer between abstract and concrete meaningsC.transfer from objective to subjectiveD. transfer from subjective to objective14. Dreadful and hateful belong to _______.A. transfer from subjective to objectiveB. transfer of sensationC. transfer from objective toII.III.30. By analogy ( ) J. sillyIV.Study the following sentence and identify 1)types of transfer 2) types of clues for inferring word meaning.31. As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its nadu.32. Their greatest fear was of a conflagration, since fire would destroy their flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.33. Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Ms. Mary, for example, speaks five languages.34. He is listening to that sweet music.35. It’s just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors ---those tiny parts of acomputer commonly known as ‘silicon chips’.36. Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics, the study of body movement, was suggestedby Professor Birdwhistell.37. He is the hope of the family.38. In spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearing sou’westers, the storm was so heavy that they werewet through .39. Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather tan in the geocentric theory.40. The village had most of the usual amenities :a pub, a library, a post office, a village hall, a medicalcenter, and a school.V.Define the following terms.41.VI.VII.I.II.21.IVV.VI.50. This sentence shows one of the functions of context , that is a clear indication ofChapter 9 English Idioms (练习7 )I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.Jack of all trades is an idiom ________.A. nominal in natureB. adjectival in natureC. verbal in natureD. adverbial in nature2.Let the dog see the rabbit is an idiom ________.A. nominal in natureB. adjectival in natureC. verbal in natureD. adverbial in nature3.How are you is a(n) __________.A.idiom nominal in natureB. idiom verbal in natureB.idiom adjective in nature D. sentence idiom4.tooth and nail is an idiom ________.A. nominal in natureB. adjectival in natureC. verbal in natureD. adverbial in nature5.Beyond the pale is an idiom _________.A. nominal in natureB. adjectival in natureC. verbal in natureD. adverbial in nature6.Play fast and loose shows the feature of ________.A. repetitionB. reiterationC. juxtapositionD. rhyme7.A．8.9.10.11.A.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.When idioms are used in actual context, they do experience _______changes such as different forms ofverbs, agreement of personal pronouns and number and so on.III. Match the words or expressions in Column A with those in Column B according to 1) phonetic manipulation 2) lexical manipulation 3) figures of speech.A B21. Alliteration ( ) A. by and by22. Simile ( ) B. a dark horse23. Rhyme ( ) C. up and down24. Reiteration ( ) D. toss and turn25. Metaphor ( ) E. like a rat in a hole26. Repetition ( ) F. fair and square27. Synecdoche ( ) G. live by one’s pen28. Juxtaposition ( ) H. bits and pieces29. Personification ( ) I. earn one’s bread30. Metonymy ( ) J. Failure is the mother of success.IV.study the following words or expressions and identify 1) types of idioms 2) variations of idioms.31. keep (break ) one’s word ( ) 32. Never do things by halves. ( )33. for good(and all) ( ) 34. through thick and thin ( )35. pin back sb’s ears =pin sb’s ears back ( ) 36. sing a different tune ( )VII.VIII.IX.I.1.AIVX.‘no question’instead.(4)Many idioms are grammatically unanalysable. For example, diamond cut diamond ( two parties areequally matched ) is grammatically incorrect, for normally the verb cut should take the third person singular-s as the subject diamond is singular.50.(1) This statement is not true.(2) Characterized by semantic unity and structural stability, idioms do not allow changes as a rule . Butstructural stability is not absolute. When idioms are used in actual context, they do experiencegrammatical changes such as different forms of verbs, agreement of personal pronouns and number and so on.(3) Occasionally, we may find changes in constituents of idioms : addition, deletion, replacement,position-shifting, dismembering, etc.Chapter 10 English Dictionaries (练习8)I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would bestcomplete the statement and the letter in the bracket.1.The dictionary that contains information on all branches of knowledge or treats comprehensively aparticular branch of knowledge usually in articles arranged alphabetically is called __________.A. lexiconB. concordanceC. yearbookD. encyclopaedia2. A reference book listing alphabetically arranged along with information about their forms,pronunciations, functions, etymologies, meanings, and syntactical and idiomatic uses is called3.4.5.A.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.A. 1623B. 1775C. 1828D. 192813.Universal Etymological English Dictionary by Nathan Bailley was published in____.A. 1623B. 1721C. 1775D. 182814.A Dictionary of the English Language by Sam Johnson was published in ______.A. 1721B. 1735C. 1775D. 182815.The American Dictionary of the English language by Noah Webster was published in ____ .A. 1775B. 1785C. 1800D. 1828/doc/44db1986bc1e650e52ea551810a6f524cdbfcbce.html plete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book . III.16. The dominant sense of the word dictionary by English-speaking people is a book which presents______order the words of English , with information as to their spelling, pronunciation , meaning,usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology.17. Dictionary is closely related to ______, which deals with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of vocabulary units.18. The target population of monolingual dictionaries are general _______or second language and foreign learners who have reached the intermediate and advanced stages.19. Linguistic dictionaries aim at ______ and explaining their usages in the language,.20.Encyclopedic dictionaries have the characteristics of both ________and encyclopedia.III.Write the full name of the following grammar abbreviations and put them into Chinese.21.. c.f. ____________ 22. comb.f. __________ 23. fem. _________ 24. mas. ______IV.31.V.VI．1)610Key to exercises:I. 1.D 2.B 3.C 4.D 5.B 6.C 7.C 8.A 9.D 10.B 11.C 12.A 13.B 14.C 15.DII. 16. alphabetical 17. lexicology 18. native speakers 19. defining words 20. linguistic dictionaries III. 21. confer(参看) 22. combining form (构词成分)23. feminine (阴性) 24. masculine (阳性)25. negative (否定词)26. prefix(前缀) 27. suffix 28. auxiliary verb 29 possessive 30 transitive verbIV. 31. Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary 32. Chamber Universal Learners’ Dictionary33. Collins English Learner’s Dictionary 34. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English35. Longman Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English 36. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionart of Current English 37. OxfordDictionary of Current Idiomatic English38. Random House Dictionary of the English Language 39. Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary 40. Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American LanguageV-VI.( See the course book )VI.49. 1) 千⾥之堤,溃于蚁⽳。
自考英语词汇学总结重要词条解释（必备）
⾃考英语词汇学总结重要词条解释（必备）红⾊蓝⾊-第⼀次复习紫⾊加粗⼆号-第⼆次复习A Detailed Note for Modern LinguisticsChapter 1: Introduction1. Define the following terms:1).Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2).General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching andlearning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is asynchronic study.5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies thehistorical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the chang es English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.6).Language competence: The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. A transformational-generative grammar（转化⽣成语法）is amodel of language competence.7).Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules in li nguistic communication.8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions andrules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parolevaries from person to person, and from situation to situation.10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness: （任意性）It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Agood example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity: (多产性)Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other ofmeanings at the higher level.14).Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or infar-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, butinstead have to be taught and learned.16).Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication Chapter 2: Phonology⾳系学1. Define the terms:1).phonetics: 语⾳学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the wor ld’ slanguages2).auditory phonetics: 听觉语⾳学It studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how t he sounds are perceived by the hearer.3).acoustic phonetics: 声学语⾳学It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.4).international phonetic alphabet [IPA]: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.5).？Broad transcription:宽式标⾳the transcription with letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one sound. This is the transcription normallyused in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.6).Narrow transcription: is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription used by the phoneticians in theirstudy of speech sounds.7).diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.8).Voiceless（清⾳）: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such acondition are called voiceless sounds.9).Voicing （浊⾳）: Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.10).Vowel:元⾳the sounds in production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract withoutobstruction are called vowels.11).Consonants: 辅⾳the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.12).phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.13).phone: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does notnecessarily distinguish meaning.14).phoneme: ⾳位a collection of abstract phonetic features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is represented or realized as a certain phone bya certainphonetic context.15).allophone:⾳位变体The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of thatphoneme. For example [l] and [l]16).phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment anddistinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.17).Complementary distribution: refers to the relation between two similar phones which are allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur in differentenvironments.18).minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the twowords are said to form a minimal pair. For example: bin and pin.19).suprasegmental features:t he phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The mainsuprasegmental features include stress, tone and intonation.20).tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning justlike phonemes. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in tone languages, for example, in Chinese.21).intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Forexample, English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.Chapter 3: Morphology形态学1. Define the following terms:1).Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is dividedinto two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.派⽣形态学2).Inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections3).Derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4).Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. For example: the word “boyish” consists of two morphemes: “boy” and “ish”.5).Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or incombination with other morphemes. For example: “help”, “table”, “room” a re all free morphemes.6).Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound, to form a word. For example: “-er”, “dis-“, “-less” are all bound morphemes.7).Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with anotherroot or an affix to form a word. For example: the root “geo-“combines with another root “-ology”, we get the word “geology”.8).Affix: morphemes manifesting various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Affixes are of twotypes: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relatio ns or grammatical categories, such as “-ing”, “-est”, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as “-ly”, “dis-“, “un-“.9).Inflection（屈折）: the manifestation of various grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degreeand case.10).Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.11).Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.12).Stem: A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form himself.13).Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words. Chapter 4: Syntax1. Define the following terms:1).syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to becombined with other words to form grammatical sentences.2).linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguisticknowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.3).sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.4).finite clause（定式⼦句）: a clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. (A simple sentence satisfies thestructural requirements of a finite clause.)5).simple sentence: a simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.6).coordinate sentence（并列句）: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”,“but”, “or”.7).complex sentence（复合句）: a complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated （合成⼀体的）into the other. That is,the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.8).hierarchical structure（层次结构）: the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of eachstructural constituent, such as NP and VP.9).syntactic category: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called aphrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or object in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic catego ry.10).grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of asentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.11).phrase structure rules: a rewrite rule that allows for the possible combinations of words to form phrases and sentences.12).X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X″→ (Spec) X (Compl). (In thisformat, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world. )13).transformational rules: 转换规则Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.14).D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion ofthe lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.(Phrase structure rules + the lexicon→D-structure → Movement rules → S-structure)15).S-structure: a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement16).Move a: a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.Universal Grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.Chapter 5: Semantics语义学1. Define the following terms:1).Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2).Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract andde-contextualized.3).Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element andthe non-linguistic world of experience.4).Synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.Eg.Fall-autumn5).Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.table6).Homonymy（同⾳异义，同形异义）: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , differentwords are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.7).Homophones（同⾳异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. e.g. rain/reign.8).Homographs同形异义: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. e.g. tear v. / tear n.9).Complete homonyms: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms. e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v./scale. n.10).Hyponymy（下义关系）: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The wordwhich is more general is called a superordinate（上坐标词）, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. (Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.) e.g. superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, lion, tiger.11).Antonymy: Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning (on different dimensions).12).Componential analysis（成分分析法）: Componential analysis is a way proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach isbased on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. For example: the word “man” is analyzed as comprising the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.13).Predication analysis（述谓结构分析）: It is an approach proposed by British linguist G. Leech for sentential meaning analysis. In semantic analysis of asentence, predication is the basic unit which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a prediction, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14).The grammatical meaning: The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e., its grammatical well-formedness. Thegrammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.15).Two-place predication: A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.Chapter 6: Pragmatics 语⽤学1. Define the following terms:1).Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2).Context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It consists of (It is generally considered as constituted by) the knowledgethat is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in whichlinguistic communication is taking place.3).Utterance meaning: 话语意义the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it isrealization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4).Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.5).Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable;6).Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is toperform a particular speech act.7).Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexiconand phonology.8).Illocutionary act: 语内表现⾏为An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.9).Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change broughtabout by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.10).Cooperative Principle: It is a principle advanced by Paul Grice. His idea is that in making conversations, the participants must first of all be willing tocooperate, otherwise it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. The content is: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.11).Conversational implicature: ⾔外之意Most of the violations of the cooperative principles give rise to what Paul Grice calls “conversational implicatures.” When we violate any of these ma xims, our language becomes indirect and implies an extra meaning.Chapter 7：Historical Linguistics历史语⾔学1. Define or explain the following terms:1)historical linguistics: a subfield of linguistics that studies language change (or historical development of language).2)diachronic linguistics:历史语⾔学a term used instead of historical linguistics to refer to the study of language change at various points in time and atvarious historical stages.3)Old English: a major period in the history of English development that began in 449 and ended in 1100.4)Middle English: a major period in the history of English development that began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England in 1100 andended in 1500.5)Modern English: a period in the history of English development that began roughly from 1500 to the present.6)t he Great Vowel Shift: a series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of themajor discrepancies（差异）between English pronunciation and its spelling system.7)apocope:字尾⾳消失the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.8)epenthesis: the insertion of the consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word.9)Metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis. It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.10)Compounding: It is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit. For example: sailboat, big-mouth, three-year-old.11)Derivation: It is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems or words. For example: uglification（丑化），finalize.12)Acronym: An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of a number of words. For example: UNESCO(United Nations Educational,16)Back-formation: It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word. For example: typewrite(typewriter), edit (editor)17)semantic broadening: the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.18)Semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earliermeaning.19)Semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related,meaning.20)protolanguage: the original (or ancestral) form of a language family which has ceased to exist.21)language family: a group of historically (or genetically) related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.22)Great Vowel Shift: It is a series of systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in thehistory of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.23)Sound assimilation: Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds aremade identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology.24)Haplology: It refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.25)cognate: a word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from acommon source.26)internal borrowing: the application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy（类推，类似）to its earlieroperation.27)Grimm’s Law：(07年1⽉考题，请参考书总结)Chapter 8：Socio- linguistics1. Define or explain the following terms:1)sociolinguistics: the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language variation and language use in social context.2)speech community: a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3)speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.4)language planning: language standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government orgovernment agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.5)sociolect: a variety of language used by people belonging to a particular social class.6)idiolect: An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylisticvariation, in one form or another（以这样或那样的⽅式综合了有关地域、社会和⽂体变异的所有成份）. In a narrower sense, what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality⾳质, pitch⾳⾼and speech rhythm⾔语节奏, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual’ s speech.7)register: a functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.8)standard language: a superposed（迭⽣的，重合的）prestigious variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writingof educated native speakers of the language. (P170)9)nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages10)lingua franca: a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languagesor dialects.11)pidgin: a marginal contact language with a limited vocabulary and reduced grammatical structures, used by native speakers of other languages as ameans of business communication.12)creole: A creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community. When a pidgin comes tobe adopted by a population as its primary language, and children learn it as their first language, then the pidgin language is called a creole.13)diglossia: a sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each serving a particular socialfunction and used for a particular situation14)bilingualism: ilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers,such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.15)ethnic dialect: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of d ifferent ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety isa socialdialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.16)slang: Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy浮华的and oftenephemeral短暂的coinages创新词and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity⾃发性and sometimes by raciness活泼，充满活⼒. 17)linguistic taboo: an obscene猥亵的, profane,亵渎的or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “polite”society.18)euphemism: a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect, or less offensive and used as a polite substitute for the supposedly harsh andunpleasant word or expression.19)Domain使⽤域: Domain refers to the phenomenon that most bilingual communities have one thing in common, that is, fairly clear functionaldifferentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations. For example: the Home Domain, Employment Domain etc.Chapter 9：Psychological Linguistics1. Define or explain the following terms:1)psycholinguistics: the study of language in relation to the mind, with focus on the processes of language production⽣成, comprehension理解andacquisition掌握.2)cerebral cortex: the outside surface of the brain, it is the decision-making organ of the body, which receives messages from all the sensory organs andwhere human cognitive abilities reside.3)brain lateralization: the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4)linguistic lateralization: hemispheric specialization or dominance for language.5)dichotic listening: a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language. The subjects wear earphones andsimultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.6)Broca’s area : It refers to the frontal lobe i n the left cerebral hemisphere, which is vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca,a Frenchsurgeon and anatomist.7)angular gyrus: The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke’ s area. The angular gyrus is the language center responsible for conv erting a visual stimulus intoan auditory form and vice versa. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written language , all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.8)cerebral plasticity: According to Lenneberg, prior to the end of the critical period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and onecan take over if the other is damaged. This neurological flexibility is called cerebral plasticity .9)linguistic determinism: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view theworld is determined by the structure of their native language.10)right ear advantage: The speech signals presented in the right ear goes directly to the left brain, while the speech signals in the left ear must first go tothe right hemisphere, from where it is transferred to the left side of the brain for processing. Since the speech signals in the left ear takes a non-direct route and a longer time before processing than a linguistic signal received through the right ear, linguistic stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is called the right ear advantage.11)the critical period: an early period of one’s life extending the age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most rea dy to acquire languagenaturally and effortlessly , a period that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for language functions.12)the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and his student Whorf (and also a belief held by somescholars) which states that t he way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.13)linguistic relativism: Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is relative to their linguisticbackground, hence the notion of linguistic relativism .14)overt thought: A term used to refer to speech when language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we m ay regard speech as “overtthought.”15)interpersonal communication: It means language users use language to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another, or tocontrol each other’ s behavior.16)intrapersonal communication: the process of using language within the individual to facilitate one’s own thought and aid the formulation andmanipulation of concepts.17)subvocal speech: a term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other.Chapter 10：Language Acquisition1. Define or explain the following terms:。
现代英语词汇学概论复习(Chapter1-10)
Word :a minimum free form of a language. With a unity of s ound and meaning(both lexical meaning and grammatical meaning),performing syntactic meaningCriteria of words: by origin(native—old English )( and loan language—borrowed English),by level of usage(common words, literary ,colloquial, slang and technical words);by notions(function and content words)Morpheme: smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller form. A morpheme is also two-facet language unit which possesses sound and meaning.Classification of morphemes: free morpheme-utter alone with meaning(a free morpheme is a word in traditional sense); bound morpheme—must appear with one other morpheme, free or bound)Root: the basic unchangeable part of the word, convey the main lexical meaning of the word. Either free or bound.(free roots and bound roots)Affixes: ----inflectional affixes(have only particular grammatical meaning)and derivational affixes.(added morpheme to create new words.）---prefixes and suffixesWord-formationThree major processes : compounding(joining tow or more bases to form a new unit of compound words)Derivation(forming a new word by addition of a word element)Conversion(a word of certain word-class is shifted into another word-class without any affixes)Eight minor processes :Acronymy (Initialisms –using the first letter from proper name ,phrase, technical words)Ainitialism is pronounced letter by letter) and acronyms—from the initial letters of the name of an organization or scientific term)==are pronounced as words.Clipping(deletion of one or more syllables from a word—usually a noun, which is also available in its full form)Classification—back clipping, front clipping ,front and back clipping and phrase clipping.)Blending---formed by combining the meanings and sound of tow words.one of which is not full form or both of which are not full form. ）不完整拼缀Back-formation（coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.）Words from proper names(including names of scientists, names of politicians and statesman, names of places, trademark, literature)Reduplication(a compound word is created by the repetition(1)of one word like go-go(2)almost identical words with a change in the vowel’s such as ping-pong.(3)of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants ,as in teenyweeny.Neoclassical(new words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek)The majority of neoclassical formations are scientific and technical.MiscellaneousWord meaning and sense relations1,conventionality—no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol and its sense.2,motivation—phonetic ,morphological, sematic3,main types of word meaning(interrelated andinterdependent)---class and inflectionalparadigm)andmeaning; connotative meaning—emotional association; social or stylistic meaning and affective meaning)Binary opposites.二相对立Polysemy—a term used in sematic analysis to refer to lexical item which has a range of meanings.)T wo approaches—diachronic and synchronic.---primary meaning and derived meaning, central meaning and secondary meaning(in some cases, the primary meaning and the central meaning coincide.)Two processes leading to polysemy---radiation(each of the secondary meanings may become a center of further radiation),concatenation(linking together, like the links of a chain.Homonymy(---pronounced alike, spell alike, or both.)---types of homonyms(perfect homonyms—word identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning)(Homophones---identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning.)(Homographs—identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.)Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieve humour or irony, or to heighten dramatic effect. Synonymy(—identical in meaning but different in sound and spelling.)--- Complete synonyms(absolute),Relative synonyms.Antonymy (--opppsiteness of meaning)---contrary, complementary and conversives ….Antonyms classified on the basis of morphological structure: root antonyms and derivational antonyms.Marked and unmarked words---subsume.(Marked members can not be used to include unmarked member.) Hyponymy—(relationship which obtains specific and general lexical items)Superordinate term(an upper term),Subordinate terms(a lower term)===hierarchical system Sematic field---is not simply a listing of independent items, organized into areas or field.Charateristic of the same sematic field.1),word frequency in the same semantic varies 2)these words are semantically interdepent.3) words in the same semantic field are likely to have a number of collocation on common. Changes in word meaning---1,causes:historical,social,foreign influence, linguistic and psychological .2, Four tendencies in sematic change---restriction, extension, degeneration, elevation (of meaning)具体化，普遍化，语义转贬，语义改良。
英语词汇学教程答案
下面答案中的第5题对应于书上第6题的答案，第9题对应于书上第11题的答案
ChaptLeabharlann r 3Chapter 6 sense relations
Chapter 7 changes in word meaning
Chapter 8 Meaning and Context
Chapter 9 English Idioms
注意下面答案中的第2题对应于书上第4题的答案第3题对应于书上第6题的答案第题对应于书上第2题的答案第6题对应于书上第3题的答案第10题对应于书上第11题的答案第11题对应于书上第12题的答案下面第4题可以不看
注意，下面答案中的第2题对应于书上第4题的答案，第3题对应于书上第6题的答案，第5题对应于书上第2题的答案，第6题对应于书上第3题的答案，第10题对应于书上第11题的答案，第11题对应于书上第12题的答案，下面第4题可以不看。
Chapter 10 english dictionaries
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Chapter10 English Idioms⏹10.1 Introductory Remarks⏹10.2 Sources of English Idioms⏹10.3 Classification of Idioms⏹10.4 Syntactic, structural and stylistic analysis of idioms10.1 Introductory Remarks♦Idiom: is a combination of two or more words which are usually structurally fixed and semantically opaque, and function as a single unit of meaning.♦English idiom: is a group of words with a special meaning different from the meanings of its constituent words.eg. a feather in sb.’s cap –an honour ,success ,of which one can be prouddraw a blank–to fail to discover or find out about sth. after searching hard and asking many questions .*Idioms are usually semantically opaque, i.e. metaphorical rather than literal.An idiom functions as a unit of meaning.♦Features: a. semantic opaqueness; b. structural invariability.♦English idioms form an essential part of the general vocabulary.Idioms reflect the environment, life, history and culture of the native speakers, and are closely associated with their innermost spirit and feeling.10.2 Sources of English IdiomsMany idiomatic expressions come from:1)Everyday life of the English people;eg. to keep one’s shirt on要有耐心; 别紧张; 指不要紧张t o give sb. the cold shoulder冷落某人2)Agricultural life;eg. to go to seed花谢结子; 走下坡路; 花谢结籽to lead sb. up the garden path迷惑某人,使某人产生错觉,花言巧语3)Nautical and military life;eg. be in the same boat with同舟共济to be in deep waters陷入困境4)Business life;eg. to come under the hammer将要落锤to talk shop三句不离本行5)Student life;eg. to speak by the book引经据典to turn over a new leaf重新开始(改过自新,过新生活)6)Food and cooking;eg. to keep the pot boiling仅足糊口;苟延残喘to be in the soup陷入困境7)Sports and cad-playing;eg. to keep the ball rolling不使中断to reach first base取得初步成就8)The Bible;eg. a thorn in the flesh肉中刺,眼中钉,烦恼的根源to turn the other cheek忍气吞声t he apple of one’s eyes掌上明珠9)Shakespeare’s plays;eg. to flutter the dovecotes扰乱鸽棚to give the Devil his due勿掩恶人善，平心而论10)fables, myths or legends.eg. sour grapes（指某人因得不到某物而称该事物不好）酸葡萄the lion’s share（最大份额或最大的一份）狮子的份额10.3 Classification of IdiomsThere are several criteria of classification of idioms. We classify them by structural criterion.A.Phrase idioms 短语成语According to the central word , they may subdivided into:1.Verb phrase idiom*a)All common English verbs, most of which are of native Anglo-Saxon origin, can combine with adverbs and prepositions to form phrasal verbs.b)Most of the verb phrase idioms are often nearly synonymous with loan words of Roman origin.c)Verb phrase idioms can form noun compounds.d)Phrasal verbs usually more lively and expressive than single verbs.eg. fall flat大失所望; 残败bite the hand that feeds one以怨报德2. Noun phrase idiomThe commonest functions of noun phrase idioms:a)As the direct object of a clause;b)As the complement of a clause;c)As the object of a preposition.eg. a baker’s dozen 十三个Jack of all trades 万事通; 万金油3. Adjective phrase idiomThe commonest function of adjective phrase idioms is as complement of a clause.eg. high and mighty盛气凌人;趾高气扬wide of the mark毫不沾边4. Prepositional phrase idiomFunctions of prepositional phrase idioms are:a)As an adjunct modifying a verb; 附属修饰语b)As a complement;补语c)As a complement or adjunct;d)As a disjunct; 分离判断语，附加语e)As a connecting phrase.B.Clause idioms 无主语从句成语Most of these idioms are terse, colloquial, vivid and changed with life.1.Verb + complement pattern2.Verb + direct object pattern3.Verb + direct object + complement pattern4.Verb + indirect object + direct object pattern5.Verb + direct object + adjunct patternC.Sentence idioms句子成语1.Proverbs;2.Typical conversational expressionseg. Upon my word! 我敢担保!Well begun is half done.半途而废Kill the goose that laid the golden egg. 毁掉财路; 杀鸡取卵10.4 Syntactic, structural and stylistic analysis of idiomsA. syntactic function 句法的功能1.The syntactic function of most phrase idioms usually corresponds with the central word or components.2.The syntactic function of some phrase idioms can vary.3.Prepositional phrase idioms have very diverse functions.4.noun + noun phrases have diverse functions.eg. He has a gift of the gab.(the ability to talk readily and easily )B. transformational restrictions 结构转换的限制性Transformation is a matter of structural change, and the change may be of various kinds.1.Some verb phrases may change word order.2.Some cannot change their word order.3.Some verb phrases may be passivized, but some can not.4.Most of the clause idioms cannot be put into the passive voice, while some of them can be used either way.5.The direct object usually does not undergo passive transformation; only the indirect object can be passivized.6.Some clause idioms may be made passive with a meaning quite different from what it had in the active form.C. Collocative restrictions 搭配限制1. Words collocate with idioms as the subjects, objects, predicates etc. of different types of phrase and clause idioms.2. Some idioms have a wide range of collocates while some have a limited choice.3. For some idioms, one has to consider which collocates will serve as adjuncts.D. Structural variability结构变化Idioms are structurally fixed, and as a rule one are not supposed to change any element in an idiomatic expression. But it is not unusual for writers to give a new twist to an old saying by making slight changes for rhetorical effect.Some ways of alteration in idioms:1. The replacement of one element by another without affecting the meaning of the whole.2. Insertion of one or more words into an idiomatic expression without changing its basic meaning.3. Deletion of one or more words, especially articles.E. Stylistic features文体特征1. Most idioms are stylistically neutral;2. But some of them belong to informal spoken English;3. Some idiom phrases are slangy.。