Linguistics
1 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics
1 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics1.1Linguistics 语言学What is linguistics?(1)What is language?(2)What does a native speaker know about his language?(3)What are the essential defining characteristics of natural languages?(4)Do languages all share certain universal properties?What do linguists study?(1) Theory of language structure(2) Theory of language acquisition(3) Theory of language useHow do linguists study language？(1)collect a set of data relevant to a particular phenomenon,(2)formulate a hypothesis, test the hypothesis against further data,(3)modify the hypothesis and test it against yet more data，(4)build up a set of principles concerning language structure, language acquisition,and language use.Subfields of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学（发音学）Phonology音系学（语音体系）Syntax句法学Semantics语义学, Pragmatics语用学, Functions of Language语言功能diachronic linguistics历时语言学synchronic linguistics共时语言学Descriptive linguistics描写语言学prescriptive linguistics规定语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Philosophical Linguistics哲学语言学General linguistics普通语言学Cognitive linguistics认知语言学Beginnings of Modern LinguisticsSaussure’s distinction: langue and parole语言与言语（Swiss linguist）Chomsky’s distinction: linguistic competence and linguistic performance 言语能力与言语行为Hierarchical structure 层次结构structuralism and transformationalism 结构主义与转换论Cognitive linguistics and transformational linguistics认知语言学与转换语言学Cognition and linguistic competence认知与言语能力Cognitive linguistics认知语言学the experiential view 语言经验观the prominence view 语言突显观the attentional view 语言注意观(1) The bus crashed into the house.(2) The house was hit by the bus.1.2Applied Linguistics应用语言学The problem of the definitionCorder (1973):The application of linguistic knowledge to some object – or applied linguistics, as its name implies –is an activity. It is not a theoretical study. The applied linguist is a consumer, or user, not a producer of theories.(Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems such as lexicography词典编纂, translation, speech pathology言语病理学. Applied linguistics uses information from sociology社会学, psychology心理学, anthropology人类学and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design大纲设计, speech therapy语言障碍矫正, language planning, stylistics文体学.Applied Linguistics as Problem-solvingApplied linguists try to offer solutions to “real-world problems in which language is a central issue” (Brumfit 1991).The responsibility of linguistics, as an academic discipline, is to study language as a system of human communication, build theories of language and offer models, descriptions and explanations of language. The responsibility of applied linguistics is not simply to apply linguistics but to work towards “relevant models” of language description (Widdowson 1980).Applied Linguistics and Foreign Language TeachingThe problem of finding solutions to the problems of language teaching and learningResearchqualitative and quantitative定性研究与定量研究1.3Corpora in Applied Linguistics数据库与应用语言学Corpus(1)For language teaching, corpora can provide information about how a languageworks.(2)Learners can explore corpora for themselves to observe shades of meaning and tomake comparisons between languages.(3)Translators can use comparable corpora to compare translation equivalents in twolanguages.(4)General corpora can be used to establish norms of frequency and usage againstwhich to measure individual texts.(5)Corpora can also be used to investigate cultural attitudes reflected in texts andliterary works as a resource for discourse studies.Types of CorporaSpecialised corpus 特殊数据库General corpus 普通数据库Comparable corpora 比较数据库Parallel corpora 平行数据库Learner corpus 学习者数据库Pedagogic corpus 教学数据库Historical or diachronic corpus 历时数据库Monitor corpus 监察数据库Technical TerminologyType类型Token记号Hapax只用过一次的字句Lemma词目word-form字语形成tag标记符parse解析annotate注释Design and PurposeSizeContentRepresentativenessPermanenceMethods in Processing Corpus InformationProducing concordance linesApplications of Corpora in Applied Linguistics(1)Corpora can be used in writing dictionaries and grammar books for languagelearners.(2)There is a growing concern in Applied Linguistics for the relation betweenlanguage and culture. Language transmits beliefs, attitudes, customs, behaviour, social habits, etc. of the members of a particular society.(3)Translation is an important application of corpora.Corpora and Language TeachingBy studying corpus data, he can answer questions about language himself and discover facts about the language he is learning from authentic examples.Corpus and Syllabus DesignThe syllabus designer collects pieces of authentic language that contain instances of the most frequent patterns of the most frequent words, then the materials writer devises ways of getting the learner involved in exploring the patterning of language in the corpus.Corpora and Learner LanguageA corpus can provide a rich resource for investigating learner language. Corporacomposed of the speech or writing of learners can give information about the difference between learners and between learners and native speakers.。
linguistics.doc
I. INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Core branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics （各分支名称要记住，但各分支定义无需在此处记忆，可以放置到各具体章节记。
）Interdisciplinary branch of linguistic study:psycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics(applied linguistics的定义可在此处记忆，其余两个放置到第八和第十二章记忆)1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1) Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.3) Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writing for the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4) Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.5) Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Despite the perfect knowledge of his language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use due to stess, anxiety or other social and psychological factors.Chomsky thinks that linguistis should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance.** Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of veiw and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4) DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.1.2.3 Functions of language1. Language is used for communication2. Three main functionsA) Descriptive function (cognitive, referential, or propositional function)--- it is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.B) Expressive function (emotive or attitudinal function) --- supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.C) Social function, also referred to as interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relation between people.3. Function models by structural linguist Roman JakobsonHe identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser--- EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.Addressee--- ConativeThe addresser aims to influence the addressee's course of action or ways of thinking.Context --- ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Message --- PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. Contact --- Phatic communicationThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee. Code --- MetalinguisticThe addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.4. Three macrofunctions by M. A. K. HallidayIn the early 1970s the British linguist Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions and there is close correspondence language between form and function. But as a child grew into an adult the seven functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract, but also simpler system of functions. This system contains three macrofunctions.Ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function discussed above, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evalution, his feelings and emotions.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker's role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.PS：关于Jakobson和Halliday在功能研究方面的详细阐述，建议大家到我校图书馆网页上，找中国期刊网，下载一篇文章：岳颍，“Halliday与Jacoboson的语言功能观比较分析”，《外语艺术教育研究》，2011.6.第2期。
linguistics
1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成
2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.
3.辅音的发音方式爆破音 complete obstruction鼻音 nasals破裂音 plosives部分阻塞辅音 partial obstruction擦音 fricatives破擦音 affricates等
3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).
5.互补性分布；如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p绝不会出现在词首
6.音节syllable，分为节首onset，节峰peak，节尾coda
7.辅音群:一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过三个福音，节尾不能超过4个
4. The Scope of Linguistics General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provid
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案
Linguistics课后习题必背与答案Chapter One Introduction4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。
除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?Speech is prior to writing;The writing system is invented when needed;Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written;Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication; Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing; Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.9.what are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.The descriptive function.It is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied,and in some cases even verified,e.g.”The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.”The expressive function,supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences,prejudices.and values,e.g.”I will never go camping with the Simpsons again.”The social function,serves to establish and maintain socialrelations between people,e.g.”How can I help you, sir?Chapter Two Phonology1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writing are two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards speech as the primary one for some reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system is to record speech. Even today, there are some tribes without writing system. From the view of children’s development, children acquire his mother tongue before they learn to write.5.what criteria are used to classify the English vowels?The criteria used to classify English vowels are:The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, and lowThe position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, and back The degree of lip rounding: rounded, un-rounded The degree of tenseness/the length of sound: tense (long) or lax (short) The change of sound quality: pure(monophthong), gliding(diphthong)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? . Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech soundswe hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.。
1.What is Linguistics
• Ferdinand de Saussure(斐迪南· 索绪尔), 德· Swiss linguist, the founder of modern linguistics. • <<Course of General Linguistics>> • It declares that linguistics is descriptive and all languages should be studied on equal terms. • It claims the priority of the spoken language.
The Scope of Linguistics
• intralinguistic relationship among different linguistic elements. • interlinguistic relation with the outside world.
The Birth of Modern Linguistics
• Linguistics is also scientific in its methodology. The work of linguists consists of collecting observable data about language, setting up hypotheses, testing the validity of them against the collected data and then decide accordingly either to reject these hypotheses or accept them as established theories.
linguistics
Use of linguistics
1. Sociolinguistics: the study of relationship between
language and society
2. Psycholinguistics: the study of the relationship
Noam Chomsky • Birth: 1928.12.7 • Main interests： Linguistics Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind • Notable ideas： Generative grammar, universal grammar
In the late 1960s-1970s, semantics became a separate discipline.
Trend of modern linguistic development
2. Linguistics studies not only language system, but also speech activities & speech mechanism Structural linguistics: language system is the only object of linguistic study Speech activities: speaking & writing (constructing utterances) and listening and reading (understanding utterances) Speech mechanism: how people construct and understand utterances
linguistics
一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims at laying down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
LINGUISTICS 语言学概况
arbitrariness任意性: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for [A rose by any other name would smell as sweet] displacement:传递性 can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future [no matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.]
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Chapter3 PHONOLOGphonology音位学? The study of sound systems and patterns. focuses on three fundamental questions: What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language? 2. Phonology vs. phonetics: concerned with the same aspect of language--the speech sounds, but differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature . It is interested in all the speech sounds in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. The conclusion we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion. 3. Phone音素, phoneme音位, and allophone音位变体: 3.1 A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
Linguistics 语言学
语言学第一讲Lecture One Brief Introduction to Ling and Lang1. Linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics Page 1-2“scientific study of language”.ling is a discipline which describes lang in all its respects (e.g. its system, its internal structure, its social functions, its use and its historical development) and formulates theories as to how it works.1.2linguistics versus traditional grammarTraditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description andpre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language----A gram which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. The three sources from which the rules of prescriptive gram come:1)Latin and Greek----unchanging form of these langs----high prestige in European education----brilliance of classical literature.e.g “It is I” and not “It is me”2) the written langespecially the works of great writers. People are told to speak as they would write.e.g Whom did you speak to?3) LogicGram should be judged insofar as it follows the principles of logic.e.g You shouldn’t say“I haven’t done nothing”I don’t know nothing about the matter. (一无所知)Nobody hardly took notice of him. (几乎没有一个人注意他)Features of Modern linguistics----priority is given to spoken language;----focus is on synchronic study of contemporary language than in the study of the evolution of languages;----modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;----it is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.1.3. Use of studying linguistics Page 3-41.4 The scope of linguistics Page 4-8Linguistics can be classified from different angles1) general linguistics, particular linguistics,2) synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics3) comparative-historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics4) theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics (the structure/system)5) prescriptive ling, descriptive ling6) microlinguistics and macrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics ----Phonology---Morphology--Syntax---Semantics---PragmaticsMacrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics—Psycholinguistics—Neurolinguistics—Anthropological linguistics---Applied linguistics---Corpus linguistics----Discourse Analysis----Cognitive linguistics----Computational linguistics----. ExerciseComment on the differences between human language and animal communication, and provide examples if you can.第二讲differences between human language and animal communication：1) language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. Human frequently say things such as “My uncle went to Shanghai last week.”. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey similar information.2) humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) learning/acquiring is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system.5) animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6) humans can perform acts with language.2. Language2.1 Definition of language (Page 8)Tool for human communicationMeans by which we express our feeling…..Comprehensive definitionIt is really just as difficult to define language as it is to define man.人：是一切社会关系的总和；是唯一能把动物养成宠物和煮成食物的动物；是一种会笑的动物；"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication"Wardhaugh in his "Introduction to Linguistics" (1972).（语言是用于人类交际的、任意的、有声的符号系统）Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language.First of all, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary.Third, language is vocal.Fourth, language is symbolic.Fifth, language is used for human communication and language ishuman-specific.2.2 Origine of language (page3-4)In general, there are two contrasting viewpoints: the divinist and evolutionist The divinists---- ----language was God’s gift to mankindAccording to Christian beliefs, God gave Adam the power to name all things. Whatever Adam called everything God created. Language is the creation of God. Evolutionists----language is the product of human evolution. It was originated in the process of labor.According to the evolution theory proposed by Darwin, language is a product of evolutionary development of the human species. It is a human invention.The earliest human being is believed to live in Africa around 200,000 years ago, and modern language emerged perhaps around 100,000 years ago (Aitchison, 1996). In the beginning there was one language developed by Afican men. As these ancient ancestors walked out of Afica and spread around the world about 35, 000 to 12, 000 years ago, more and more languages were developed.2.3 Design Features of Language1) Arbitrariness---There is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between the sound/sign and meaning, between the word and its object, between the grammar and the meaning it carries;or the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.A building we live in with our family is called house in English, maison in French, dom in Russion, casa in Spanish, fangzi in ChineseHowever, language is not entirely arbitrary; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning, e.g.Onomatopoetic words: P10Motivated wordsSome compound words: tractor driver shoe-makerThe other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality. The link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.A pair of trousers----一条裤子 A pair of shirts---两件衬衣Go shopping *go buying go hunting冬瓜(white gourd) （夏天吃的）北戴河is not a river 中南海is not a sea.食堂餐厅*餐堂*食厅英国的语言----英语英文中国的语言----中文（*中语）汉语昨天昨晚*昨早*昨月*昨年去年*去天*去晚*去月明天明年*明月*明周今天今年*今月两百二十元----*二百两十元二百五----傻里傻气的人生前好友（死前好友）已婚夫妇未婚妻（未婚怎么能称妻）三长两短、七上八下三下五除二2) DualityTwo levels:Lower level---- a limited set of sounds, meaninglessHigher level----units of meaning coming from the combination of the units of lower level Phoneme—morpheme—words—phrase—clause—sentence3) Productivity/creativity--The users of a language can utilize limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful linguistic forms, including those they have never heard before.This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.The man that the girl that my wife taught married published many poems.(和我妻子教的那个女孩结婚的那个男人发表了许多诗)他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。
linguistics的分类
linguistics的分类Linguistics（语言学）是一门研究语言的学科，它可以分为以下几类：1. Phonetics（语音学）：研究语言的声音系统，包括语音的产生、传输和感知。
它关注语音的物理特性、音位的区别以及语音在不同语言中的变化。
2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语言中的声音模式和语音规则。
它关注音位的组合、音节结构、重音和语调等方面，以及它们在语言中的作用和变化。
3. Morphology（形态学）：研究单词的结构和形式。
它包括词素、词根、词缀和词形变化等方面，探讨单词的构成和派生规则。
4. Syntax（句法）：研究句子的结构和组成规则。
它关注句子中的词语顺序、句子成分的关系以及句子的类型和结构。
5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言的意义和语义关系。
它探讨词汇和句子的意义、词义的演变、语义场和语义角色等方面。
6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际交际中的使用和理解。
它关注语言的语境依赖、言外之意、会话原则和话语分析等方面。
7. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言与社会之间的关系。
它包括语言的社会变体、语言政策、语言习得、语言与身份等方面。
8. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言的心理过程和认知机制。
它关注语言的产生、理解、记忆和学习等方面，以及语言与思维和认知的关系。
9. Computational Linguistics（计算语言学）：应用计算机技术来处理和分析自然语言。
它包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、信息检索、文本挖掘等方面。
这些分类是语言学的主要领域，每个领域都有其特定的研究对象和方法。
不同领域之间相互关联和交叉，共同构成了对语言的全面研究。
Linguistics语言学归纳
Linguistics1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….)phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1)Prescriptive & descriptivePrescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)2)Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3)Langue & parole 语言&言语Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.4)Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication.Design features of language:1)arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds.2)Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.3)Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of languageenables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4)Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制5)Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）2.Functions of language:1)Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2)Expressive function: supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences, prejudices and values.3)Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.3.Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb. Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua) Phrase elements : specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses. Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1)Coinage:创新词Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato2)Clipped words: 缩略词Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger 3)Blending: 紧缩法Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunch camcorder-camera+recorder 4)Acronyms: 首字母缩略词CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technologyEU VIP B2B CPI5)Back-formation: 逆构词法To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate6)Function shiftn.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreatadj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7)BorrowingBonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balconyBalloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8)Derivation 派生词Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restateanti-pollution unfair realize happiness9)Compounds 复合词Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-licenseUndertake without landlady handover whitewash8.Register 语域Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说Language filters people’s perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.10. Language AcquisitionTheories of child language acquisition:1)The behavioristImitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammaticalstructures of the language.2)The innatistLanguage Acquisition device(LAD)ChomskyIt proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.Universal Grammar (UG)3)The interactionistIt holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric LennebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—aspecific and limited time period for language acquisition.Two versions:Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.11. Second Language AcquisitionPositive transfer正迁移facilitateNegative transfer 负迁移interfere or hinderInterlanguage 中介语It was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.Fossilization 石化现象It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Acquisition 习得It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learning学习It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.。
linguistics练习题
linguistics练习题一、语音学与音系学2. 描述元音和辅音的分类方法。
3. 解释音素与音位之间的区别。
4. 举例说明音位变体。
6. 识别并标注下列句子中的音素：The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.8. 描述声母和韵母的概念。
9. 分析英语中的元音和谐现象。
10. 解释语音学与音系学的区别与联系。
二、形态学与词汇学12. 举例说明词根和词缀的作用。
15. 描述英语中的名词、动词和形容词的屈折变化。
16. 解释形态学与词汇学的关系。
18. 举例说明词义扩大、词义缩小和词义转移。
19. 解释词义与语境的关系。
20. 描述英语中的词义分类。
三、句法学24. 描述英语中的主谓一致规则。
25. 解释并列句与复合句的区别。
27. 描述英语中的被动语态结构。
29. 解释句子类型：简单句、并列句、复合句。
30. 描述英语中的疑问句、否定句和祈使句的结构。
四、语义学与语用学33. 解释语义学与语用学的区别与联系。
34. 描述英语中的情态动词及其意义。
36. 解释语境对句子意义的影响。
38. 描述英语中的礼貌用语及其功能。
39. 解释隐喻和转喻的概念。
五、语言习得与语言学应用41. 描述儿童语言习得的过程。
42. 解释二语习得与母语习得的差异。
44. 描述语言教学中的交际法、任务型教学法等。
45. 解释语言测试的类型及其功能。
47. 描述跨文化交际中的语言障碍。
48. 解释语言规划与语言政策的概念。
50. 描述语言与认知、情感、社会等因素的关系。
六、历史语言学51. 描述语言变化的主要类型及其原因。
52. 解释语言演化的连续性与非连续性。
53. 分析英语历史上的重大语言变革。
54. 识别并解释古英语与现代英语之间的差异。
55. 描述语言学中的比较法及其在历史语言学中的应用。
56. 解释历史语言学与历时语言学的区别。
58. 描述语言接触对语言变化的影响。
59. 解释语言死亡的概念及其原因。
Linguistics总复习
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• 2)Interpersonal function
a.By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. b.Functional grammar: this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser‘s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.
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7) Metalingual function元语言功能 a. Language can be used to talk about itself. b.It makes the language infinitely selfreflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.
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Addressee---conative function ( to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties) Contact –phatic function ( to establish communication with others) Code－metalingual function (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)
Linguistics语言
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
LINGUISTICS
LINGUISTICSChapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language(p.1).1.1.1 The aim of linguisticsThis study aims at exploring the common properties that characterize all human languages and therefore linguists are interested in all human languages (living and dead, spoken and written).1.1.2 Linguistics as a science(1) The processa. Make observations of linguistic facts and collect sufficient data and describe them;b. Make generalizations 一般化about the facts observed;c. Formulate明确地表达hypotheses 假定to account for the facts observed;d. Test the hypotheses against further observations;e. Develop a theory about how language is constructed.(2) The principles (p.1)a. Exhaustiveness（广泛性）：One should gather all the materials relevant to investigation.b.Consistency（统一性）: There should not be contradiction and inconsistency between different parts of the total statement.c. Economy（经济性）: The linguistic structure under investigation should be maximally generalized.d. Objectivity（客观性）:This requires us to be as objective as possible in the description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence our generalization.1.2 Linguistics vs. Traditional grammar (p.2)(1) Traditional grammar: This school begins with the Greeks and the grammar of Thrax about 400B.C. It is continued by classical Latin grammarians from the 1st century to 6th century. It is characterized by the analysis based on the hypothesis that Latin Grammar is universally applicable for all languages.(2) F. de Saussure (the founder of modern linguistics) and his contributions:•Language as a system of symbols;•The arbitrariness恣意as the nature of linguistic symbols;•The distinction between langue语言and parole语言(p.16);•The distinction between synchronic完全同步的and diachronic历经时间长河的study of language (p.15);•The distinction between syntagmatic组合关系的and paradigmatic词形变化的properties of linguistic structure (p.17).•Signified受指& Signifier信号物(3) Chomsky and his contributions:•Language is defined as a set of rules;•Competence能力and performance (p.16);•Innateness天赋hypothesis;•Deep structure and surface structure.1.3 The differences between linguistics and traditional grammar (p.2)(1)Descriptive描写的and prescriptive规范的(p.15);(2)Spoken form vs. written form;(3)Attitude towards the function of Latin Grammar;(4)Attitude towards language change;(5)Scope范围of interest.1.4 The scope of linguistics (p.4)•Phonetics （语音学）•Phonology （音系学）•Morphology （形态学）•Syntax （句法学）•Semantics （语义学）•Pragmatics （语用学）1.5 Macrolinguistics宏观语言学(p.5)•Psycholinguistics （心理语言学）•Sociolinguistics （社会语言学）•Cognitive linguistics （认知语言学）•Computational linguistics （计算语言学）•Stylistics （文体语言学）•Discourse analysis （语篇分析）•Neurolinguistics （神经语言学）•Applied linguistics （应用语言学）The scope or major branches of linguistics•Theoretical linguistics1.Phonetics2.Phonology3.Morphology4.Syntax5.Semantics•Use of linguistics1.Applied linguistics2.Sociolinguistics3.Psycholinguistics……1.6 The nature of language (p.8)1.6.1 What does “language”mean?•Specific utterances表达or expressions one uses in speech or in writing in particular circumstances.•One’s idiolect.个人习语• A variety of speech or writing. /A particular system or particular purpose in particular situation.• A particular abstract抽象system underlying潜在的the totality of speech behavior of a community.•The universal properties characterizing all human natural languages.1.6.2 The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary任意的vocal元音symbols used for human communication (p.8).a. The symbolic nature of language.b. The linguistic symbol is arbitrary.c. Language is vocal.d. Language is systematic.e. The basic function of language is for communication.f. Language is human specific.1.6.3 Defining features of human language (p.10)•Arbitrariness (任意性)•Duality （二重性）•Creativity /productivity（创造性）•Interchangeability (互换性)•Displacement （移位性)•Specialization (特殊性)•Cultural transmission （文化传递性）a. Arbitrariness任意Arbitrariness --- There is not a logical and necessary connection between sounds and meanings in human language.(1) Animal’s vocal communication system has a fixed one-to-one固定的一对一connectionbetween sound patterns and specific objects or events. Besides, the sound patterns of animals are quite limited in number and the objects being referred to are also limited.(2) An onomatopoeia拟声is a word made up by imitating模仿the natural sound. Some may argue that language is non-arbitrary非任意的.e.g: the clang叮当声of a bell the ticks of a clockBut onomatopoeias are small in number in any language.(3) Compound words合成词are non-arbitrary in the sense that there is a necessary connection between the two elements in each of them.e.g: postmanEach element of a compound is entirely arbitray. Why did English people call him a “man”, but not a “dog”?b. Duality二重性Duality --- Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Primary level --- morphemes词素, words, phrases and sentences which are meaningful. Secondary level --- a sequence of meaningless sounds or segments片段which combine to form the units of meaning.Meaningful:sentences: The girls are going shopping.phrases: NP VPwords: the + girls + are + going + shoppingmorphemes: {the} + {girl} + {s} +{be} +{s}+ {go} + {ing} + {shop}+ {ing}Meaningless:syllables音节: [ðə] + [gə:lz] + [a:] + [gəu] + [iŋ] + [∫כp] + [iŋ]sounds: [ð] + [ə] + [g] + [ə:] + [l] +[z] + [a:] + [g] +[əu] + [i] + [ŋ] + [∫]+[כ]+[p] + [i] + [ŋ]c. ProductivityProductivity --- A speaker of any language has the ability to produce a sentence he has never heard before and to understand any sentence he hears for the first time.e.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…Q: Do you think the sounds the parrots produce have the feature of creativity?K: No. parrots can only draw their calls from the fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.d. Interchangeability可交换性Interchangeability --- Man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.e. Displacement移位Displacement is a property性质of language enabling people to talk about things remote遥远的either in space or in time.Language can refer to things removed from the immediate直接的situations of the speaker; it can be used to refer to things or events which are not present (real or imagined, in the past, present or in future).Q: Do you think the bee dance has the feature of displacement as human language?A: The bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. Bees do not “talk”about themselves, the hives, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires. What’s more, they do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate推测about future discoveries.f. Specialization特殊化Specialization --- Man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized activity. We use it in a detached分离manner.e.g: A mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake.g. Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of learning but not genetically.从遗传学角度•Q: Why can‘t Tarzan, a human being, understand human language?•A: Language is culturally transmitted传输. The ability to speak a language is transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of teaching and learning, but not genetically.1.6.4 Origin of language (p.9)•Ding-dong theory: primitive原始的简单的man giving vocal expression to the objects he encountered遇到•Sing-song歌咏theory: primitive ritual仪式songs of praise•Pooh-pooh发呸声theory: interjections感叹词which express the speaker’s emotions •Ye-he-ho theory: the cries叫喊uttered发出while working•Ta-ta再见theory: combination of certain gestures and tongue movements•Bow-wow狗汪汪叫声theory: imitation of animal cries and other sounds in nature1.7 Functions of language (p.13)•Informative教育性的function: declarative陈述的sentences•Phatic交流感情的communion: farewells, comments on weather•Directive function: imperatives祈使句•Interrogative疑问词function: questions•Expressive function: My God!•Evocative唤起的function: jokes, advertising, propaganda宣传•Performative述行成分function: I declare宣布the meeting open.1.8 Important distinctions区别in linguistics (p.15)(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述与规定）(two types of linguistic study):If the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language, it is descriptive；if the study aims to prescribe规定how things ought to be (to lay down rules for ‘correct and standard’behavior in using language), it is prescriptive.a. Do/Don’t say X.b. People do/don’t say X.(2) Synchronic vs. Diachronic（共时与历时）(two types of linguistic descriptive study):A synchronic description takes a fixed instant一个固定的即时as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.Exercises:a. a study of the development of the Indo-European tonguesb. a study of Shakespeare’s language(3) Langue & parole (Saussure, early 20th century)（语言与言语）:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic抽象的语言system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization实现of langue in actual use.(4) Competence & Performance (Chomsky, 1950s)（语言能力/语言运用）Competence is an ideal language user’s underlying潜在的knowledge about the system of rules; performance is the actual use of language in concrete实在的situations.Question for discussion:What is the difference between Saussure’s langue, parole and Chomsky’s competence and performance?They differ in that Saussure took a sociological社会学的view of language and his notion概念of langue is a matter of social conventions惯例, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence能力is a property of the mind of each individual.(5) Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations (组合关系和聚合关系）a. Syntagmatic(horizontal/chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.E.g: The boy kicked the ball.*Boy the ball kicked the. (syntactic语法的)*The ball kicked the boy. (semantic语义的)There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic组合关系的relation must meet.Syntagm （组合）•Sounds after sounds; words following words•Horizontal水平线relations•Temporal暂时的sequenceE.g.: syntagmatic: She can go I may come You might leaveb. Paradigmatic词形变化的relation (associative联合的/ vertical垂直的/ choice选择relation):A relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.E.g. ____ is smiling.The boyThe womanThe teacher…The constraint约束in a paradigmatic词形变化的is syntactic句法的only.Paradigm （聚合）•Range of alternative signs范围内可选择的迹象•Choice relations•Vertical sequence纵向序列• E.g.:→paradigmatic词形变化的IRA terroristsscum(渣滓, 卑贱的人)active unitsparamilitaries (辅助军队成员)freedom fighterslunatics （疯子, 狂人）The horizontal syntagmatic组合关系的axis轴is the realm领域of combination. Conversely相反地, the vertical垂直的paradigmatic词形变化的axis is the realm of selection选择and substitution.代替(6) Functionalism机能主义and formalism形式主义:Functionlism or functional linguistics refers to the study of forms of language in reference to their social function in communication.Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations. It fixes in the forms of languages as evidence of the universals without considering how these forms function in communication and the ways of social life in different communities.Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology1. Speech soundsSounds which are systematically声音系统used in human languages are called speech sounds. Sounds made by a human being but not used in language are not considered as speech sounds (coughing, snoring打鼾, sneezing打喷嚏).2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics? (p.25)The study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages.It is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound making, particularly the sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their transcription, description and classification分类.Three areas of phonetics: (p.26)⏹Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学):production of speech sounds生产语音⏹Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学):perception of speech sounds感知的语音⏹Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学):physical properties of speech sounds物理特性的语音2.2 Speech organs (p.27) 1- nasal鼻骨cavity腔2- lips嘴唇3- teeth牙齿4- alveolar ridge牙槽嵴5- hard palate硬腭6- velum软腭(soft palate)7- uvula小舌8- apex顶点(tip) of tongue9- blade刀锋(front前) of tongue 10- dorsum背部(back) of tongue 11- oral cavity口腔12- pharynx咽13- epiglottis会厌；喉头盖14- larynx喉头15- vocal cords声带16- trachea气管17- esophagus食道Division of vocal organs:According to the function in the sound production, the vocal organs发声器can be divided into three parts: initiator发起人of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonator.共鸣器2.2.1 The initiator of the air-stream:(1) The initiator includes the lungs肺and the trachea气管;(2) The direction of the airstream气流:⏹outgoing/ pulmonic肺的: in all languages⏹Non-pulmonic sounds与肺无关的声音: ejectives (挤喉音), clicks (吸气音), implosives(内爆音in Sindhi信德语, Igbo伊博人)2.2.2 The vocal cords声带(the producer of voice)(1) Pitch音高depends on the rate of vibration振动of the vocal cords.(2) V ocal cords:⏹Complete blockage堵塞(totally closed) for producing glottal喉音stop [נ]:[נ eni] [נ idiət]⏹Vibrating振动(close together) to produce voiced sounds: [m] [b] [g] [z] [e] [i]⏹Not vibrating (apart) to produce voiceless sounds: [p] [h] [t]2.2.3 Three resonators (amplifier扩音器and modifier调节器)(1) Pharyngeal cavity (咽腔)(2) Nasal cavity鼻腔(3) Oral cavity口腔⏹active主动的；有效的articulators发音之人或物: lips, uvular(小舌), the tongue⏹Passive被动的，消极的articulators: teeth, alveolar (齿龈), palate (硬颚)2.3 IPA国际音标and broad and narrow transcription音译2.3.1 IPA⏹International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标⏹International Phonetic Association (1886)国际语音学学会2.3.2 Phonetic transcription标音法:The method of writing down the speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.2.3.3 Broad and narrow transcription⏹Broad transcription: [ ] the use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription.⏹Narrow transcription: [ ] the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail. Examples:Narrow transcription: [ ]pure[phwjuə] :aspirated送气音的labialized被唇音化的palatalized使颚音化bed[be·d] slightly longfarm[fã:m] nasalized使鼻音化apple [`æpł] velarized使软腭化bacon [`beiנn] glottal stop喉塞音Broad transcription: [ ]pure[pjuə]2.4 Classification of English speech sounds (p.31)2.4.1 Consonants 辅音(p.32)Consonants are the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction阻碍of airstream at some point in the vocal tract声道.2.4.1.1 Place of articulation发音部位2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation发音方法2.4.1.3 Voicing发言；牵动声带2.4.1.4 Description of consonants辅音的描述2.4.1.1 Place of articulation(p.32)Bilabials双唇的: [p] [b] [m] [w]Labiodentals:唇齿音[f] [v]Dentals:齿音[θ] [ð]Alveolars:齿槽音[t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r] Palatals:腭音的舌面中音的[∫] [З] [t∫] [dЗ] [j] Velars:软腭音，舌根音[k] [g] [ŋ]Retroflex:卷舌音[r]Glottal:喉音声门音[h] [נ] (button [`bΛנn]) Pharyngeal:咽部[ẛ ] (latter [`læẛə])2.4.1.2 Manner of articulation (p.33)Stops/ plosives:爆破音oral stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]nasal鼻音stops: [m] [n] [ŋ]⏹Nasals:鼻腔音[m] [n] [ŋ]⏹Fricatives:摩擦音[f] [v] [s] [z] [θ] [ð] [∫] [З] [h]⏹Affricates:破擦音[t∫] [dЗ]⏹Liquids:流音[l] [r]⏹Glides:滑行[j] [w] (semi-vowels)The IPA consonant辅音chart:White represents standard British English consonants.2.1.4.3 Voicing (P.30)⏹V oiceless:[p] [t] [k] [s] [f] [∫] [θ] [t∫] [h]⏹V oiced: [b] [d] [g] [z] [v] [З] [ð] [dЗ] [m] [n] [ŋ] [j] [w] [r] [l]2.4.1.4 Description of consonants[p]: voiceless bilabial双唇音stop[b]:voiced bilabial stop[s]:voiceless alveolar齿槽音fricative摩擦音[kh]:voiceless velar软颚音aspirated送气音的stop[n]:voiced alveolar nasal鼻音2.4.2 Vowels (p.34)V owels元音are speech sounds in the production of which no articulators构音器官come very close together and the airstream气流passes through the vocal tract声道without obstruction障碍.2.4.2.1 Monophthongs单元音2.4.2.2 Description of vowels2.4.2.3 Diphthongs双元音；复合元音& triphthongs三合元音2.4.2.1 Monophthongs单元音Monophthongs: The quality of sound remains constant不变的throughout the articulation.(1) The tongue height(2) The position of the highest part of the tongue body(3) The lip-rounding圆唇(4) The length(5) The tension(6) How open the mouth is openedVowel quadrilateral四边形( Daniel Jones)2.4.2.2 Description of vowels[i:] high front tense (long) unrounded vowel[u]high back lax (short) rounded vowel[כ]low back lax (short) rounded vowel[ə]central lax (short) unrounded vowel2.4.2.3 Diphthongs双元音& triphthongs三元音(P.35)Diphthongs— A single movement of the tongue.raising升起diphthongs: [ei] [ai] [כi] [əu] [au]centralizing形成中心diphthongs: [uə] [iə] [εə]Triphthongs— A double movement of the tongue. They are produced by a glide滑行from one vowel to another and then to a 3rd rapidly and continuously.e.g: [aiə, auə], in wire and hour.Exercise 4 (Page 45):Example:[p] [b] [m]Feature: bilabial双唇音, stop, consonant辅音(1) [g] [p] [t] [d] [k] [b]:Features: stop, consonant(2) [u] [u:] [כ]:Features: back, rounded, vowelExercise 5:(1) [θ]: [ð] Voicing: voiceless --- voiced(2) [p]: [f] Place: bilabial --- labio-dental齿唇音Manner: stop --- fricative摩擦音(3) [i]: [e] Height: high --- half-high(4) [b]: [m] Cavity腔: oral --- nasal(5) [s]: [∫] Place: alveolar齿槽音--- palatal上颚音(6) [s]: [ð] Place: alveolar --- dental齿音V oicing: voiceless --- voiced※如果两个单词，除了出现在同一个位置上的一个音以外，其余的都相同，则这两个词就构成了一个最小对立体。
linguistics语言学
What is linguistics? the science of language the scientific study of language more design features cultural transmission mutual interchangeability
Second, there are other facts that are puzzling if language is not innate. Children learn their mother tongue in very different environments. But they follow more or less the same stages in acquisition: the babbling stage, nonsense word stage, holophrastic stage, two-word utterance, developing grammar, nearadult grammar, and full competence.
Displacement
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement gives human the power to handle generalizations and abstraction. Displacement make it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms. e.g. Non-things: beauty and truth
generallinguistics普通语言学简介
Linguistics语言学，the study of human language。
包括Theoretical linguistics，Applied linguistics，Sociolinguistics，Cognitive linguistics和Historical linguistics。
这里主要考Theoretical linguistics，包括:1.Lexis词汇学, the study of what is a word and where words come from2.Semantics语义学，the study of meaning in a language3.Phonetics语音学，the study of speech sounds (voice).4.Phonology音位学/音系学,the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication5.Morphology形态学，the study of the structure and form of words and phrases6.Syntax句法学，the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together，与morphology形态学并称grammer语法学7.Stylistics文体学，the study of style used in literary, and verbal language and the effect the writer/speaker wishes to communicate to the reader/hearer.8.Pragmatics语用学，generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.补充：general linguistics, the study of the structure and development of language in generalChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. T2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. F4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. T8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. F9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. T10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. T17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. T19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. FⅡ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. A_______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22. A_______ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23. The four sounds /p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______ sounds.24. Of all the speech organs, the t_______ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27. S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s_______ rules.29. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they arecollectively known as i_________.31. P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33. T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35 Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36. The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37. __________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/38. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesⅣ. Define the terms below:45. phonology46. phoneme47. allophone48. international phonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics53. phone54. phonemic contrast55. tone56. minimal pairⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?。
Linguistics语言学
Lingustics in 20th century ?
Distinctions---pairs of terms
Langue & parole Prescriptive & descriptive Synchronic & diachronic Speech & writing Syntagmatic & paradigmatic Competence & performance Functionalism & formalism
Language≠langauges, a language, the language
Linguists
tend to provide definitions of language from their own theoretical perspectives.
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857,11 – 1913,2 ), a Swiss linguist whose ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in linguistics in the 20th century and widely considered to be one of the fathers of 20th-century linguistics, said in 1916:
Competence and performance (Chomsky)
Why should we study language?
Example 1 A: 刚才和我跳舞的那位跳得太好啦！是你们单 位的Байду номын сангаас？ B: 是的。他妻子跳得更好呢！
linguistics
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1) It tries to answer the basic questions asWhat is language?How does language work?What rules there are that govern the structure of language?2) It probes into various problems related to language such asWhat do languages have in common?What range of variation is found among languages?What makes language change?To what extent are social class differences related in language?How does a child acquire his mother tongue? ...3) Linguistics studies not any particular language, but it studies language in general.4) Linguistics is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyIndependent branches MorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsSociolinguisticsInterdisciplinary branches PsycholinguisticsApplied linguistics1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1) prescriptive: aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in usinglanguageeg. Don’t say X.descriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people usually useeg. People don’t say X.* Modern linguistics is mostly descriptiveIt aims to set models for language users to follow;It is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the languagepeople use, be it correct or not.2) synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history, and mostlinguistic studies are of this type.eg. A Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespeare’s Englishdiachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3) speech and writing: two major media of communication4) langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunityparole: the realization of langue in actual use“If we could embrace the sum of word- images stored in the mind of all individuals, we could identify the social bond that constitutes language (langue). It is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking (parole), a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For language (langue) is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language (langue) from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.”— Saussure, 1959: 13- 14Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subject of linguistics.5) competence: the idea user’s knowledge of the rules of his language performance: the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.This is the aspect that linguists should study.—Chomsky, 1965: 36) traditional grammar and modern linguisticsLinguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar, on the other hand, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its performance.Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework.* It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” in the early 20th century.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definitions of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.1) Language is a system: elements of language are combined according to rules;2) Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a3) Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound;4) Language is human-specific.1.2.2 Design features of language1) arbitrariness----By nature, there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds----exceptions: onomatopoeic words, some compound words* It makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) productivity/creativity----It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. ----It is unique to human language.3) duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or twolevels. It enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.----a structure of sounds (the lower or the basic level)----a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words (the higher level)4) displacement----Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.----It provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or space.5) cultural transmission: The details of any language system are not geneticallytransmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.1.2.3 Functions of language1) main functionsThe descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. “TheSichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has eversuffered.”The expressive function: it supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices, and values. “I will never go camping with theSimpsons again.”The social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.“How can I help you, Sir?”2) Roman Jakobson: identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one ofthem to one language function.Addresser—Emotive (表情功能): The addresser expresses his attitude to the topicor situation of communication. “I hate whatever they are planning forme!”Addressee—Conative (意动功能、意欲功能、呼吁功能): The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways to thinking. “Whynot go and see another doctor?”Context—Referential (所指功能、指称功能、指向功能): The addresser conveys a message or information. “As far as I know, the earth’s resources arebeing astonishingly wasted.”Message—Poetic (组诗功能、娱乐功能): The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. “poetry”Contact—Phatic communication (寒暄功能): The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. “Hi! Howare you this morning?”Code—Metalinguistic (元语言功能): The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. “Let me tell you what the word anorexiameans.”3) Halliday (systemic-functional grammar)(1) Getting to know you> Write down 3 statements about yourself, one of which is false!> You will then take turns to share these 3 statements in your group, and let your group members guess which statement is false, and why they think it is false.> Once everyone in the group has shared, decide on who has the most interesting statements.> This person will then have the privilege of sharing with the whole class.(2) The ideational function (概念功能): is to organize the speaker or writer’sexperience of the real or imaginary world.It is broader than descriptive functionabove, because it also includes theexpression of the speaker’s attitude,evaluation, his feelings and emotions.eg. Peter is a teacher.Peter played tennis yesterday.Peter enjoys travelling.Peter advises his students to study hard.The interpersonal function (交际功能): is to indicate, establish, or maintain socialrelationships between people. Itexpresses the speaker’s role in the speechsituation, his personal commitment andassessment of the social relationshipbetween the addressee and himself.eg. * Who is speaking/writing to whom? Is the relationship between themequal/unequal? What in the text tells us this?* Is the writer-reader relationship intimate/distant? How can we tell?* Is the speaker/writer expressing any kind of involvement/emotion towardsthe hearer/reader or the subject matter? How can we tell from the text?The textual function (语篇功能): is to organize written or spoken texts in such amanner that they are coherent withinthemselves and fit the particular situation inwhich they are used.In short: the textual metafunction of language allows us to organise ideas and meanings in a text, to signal prominence and connections in a text, and to signal how a message is structured.eg. lexical repetition—contentconjunction—logical relationship1.3 Assignments1. What are the design features of language?2. List the main functions of language and think of your own examples for illustration.3. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?。
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LinguisticsWhat is LinguisticsLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavours to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (ie., do not split infinitives). Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters.The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language. That is, what are the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language.Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology. It also may influence other disciplines such as english, communication studies and computer science. Linguistics for the most part though can be considered a cognitive science. Along with psychology, philosophy and computer science (AI), linguistics is ultimately concerned with how the human brain functions.Below are several different disciplines within linguistics. The fields of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and language acquisition are considered the core fields of study and a firm knowledge of each is necessary in order to tackle more advanced subjects.PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the sounds of languge, how these sounds are articulated and how the hearer percieves them. Phonetics is related to the science of acoustics in that it uses much the same techniques in the analysis of sound that acoustics does. There are three sub-disciplines of phonetics:∙Articulatory Phonetics: the production of speech sounds.∙Acousitc Phonetics: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.∙Auditory Phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds.PhonologyPhonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are organized in a language. Phonolgy examines what occurs to speech sounds when they are combined to form a word and how these speech sounds interact with each other. It endeavors to explain what these phonological processes are in terms of formal rules.MorphologyMorphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process. The elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language. The word cats, for example, contains the morphemes cat and the plural -s.SyntaxSyntax is the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules. These rules detail an underlying structure and a transformational process. The underlying structure of English for example would have asubject-verb-object sentence order (John hit the ball). The transformational process would allow an alteration of the word order which could give you something like The ball was hit by John.SemanticsSemantics is the study of meaning. It is concerned with describing how we represent the meaning of a word in our mind and how we use this representation in constructing sentences. Semantics is based largely on the study of logic in philosophy.Language AcquisitionLanguage acquistion examines how children learn to speak and how adults learn a second language. Language acquistion is very important because it gives us insight in the underlying processes of language. There are two components which contribute to language acqusition. The innate knowledge of the learner (called Universal Grammer or UG) and the environment. The notion of UG has broad implications. It suggests that all languages operate within the same framework and the understanding of this framework would contribute greatly to the understanding of what language is.Other Disciplines∙Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of interrelationships of language and social structure, linguistic variation, and attitudes toward language.∙Neurolinguistics: Neurolinguistics is the study of the brain and how it functions in the production, preception and acquistion of language.∙Historical Linguistics: Historical linguistics is the study of language change and the relationships of languages to each other.∙Anthropological Linguistics: Anthropological linguistics is the study of language and culture and how they interact.∙Pragmatics: Pragmatics studies meaning in context.。