桥梁工程毕业设计【斜拉桥设计】中英文摘要

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桥梁工程毕业设计【斜拉桥设计】

目录第一章绪论 (4)第一节工程概况 (4)第二节技术指标 (4)一、公路正桥主要技术指标 (4)二、铁路正桥主要技术指标 (4)第三节斜拉桥方案 (5)一、斜拉桥概况 (5)二、主桁 (5)三、铁路桥面系 (5)四、公路桥面系 (5)五、主塔 (5)第二章斜拉桥主桁模型建立 (6)第一节建模思路 (7)第二节建模过程 (7)一、节点编号 (7)二、节点自由度 (7)三、同位移约束 (7)四、杆件单元 (9)第三章恒载及活载荷载计算 (12)第一节计算思路 (12)第二节公路恒载 (12)一、正交异性板处 (12)二、混凝土结合板 (13)三、交接处节点 (13)第三节铁路自重荷载计算 (14)一、一级干线铁路自重荷载计算 (14)二、客运专线铁路自重荷载计算 (14)三、转化为节点荷载 (15)第四节活载荷载计算 (15)一、公路活载 (15)二、铁路活载 (16)第四章斜拉索初张力确定 (18)第一节拉索初张力确定思路 (18)第二节拉索初张力确定 (18)一、恒载索力 (18)二、活载索力 (20)三、拉索初张力 (23)第五章斜拉桥结构内力分析 (25)第一节恒载内力 (25)一、确定控制断面 (25)二、恒载作用下跨中断面内力 (25)三、恒载作用下支座处断面内力 (26)第二节公路桥面横向分布系数计算 (26)一、汽车荷载横向分布计算 (26)二、求弹性支承的刚度系数 (26)三、建立横梁模型 (27)四、用移动荷载法求影响线 (27)五、确定最不利桁架 (28)六、求中桁的横向分布系数 (28)第三节公路桥面横向分布系数计算 (29)一、计算方法 (29)二、求横向分布系数 (29)三、确定最不利桁架 (30)第四节活载内力分析 (31)一、分析思路 (31)二、求汽车活载下的内力 (31)三、求列车活载下的内力 (32)第六章结构验算 (34)第一节内力检算 (34)一、上弦杆件检算 (34)二、下弦杆件检算 (35)第二节疲劳检算 (36)一、上弦杆件21单元疲劳检算 (36)二、下弦杆件117单元疲劳检算 (37)第三节刚度检算 (38)一、中桁上弦控制节点（40）的垂直挠度值 (38)二、中桁下弦控制节点（119）的垂直挠度值 (38)三、刚度检算 (38)第七章性能评价 (39)一、恒载内力 (39)二、活载内力 (39)三、结构刚度 (39)四、不妥之处 (39)结束语 (40)致谢 (41)参考文献 (42)附录 (43)１．英文文献及翻译２．斜拉桥总图３．主桁杆件截面图４．斜拉桥主塔图第一章绪论第一节工程概况这个公铁两用江山大桥位于火星江山二桥下游9.5km处的这个分汊河段上，北岸为江岸区谌家矶，南岸为青山区建十路，大桥横越江山，连通太阳，土星两镇。

桥梁毕业设计外文翻译5

附录附录A 外文翻译第一部分英文原文4.2.2 Model that Failed in Punching ShearIt was realized that complete restraint in both the longitudinal and transversedirections is necessary for the development of the internal arching system in the deck slab. With this realization,another half-scale model of a two-girder bridge was built. This model also had a deck slab reinforced only by polypropylene fibres, and was very similar to the previous one, the main difference being that the top flangesof the girders were now interconnected by transverse steel straps lying outside the deck slab. A view of the steel work of this model can be seen in Fig. 4.7.These straps were provided so as to serve as transverse ties to the internal arch in the slab.The 100 mm thick slab of the model with transverse straps failed under a central load of 418 kN in a punching-shear failure mode. As can be seen in Fig. 4.8, the damaged area of the slab was highly localized. It can be appreciated that with such a high failure load, the thin deck slab of the half-scale model could have easily withstood the weights of even the heaviest wheel load of commercial vehicles.The model tests described above and in sub-section 4.2.1 clearly demonstrate that an internal arching action will indeed develop in a deck slab, but only if it is suitably restrained.4.2.3 Edge StiffeningA further appreciation of the deck slab arching action is provided by tests on a scale model of a skew slab-on-girder bridge. As will be discussed in sub-section 4.4.2, one transverse free edge of the deck slab of this model was stiffened by a composite steel channel with its web in the vertical plane. The other free edge was stiffened by a steel channel diaphragm with its web horizontal and connected to the deck slab through shear connectors. The deck slab near the former transverse edge failed in a mode that was a hybrid between punching shear and flexure. Tests near the composite diaphragm led to failure at a much higher load in punching shear (Bakht and Agarwal, 1993).The above tests confirmed yet again that the presence of the internal arching action in deck slabs induces high in-plane force effects which in turn demand stiffer restraint in the plane of the deck than in the out-of-plane direction.4.3 INTERNALLY RESTRAINED DECK SLABSDeck slabs which require embedded reinforcement for strength will now be referred to as internally restrained deck slabs. The state-of-art up to 1986 relating to the quantification and utilization of the beneficial internal arching action in deck slabs with steel reinforcement has been provided by Bakht and Markovic (1986). Their conclusions complemented with up-to-date information are presented in this chapter in a generally chronological order which, however, cannot be adhered to rigidlybecause of the simultaneous occurrence of some developments.4.3.1 Static Tests on Scale ModelsAbout three decades ago, the Structures Research Office of the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO), Canada, sponsored an extensive laboratory-based research program into the load carrying capacity of deck slabs; this research program was carried out at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario. Most of this research was conducted through static tests on scale models of slab-on-girder bridges. This pioneering work is reported by Hewitt and Batchelor (1975) and later by Batchelor et al. (1985), and is summarized in the following.The inability of the concrete to sustain tensile strains, which leads to cracking, has been shown to be the main attribute which causes the compressive membrane forces to develop. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 4.9 (a) which shows the part cross-section of slab-on-girder bridge under the action of a concentrated load.The cracking of the concrete, as shown in the figure, results in a net compressive force near the bottom face of the slab at each of the two girder locations. Midway between the girders, the net compressive force moves towards the top of the slab. It can be readily visualized that the transition of the net compressive force from near the top in the middle region, to near the bottom at the supports corresponds to the familiar arching action. Because of this internal arching action, the failure mode of a deck slab under a concentrated load becomes that of punching shear.If the material of the deck slab has the same stress-strain characteristics in both tension and compression, the slab will not crack and, as shown in Fig. 4.9 (b), will not develop the net compressive force and hence the arching action.In the punching shear type of failure, a frustum separates from the rest of the slab, as shown in schematically in Fig. 4.10. It is noted that in most failure tests, the diameter of the lower end of the frustrum extends to the vicinity of the girders.From analytical and confirmatory laboratory studies, it was established that the most significant factor influencing the failure load of a concrete deck slab is the confinement of the panel under consideration. It was concluded that this confinement is provided by the expanse of the slab beyond the loaded area; its degree was founddifficult to assess analytically. A restraint factor, η, was used as an empirical measure of the confinement; its value is equal to zero for the case of no confinement and 1.0 for full confinement.The effect of various parameters on the failure load can be seen in Table 4.1, which lists the theoretical failure loads for various cases. It can be seen that an increase of the restraint factor from 0.0 to 0.5 results in a very large increase in the failure load. The table also emphasizes the fact that neglect of the restraint factor causes a gross underestimation of the failure load.It was concluded that design for flexure leads to the inclusion of large amounts of unnecessary steel reinforcement in the deck slabs, and that even the minimum amount of steel required for crack control against volumetric changes in concrete is adequate to sustain modern-day, and even future, highway vehicles of North America.It was recommended that for new construction, the reinforcement in a deck slab should be in two layers, with each layer consisting of an orthogonal mesh having the same area of reinforcement in each direction. The area of steel reinforcement in each direction of a mesh was suggested to be 0.2% of the effective area of cross-section of the slab. This empirical method of design was recommended for deck slabs with certain constraints.4.3.2 Pulsating Load Tests on Scale ModelsTo study the fatigue strength of deck slabs with reduced reinforcement, five small scale models with different reinforcement ratios in different panels were tested at the Queen's University at Kingston. Details of this study are reported by Batchelor et al. (1978).Experimental investigation confirmed that for loads normally encountered in North America deck slabs with both conventional and recommended reducedreinforcement have large reserve strengths against failure by fatigue. It was confirmed that the reinforcement in the deck slab should be as noted in sub-section 4.3.1. It is recalled that the 0.2% reinforcement requires that the deck slab must have a minimum restraint factor of 0.5.The work of Okada, et al. (1978) also deals with fatigue tests on full scale models of deck slabs and segments of severely cracked slab removed from eight to ten year old bridges. The application of these test results to deck slabs of actual bridges is open to question because test specimens were removed from the original structures in such a way that they did not retain the confinement necessary for the development of the arching action.4.3.3 Field TestingAlong with the studies described in the preceding sub-section, a program of field testing of the deck slabs of in-service bridges was undertaken by the Structures Research Office of the MTO. The testing consisted of subjecting deck slabs to single concentrated loads, simulating wheel loads, and monitoring the load-deflection characteristics of the slab. The testing is reported by Csagoly et al. (1978) and details of the testing equipment are given by Bakht and Csagoly (1979).Values of the restraint factor, η, were back-calculated from measured deflections.A summary of test results, given in Table 4.2, shows that the average value of η in composite bridges is greater than 0.75, while that for non-composite bridges is 0.42. It was concluded that for new construction, the restraint factor, η, can be assumed to have a minimum value of 0.5.Bakht (1981) reports that after the first application of a test load of high magnitude on deck slabs of existing bridges, a small residual deflection was observed in most cases. Subsequent applications of the same load did not result in further residual deflections. It is postulated that the residual deflections are caused by cracking of the concrete which, as discussed earlier, accompanies the development of the internal arching action. The residual deflections after the first cycle of loading suggest that either the slab was never subjected to loads high enough to cause cracking, or the cracks have 'healed' with time.第二部分汉语翻译4.2.2 在冲切剪应力下的实效模型我们已经知道在桥面板内部拱形系统的形成中，不仅纵向而且横向也被完全约束限制是完全必要的。

桥梁毕业论文中英文摘要

摘要：吕利高架桥的创新设计提出了一种轻型结构和透明的三角交叉预制圆管，这种结构完全从节点区无线条作出。

其结果是双空间桁架，以42.75米的典型跨径。

每个横向三角形截面为2.9米和4.0米宽，是由一个细长桥墩支持。

最大的直径和管壁厚度超过500毫米和70毫米，相差很大。

第一期间的连接设计的主要困难是确定复杂交叉沿管周长的应力分布，并计算支点应力。

几何计算，精密切割和边缘管的准备是必要的设计，桥身充满穿透焊缝。

移动模架，这也确保了在混凝土浇筑，也需要特殊考虑的管状桁架的稳定。

本文介绍了从设计演变的项目，桁架加工和焊接，到施工现场的步骤。

引言在瑞士A1高速公路，1000米长的吕利高架桥，空间管桁架制造，是一个工程师设计比赛的结果。

该项目选择了由它的独创性和审美素质陪审团。

在过去，没有人敢来建造与焊接动态应力管节点的道路桥梁。

设计争论附近的村庄位于在弗里堡州，分为公路高架桥从东到西运行瑞士格中。

穿越山谷的湿农村单位土地和树木所包围，这座桥将完成于伊华东之间与穆尔登公路连接。

弗里堡州公路处，有3个项目之间的选择由选定的有经验的咨询公司提交的。

该设计必须遵循下列条件：--桥梁总长度：约1000米--桥面宽度：从原来的13.25米至16.00米（每个交通方向）--为了维护原因，会议决定建立两个独立的道路--纵倾角：2.9和3.6%之间的一个凹角与40000米半径圆弧--水平曲线：2日期间过渡的3'000米半径圆--桥高：4至15米下列项目已提交给审核团的5名成员：--一预应力的44.60米和一个2.50米，平均高度的连续混凝土箱形梁--一预应力42.50米的大跨度混凝土箱形梁，平均这梁深度变化2至2.45米--之一，对42.75米和一个身高3.75米，平均跨度不断复合空间桁架第三个项目是建议由它的“轻”，并允许它融入农村氛围。

该建议是由负责当局批准的。

该项目提交的咨询工程师小组迪爱生- DMA的（多纳IngénieursConseils SA和Devaud，蒙加蒂等Associées SA），接受了这一创新的设计挑战概念设计：周围的树木形状启发了笔者的概念设计[1]。

文献翻译-斜拉桥

附录1 英文文献翻译斜拉桥斜拉桥特别适合于200m～500m的跨径范围，可以说是从连续箱梁桥到加劲悬索桥的过渡。

它起源于战后德国，当时主要是为了节约刚材。

高强钢材的应用，先进的焊接技术和电子计算机对高度超静定结构的严密分析，极大地促进了斜拉桥的发展。

斜拉桥的主要承载构件是：斜拉索、索塔和正交异性板。

简而言之，锚固于桥面板和塔上的斜拉索取消了中间桥墩，因而为航行提供了更大的桥下净宽。

桥面板通过斜拉索以扇形（集中于塔顶）或琴形（多点锚于塔）来形成对桥面板的多点支承。

密索体系减小了桥面板支承点之间的距离，并减小了结构高度，这样设计和张拉的拉索使结构的工作行为类似于刚性支承的连续梁。

由于斜拉索的阻尼作用，斜拉桥的桥面板不致像悬索桥那样容易风致摆动。

拉索可以像诺德利贝桥那样设置成单索面，可以像斯特伦松德桥或杜塞尔多夫桥那样设置成垂直双索面，也可以像塞韦林桥设置成双斜索面。

单索面体系的优点是：桥面板上的锚固区分布于交通中线上，使桥面总宽度最小。

对于双索面体系，则需要额外的桥面宽度来调节塔梁的锚固。

从美学上看，单索面体系更吸引人，因为这为两侧的司机提供了更广阔的视野。

对双索面而言，桥梁一侧的拉索会给人以交叉的感觉。

双斜索面体系，像塞韦林桥一样索从A型框架的顶尖辐射下来，使上部结构具有三维结构的性能，减小了风引起的桥面板扭振。

对单索面体系，偏心集中荷载引起的扭矩使箱形截面正交异性板的应用成为必要。

双索面体系的桥面板一般是正交异性的箱梁，也可以是预应力混凝土梁，如委内瑞拉的马拉开波桥和西德美因河上的赫希斯特桥。

拉索是预张拉的锁丝结构，这些索不易腐蚀，抗拉性强。

最后一个特点对斜拉桥是重要的，因为伸长会引起更大的弯矩和增加结构高度。

斜拉索的倾角会影响塔的高度。

塔为锚固索而在锚固点以上增加高度是正常的，就像诺德利贝桥（这种情况下，作为城市的礼物）。

不仅要考虑结构，在塔形的选择中，美学也占有突出的地位。

例如，由于塞韦林桥接近科洛涅大教堂，故采用A型框架。

桥梁工程毕业设计外文翻译(箱梁)

西南交通大学本科毕业设计(论文）外文资料翻译年级:学号：姓名：专业:指导老师:2013年 6 月外文资料原文：13Box girders13.1 GeneralThe box girder is the most ﬂexible bridge deck form。

It can cover a range of spans from25 m up to the largest non—suspended concrete decks built, of the order of 300 m。

Single box girders may also carry decks up to 30 m wide。

For the longer span beams, beyond about 50 m，they are practically the only feasible deck section. For the shorter spans they are in competition with most of the other deck types discussed in this book.The advantages of the box form are principally its high structural efﬁciency （5.4），which minimises the prestress force required to resist a given bending moment，and its great torsional strength with the capacity this gives to re—centre eccentric live loads，minimising the prestress required to carry them。

The box form lends itself to many of the highly productive methods of bridge construction that have been progressively reﬁned over the last 50 years，such as precast segmental construction with or without epoxy resin in the joints，balanced cantilever erection either cast in—situ or coupled with precast segmental construction, and incremental launching （Chapter 15)。

道路桥梁毕业设计翻译-中文

利用力平衡法确定预应力混凝土斜拉桥给定设计截面的初始索力摘要在设计预应力混凝土斜拉桥时，确定斜拉索在恒载作用下的初始索力值是一项重要和困难而又影响桥梁总体设计的任务。

本文提出了一种新的方法——利用力平衡思想来确定混凝土斜拉桥的初始索力。

该方法可以很容易地考虑预应力和附加弯矩对于桥梁垂直剖面的影响。

这比传统的零位移法更合理，更简单。

该方法能够得到相应刚性支承连续梁的主梁弯矩。

关键词：预应力混凝土；斜拉桥；初始索力；垂直剖面1. 简介斜拉桥是现代桥梁既经济又审美的形式。

过去的几十年里，它已被广泛地应用在大跨径桥梁的建设。

然而，斜拉桥是高次内部超静定结构，在形状相同的情况下，不同的斜拉索索力可以得到不同的内力状态，因此索力存在多方案性。

在预应力混凝土斜拉桥的特殊情况下，斜拉桥的设计计算首要确定一组合理的初始索力，使成桥时的线形和内力状态最优。

由于收缩和徐变，随着时间的推移，内力的变化也可能会重新分配。

一旦选中不恰当的方案来确定索力，随后很可能出现内力的不利格局，这有可能是因为没有简单的解决方案。

理论上有可能存在获取初始索力的方案，由一组恒载作用下的初始索力所确定的相应主梁和塔的内力和形状在徐变收缩作用下产生较小的内力重分布和随时间变化的位移。

这种初始索力也称为稳定张拉力，其相应的主梁内力基本为刚性支承连续梁的弯矩。

然而，它通常很难在众多因素的影响下观察得到。

例如，许多斜拉桥采用现浇节段悬臂施工法建设，因为不同年龄段的混凝土，产生了复杂的影响混凝土收缩徐变的情况。

纵向预应力的存在也进一步使问题复杂化，总之，不可避免的，必须作出一些简化的假设来帮助我们解决问题。

2. 现有的方法综述将斜拉索用竖向支承条件代替，形成多跨刚性支承连续梁，合理索力可以非常容易地根据连续梁的支承反力转换方向后得到，这个方案被公认为合理而实用。

作为长期使用的桥梁，这个方案合理稳定。

(完整版)桥梁毕业设计外文翻译

外文资料The Tenth East Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and ConstructionAugust 3-5, 2006, Bangkok, ThailandStructural Rehabilitation of Concrete Bridges with CFRPComposites-Practical Details and ApplicationsRiyad S. ABOUTAHA1, and Nuttawat CHUTARAT2 ABSTRACT: Many old existing bridges are still active in the various highway transportation networks, carrying heavier and faster trucks, in all kinds of environments. Water, salt, and wind have caused damage to these old bridges, and scarcity of maintenance funds has aggravated their conditions. One attempt to restore the original condition; and to extend the service life of concrete bridges is by the use of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. There appear to be very limited guides on repair of deteriorated concrete bridges with CFRP composites. In this paper, guidelines for nondestructive evaluation (NDE), nondestructive testing (NDT), and rehabilitation of deteriorated concrete bridges with CFRP composites are presented. The effect of detailing on ductility and behavior of CFRP strengthened concrete bridges are also discussed and presented.KEYWORDS: Concrete deterioration, corrosion of steel, bridge rehabilitation, CFRP composites.1 IntroductionThere are several destructive external environmental factors that limit the service life of bridges. These factors include but not limited to chemical attacks, corrosion of reinforcing steel bars, carbonation of concrete, and chemical reaction of aggregate. If bridges were not well maintained, these factors may lead to a structural deficiency, which reduces the margin of safety, and may result in structural failure. In order to rehabilitate and/or strengthen deteriorated existing bridges, thorough evaluation should be conducted. The purpose of the evaluation is to assess the actual condition of any existing bridge, and generally to examine the remaining strength and load carry capacity of the bridge.1 Associate Professor, Syracuse University, U.S.A.2 Lecturer, Sripatum University, Thailand.One attempt to restore the original condition, and to extend the service life of concrete bridges is by the use of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites.In North America, Europe and Japan, CFRP has been extensively investigated and applied. Several design guides have been developed for strengthening of concrete bridges with CFRP composites. However, there appear to be very limited guides on repair of deteriorated concrete bridges with CFRP composites. This paper presents guidelines for repair of deteriorated concrete bridges, along with proper detailing. Evaluation, nondestructive testing, and rehabilitation of deteriorated concrete bridges with CFRP composites are presented. Successful application of CFRP composites requires good detailing as the forces developed in the CFRP sheets are transferred by bond at the concrete-CFRP interface. The effect of detailing on ductility and behavior of CFRP strengthened concrete bridges will also be discussed and presented.2 Deteriorated Concrete BridgesDurability of bridges is of major concern. Increasing number of bridges are experiencing significant amounts of deterioration prior to reaching their design service life. This premature deterioration considered a problem in terms of the structural integrity and safety of the bridge. In addition, deterioration of a bridge has a considerable magnitude of costs associated with it. In many cases, the root of a deterioration problem is caused by corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete structures. Concrete normally acts to provide a high degree of protection against corrosion of the embedded reinforcement. However, corrosion will result in those cases that typically experience poor concrete quality, inadequate design or construction, and harsh environmental conditions. If not treated a durability problem, e.g. corrosion, may turn into a strength problem leading to a structural deficiency, as shown in Figure1.Figure1 Corrosion of the steel bars is leading to a structural deficiency3 Non-destructive Testing of Deteriorated Concrete Bridge PiersIn order to design a successful retrofit system, the condition of the existing bridge should be thoroughly evaluated. Evaluation of existing bridge elements or systems involves review of the asbuilt drawings, as well as accurate estimate of the condition of the existing bridge, as shown in Figure2. Depending on the purpose of evaluation, non-destructive tests may involve estimation of strength, salt contents, corrosion rates, alkalinity in concrete, etc.Figure2 Visible concrete distress marked on an elevation of a concrete bridge pier Although most of the non-destructive tests do not cause any damage to existing bridges, some NDT may cause minor local damage (e.g. drilled holes & coring) that should be repaired right after the NDT. These tests are also referred to as partial destructive tests but fall under non-destructive testing.In order to select the most appropriate non-destructive test for a particular case, thepurpose of the test should be identified. In general, there are three types of NDT to investigate: (1) strength, (2) other structural properties, and (3) quality and durability. The strength methods may include; compressive test (e.g. core test/rebound hammer/ ultrasonic pulse velocity), surface hardness test (e.g. rebound hammer), penetration test (e.g. Windsor probe), and pullout test (anchor test).Other structural test methods may include; concrete cover thickness (cover-meter), locating rebars (rebar locator), rebar size (some rebar locators/rebar data scan), concrete moisture (acquameter/moisture meter), cracking (visual test/impact echo/ultrasonic pulse velocity), delamination (hammer test/ ultrasonic pulse velocity/impact echo), flaws and internal cracking (ultrasonic pulse velocity/impact echo), dynamic modulus of elasticity (ultrasonic pulse velocity), Possion’s ratio (ultrasonic pulse velocity), thickness of concrete slab or wall (ultrasonic pulse velocity), CFRP debonding (hammer test/infrared thermographic technique), and stain on concrete surface (visual inspection).Quality and durability test methods may include; rebar corrosion rate –field test, chloride profile field test, rebar corrosion analysis, rebar resistivity test, alkali-silica reactivity field test, concrete alkalinity test (carbonation field test), concrete permeability (field test for permeability).4 Non-destructive Evaluation of Deteriorated Concrete Bridge PiersThe process of evaluating the structural condition of an existing concrete bridge consists of collecting information, e.g. drawings and construction & inspection records, analyzing NDT data, and structural analysis of the bridge. The evaluation process can be summarized as follows: (1) Planning for the assessment, (2) Preliminary assessment, which involves examination of available documents, site inspection, materials assessment, and preliminary analysis, (3) Preliminary evaluation, this involves: examination phase, and judgmental phase, and finally (4) the cost-impact study.If the information is insufficient to conduct evaluation to a specific required level, then a detailed evaluation may be conducted following similar steps for the above-mentioned preliminary assessment, but in-depth assessment. Successful analytical evaluation of an existing deteriorated concrete bridge should consider the actual condition of the bridge and level of deterioration of various elements. Factors, e.g. actual concrete strength, level of damage/deterioration, actual size of corroded rebars, loss of bond between steel and concrete, etc. should be modeled into a detailed analysis. If such detailed analysis is difficult to accomplish within a reasonable period of time, thenevaluation by field load testing of the actual bridge in question may be required.5 Bridge Rehabilitation with CFRP CompositesApplication of CFRP composite materials is becoming increasingly attractive to extend the service life of existing concrete bridges. The technology of strengthening existing bridges with externally bonded CFRP composites was developed primarily in Japan (FRP sheets), and Europe (laminates). The use of these materials for strengthening existing concrete bridges started in the 1980s, first as a substitute to bonded steel plates, and then as a substitute for steel jackets for seismic retrofit of bridge columns. CFRP Composite materials are composed of fiber reinforcement bonded together with a resin matrix. The fibers provide the composite with its unique structural properties. The resin matrix supports the fibers, protect them, and transfer the applied load to the fibers through shearing stresses. Most of the commercially available CFRP systems in the construction market consist of uniaxial fibers embedded in a resin matrix, typically epoxy. Carbon fibers have limited ultimate strain, which may limit the deformability of strengthened members. However, under traffic loads, local debonding between FRP sheets and concrete substrate would allow for acceptable level of global deformations before failure.CFRP composites could be used to increase the flexural and shear strength of bridge girders including pier cap beams, as shown in Figure3. In order to increase the ductility of CFRP strengthened concrete girders, the longitudinal CFRP composite sheets used for flexural strengthening should be anchored with transverse/diagonal CFRP anchors to prevent premature delamination of the longitudinal sheets due to localized debonding at the concrete surface-CFRP sheet interface. In order to prevent stress concentration and premature fracture of the CFRP sheets at the corners of concrete members, the corners should be rounded at 50mm (2.0 inch) radius, as shown in Figure3.Deterioration of concrete bridge members due to corrosion of steel bars usually leads in loss of steel section and delamination of concrete cover. As a result, such deterioration may lead to structural deficiency that requires immediate attention. Figure4 shows rehabilitation of structurally deficient concrete bridge pier using CFRP composites.Figure3 Flexural and shear strengthening of concrete bridge pier with FRP compositesFigure4 Rehabilitation of deteriorated concrete bridge pier with CFRP composites6 Summary and ConclusionsEvaluation, non-destructive testing and rehabilitation of deteriorated concrete bridges were presented. Deterioration of concrete bridge components due to corrosion may lead to structural deficiencies, e.g. flexural and/or shear failures. Application of CFRP composite materials is becoming increasingly attractive solution to extend the service life of existing concrete bridges. CFRP composites could be utilized for flexural and shear strengthening, as well as for restoration of deteriorated concrete bridge components. The CFRP composite sheets should be well detailed to prevent stress concentration and premature fracture or delamination. For successful rehabilitation of concrete bridges in corrosive environments, a corrosion protection system should be used along with the CFRP system.第十届东亚太结构工程设计与施工会议2006年8月3-5号，曼谷，泰国碳纤维复合材料修复混凝土桥梁结构的详述及应用Riyad S. ABOUTAHA1, and Nuttawat CHUTARAT2摘要：在各式各样的公路交通网络中，许多现有的古老桥梁，在各种恶劣的环境下，如更重的荷载和更快的车辆等条件下，依然在被使用着。

桥梁工程毕业论文英文

桥梁工程毕业论文英文Title: Analysis and Design of Bridge StructuresAbstract:Bridge engineering is an integral part of civil engineering and plays a crucial role in connecting communities and facilitating transportation. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze and design bridge structures, focusing on key components such as foundations, superstructures, and substructures. The analysis includes evaluating the structural behavior and load carrying capacity through the utilization of various analytical tools. Furthermore, the design phase encompasses selecting suitable materials and designing components to meet safety and durability requirements. The study serves as a comprehensive guide to understanding the principles and processes involved in bridge engineering.1. IntroductionBridges are vital infrastructure that connects people, places, and economies. The study of bridge engineering involves the application of core principles like physics, materials science, and mathematics todesign and construct safe and efficient bridge structures. This thesis aims to provide an overview of the analysis and design principles involved in bridge engineering.2. Structural AnalysisThe analysis of bridge structures is crucial to ensure their safety and functionality. This chapter presents various analytical techniques for evaluating bridge behavior. The use of finite element analysis, structural modeling, and computer-aided design software is discussed in detail. Different load types and load combinations are also considered to determine the resilience and load carrying capacity of the bridge.3. Foundation DesignThe foundation is a critical component of any bridge structure, as it transfers the loads from the superstructure to the underlying ground. This chapter explores various foundation types, such as shallow foundations, deep foundations, and pile foundations. Design considerations, including soil mechanics, bearing capacity, settlement analysis, and groundwater conditions, are discussed. The use ofgeotechnical engineering software to simulate and optimize foundation design is also explored.4. Superstructure DesignThe superstructure refers to the portion of the bridge that supports the traffic loads and transfers them to the substructure. This chapter discusses the different types of superstructures, including beam bridges, truss bridges, and arch bridges. The selection of materials, such as concrete, steel, and composite materials, is analyzed based on their structural properties and cost-effectiveness. The design process incorporates the calculation of load distribution, structural stability, and deflection limits.5. Substructure DesignThe substructure comprises the bridge piers, abutments, and retaining walls, which provide support to the superstructure. This chapter focuses on the design considerations for substructures, including the selection of suitable materials, analysis of load distribution, and evaluation of stability against various forces and environmental conditions. Design principles for reinforced concrete and masonry substructures are explored, along with mitigationstrategies for potential issues such as scour and seismic activity.6. Safety and DurabilityEnsuring safety and durability is of utmost importance in bridge engineering. This chapter discusses the necessary steps for evaluating the safety of bridge structures, including factor of safety calculations, failure mode analysis, and risk assessment procedures. The discussion also includes guidelines for maintenance and inspection to ensure long-term performance and durability.7. ConclusionThis thesis provides an in-depth analysis and design framework for bridge structures. By comprehensively exploring the key components of bridges, including foundations, superstructures, and substructures, it provides valuable insights into the principles and processes involved in bridge engineering. The knowledge gained from this study will contribute to the safe and efficient design and construction of future bridge projects.。

桥梁毕业设计外文原文及翻译

外文文献翻译BRIDGE ENGINEERING AND AESTHETICSEvolvement of bridge Engineering,brief reviewAmong the early documented reviews of construction materials and structure types are the books of Marcus Vitruvios Pollio in the first century B.C.The basic principles of statics were developed by the Greeks , and were exemplified in works and applications by Leonardo da Vinci,Cardeno,and Galileo.In the fifteenth and sixteenth century, engineers seemed to be unaware of this record , and relied solely on experience and tradition for building bridges and aqueducts .The state of the art changed rapidly toward the end of the seventeenth century when Leibnitz, Newton, and Bernoulli introduced mathematical formulations. Published works by Lahire (1695)and Belidor (1792) about the theoretical analysis of structures provided the basis in the field of mechanics of materials .Kuzmanovic(1977) focuses on stone and wood as the first bridge-building materials. Iron was introduced during the transitional period from wood to steel .According to recent records , concrete was used in France as early as 1840 for a bridge 39 feet (12 m) long to span the Garoyne Canal at Grisoles, but reinforced concrete was not introduced in bridge construction until the beginning of this century . Prestressed concrete was first used in 1927.Stone bridges of the arch type (integrated superstructure and substructure) were constructed in Rome and other European cities in the middle ages . These arches were half-circular , with flat arches beginning to dominate bridge work during the Renaissance period. This concept was markedly improved at the end of the eighteenth century and found structurally adequate to accommodate future railroad loads . In terms of analysis and use of materials , stone bridges have not changed much ,but the theoretical treatment was improved by introducing the pressure-line concept in the early 1670s(Lahire, 1695) . The arch theory was documented in model tests where typical failure modes were considered (Frezier,1739).Culmann(1851) introduced the elastic center method for fixed-end arches, and showed that three redundant parameters can be found by the use of three equations of coMPatibility.Wooden trusses were used in bridges during the sixteenth century when Palladio built triangular frames for bridge spans 10 feet long . This effort also focused on the three basic principles og bridge design : convenience(serviceability) ,appearance , and endurance(strength) . several timber truss bridges were constructed in western Europe beginning in the 1750s with spans up to 200 feet (61m) supported on stone substructures .Significant progress was possible in the United States and Russia during the nineteenth century ,prompted by the need to cross major rivers and by an abundance of suitable timber . Favorable economic considerations included initial low cost and fast construction .The transition from wooden bridges to steel types probably did not begin until about 1840 ,although the first documented use of iron in bridges was the chain bridge built in 1734 across the Oder River in Prussia . The first truss completely made of iron was in 1840 in the United States , followed by England in 1845 , Germany in 1853 , and Russia in 1857 . In 1840 , the first iron arch truss bridge was built across the Erie Canal at Utica .The Impetus of AnalysisThe theory of structuresThe theory of structures ,developed mainly in the ninetheenth century,focused on truss analysis, with the first book on bridges written in 1811. The Warren triangular truss was introduced in 1846 ,supplemented by a method for calculating the correcet forces .I-beams fabricated from plates became popular in England and were used in short-span bridges.In 1866, Culmann explained the principles of cantilever truss bridges, and one year later the first cantilever bridge was built across the Main River in Hassfurt, Germany, with a center span of 425 feet (130m) . The first cantilever bridge in the United States was built in 1875 across the Kentucky River.A most impressive railway cantilever bridge in the nineteenth century was the First of Forth bridge , built between 1883 and 1893 , with span magnitudes of 1711 feet (521.5m). At about the same time , structural steel was introduced as a prime material in bridge work , although its quality was often poor . Several early examples are the Eads bridge in St.Louis ; the Brooklyn bridge in New York ; and the Glasgow bridge in Missouri , all completed between 1874 and 1883.Among the analytical and design progress to be mentioned are the contributions of Maxwell , particularly for certain statically indeterminate trusses ; the books by Cremona (1872) on graphical statics; the force method redefined by Mohr; and the works by Clapeyron who introduced the three-moment equations.The Impetus of New MaterialsSince the beginning of the twentieth century , concrete has taken its place as one of the most useful and important structural materials . Because of the coMParative ease with which it can be molded into any desired shape , its structural uses are almost unlimited . Wherever Portland cement and suitable aggregates are available , it can replace other materials for certain types of structures, such as bridge substructure and foundation elements .In addition , the introduction of reinforced concrete in multispan frames at the beginning of this century imposed new analytical requirements . Structures of a high order of redundancy could not be analyzed with the classical methods of the nineteenth century .The importance of joint rotation was already demonstrated by Manderla (1880) and Bendixen (1914) , who developed relationships between joint moments and angular rotations from which the unknown moments can be obtained ,the so called slope-deflection method .More simplifications in frame analysis were made possible by the work of Calisev (1923) , who used successive approximations to reduce the system of equations to one simple expression for each iteration step . This approach was further refined and integrated by Cross (1930) in what is known as the method of moment distribution .One of the most import important recent developments in the area of analytical procedures is the extension of design to cover the elastic-plastic range , also known as load factor or ultimate design. Plastic analysis was introduced with some practical observations by Tresca (1846) ; and was formulated by Saint-Venant (1870) , The concept of plasticity attracted researchers and engineers after World War Ⅰ, mainly in Germany , with the center of activity shifting to England and the United States after World War Ⅱ.The probabilistic approach is a new design concept that is expected to replace the classical deterministic methodology.A main step forward was the 1969 addition of the Federal Highway Adiministration (FHWA)”Criteria for Reinforced Concrete Bridge Members “ that covers strength and serviceability at ultimate design . This was prepared for use in conjunction with the 1969 American Association of State Highway Offficials (AASHO) Standard Specification, and was presented in a format that is readily adaptable to the development of ultimate design specifications .According to this document , the proportioning of reinforced concrete members ( including columns ) may be limited by various stages of behavior : elastic , cracked , andultimate . Design axial loads , or design shears . Structural capacity is the reaction phase , and all calculated modified strength values derived from theoretical strengths are the capacity values , such as moment capacity ,axial load capacity ,or shear capacity .At serviceability states , investigations may also be necessary for deflections , maximum crack width , and fatigue . Bridge TypesA notable bridge type is the suspension bridge , with the first example built in the United States in 1796. Problems of dynamic stability were investigated after the Tacoma bridge collapse , and this work led to significant theoretical contributions Steinman ( 1929 ) summarizes about 250 suspension bridges built throughout the world between 1741 and 1928 .With the introduction of the interstate system and the need to provide structures at grade separations , certain bridge types have taken a strong place in bridge practice. These include concrete superstructures (slab ,T-beams,concrete box girders ), steel beam and plate girders , steel box girders , composite construction , orthotropic plates , segmental construction , curved girders ,and cable-stayed bridges . Prefabricated members are given serious consideration , while interest in box sections remains strong .Bridge Appearance and AestheticsGrimm ( 1975 ) documents the first recorded legislative effort to control the appearance of the built environment . This occurred in 1647 when the Council of New Amsterdam appointed three officials . In 1954 , the Supreme Court of the United States held that it is within the power of the legislature to determine that communities should be attractive as well as healthy , spacious as well as clean , and balanced as well as patrolled . The Environmental Policy Act of 1969 directs all agencies of the federal government to identify and develop methods and procedures to ensure that presently unquantified environmental amentities and values are given appropriate consideration in decision making along with economic and technical aspects .Although in many civil engineering works aesthetics has been practiced almost intuitively , particularly in the past , bridge engineers have not ignored or neglected the aesthetic disciplines .Recent research on the subject appears to lead to a rationalized aesthetic design methodology (Grimm and Preiser , 1976 ) .Work has been done on the aesthetics of color ,light ,texture , shape , and proportions , as well as other perceptual modalities , and this direction is both theoretically and empirically oriented .Aesthetic control mechanisms are commonly integrated into the land-use regulations and design standards . In addition to concern for aesthetics at the state level , federal concern focuses also on the effects of man-constructed environment on human life , with guidelines and criteria directed toward improving quality and appearance in the design process . Good potential for the upgrading of aesthetic quality in bridge superstructures and substructures can be seen in the evaluation structure types aimed at improving overall appearance .LOADS AND LOADING GROUPSThe loads to be considered in the design of substructures and bridge foundations include loads and forces transmitted from the superstructure, and those acting directly on the substructure and foundation .AASHTO loads . Section 3 of AASHTO specifications summarizes the loads and forces to be considered in the design of bridges (superstructure and substructure ) . Briefly , these are dead load ,live load , iMPact or dynamic effect of live load , wind load , and other forces such as longitudinal forces , centrifugal force ,thermal forces , earth pressure , buoyancy , shrinkage andlong term creep , rib shortening , erection stresses , ice and current pressure , collision force , and earthquake stresses .Besides these conventional loads that are generally quantified , AASHTO also recognizes indirect load effects such as friction at expansion bearings and stresses associated with differential settlement of bridge components .The LRFD specifications divide loads into two distinct categories : permanent and transient .Permanent loadsDead Load : this includes the weight DC of all bridge components , appurtenances and utilities, wearing surface DW and future overlays , and earth fill EV. Both AASHTO and LRFD specifications give tables summarizing the unit weights of materials commonly used in bridge work .Transient LoadsVehicular Live Load (LL)Vehicle loading for short-span bridges :considerable effort has been made in the United States and Canada to develop a live load model that can represent the highway loading more realistically than the H or the HS AASHTO models . The current AASHTO model is still the applicable loading.桥梁工程和桥梁美学桥梁工程的发展概况早在公元前1世纪，Marcus Vitrucios Pollio 的著作中就有关于建筑材料和结构类型的记载和评述。

桥梁工程专业毕业设计中英文摘要

桥梁工程专业毕业设计中英文摘要本桥为跨狮狸沟而设，本桥上部结构为二联2-40m+一联3-50mT梁，T梁采用先简支后连续结构。

本桥位于直线上，纵向位于+0.8%上坡段，设计荷载为一级，桥面宽度为净9附2×2.0m人行道，设计洪水频率为1/100，基本地震烈度为Ⅶ级。

墩台方向均按路线方向布置。

桥面采用15cm混凝土铺装，FYT-1防水层，9cm沥青混凝土。

上部结构进行了截面尺寸的拟定，梁桥自重和二期恒载的横载内力计算，活载内力计算，最不利荷载组合等，为下部结构的检算奠定基础。

下部结构采用钢筋混凝土柱式墩，板式空心墩。

基础采用挖孔灌注桩和钻孔灌柱桩。

本设计采用容许应力法对此桥下部结构进行设计并检算。

对基础，承台按刚性承台板进行设计计算，对桩分别按土的阻力和桩身材料强度计算单桩轴向容许承载力，检算外荷载作用下桩身稳定性和材料强度，检算桩的抗裂性。

并对桥墩进行基础沉降和墩顶水平位移检算。

最终的计算结果表明，上述所有各项检算均符合各相关规定要求。

关键词：桥梁下部结构桥墩桩This bridge supposes for the cross lion fox ditch, The bridge structure for the combined 2-40m + a joint 3 - 50m beam，T-beam used in simple and continuous support structure. The bridge is located in straight line, vertical +0.8% at the uphill, Design of a load, the bridge deck width of the net with two 9 ×2.0m sidewalks, design flood frequency of 1 / 100, for the basic seismic intensity Ⅶ level. A pillar direction presses the route direction arrangement. The bridge floor uses the 15cm concrete paving, the FYT-1 waterproof layer, the9cm asphalt concrete.The superstructure carried on section size drawing up, the beam bridge has been self-possessed with two issue of deadloads lateral load endogen force computations, the live load endogen force computation, the most disadvantageous load combination and so on ,examined for the substructure calculated laid the foundation。

桥梁工程毕业设计外文翻译

Review of assessment and repair of fire-damaged RChighway bridgesAbstract：This paper presents a review of the progress of the research and engineering practice of assessment and repair of fire-damaged RC highway bridges，based on which existing and pressing problems of the evaluation method are pointed out．At last，Prospect for the development of assessment and repair of fire-damaged highway bridges is also proposed．Key words：fire damage；assessment；repair techniques；RC structure；bridge 1 PrefaceFires can cause great structural damage to bridges and major disruption to highway operations．These incidents stem primarily from vehicle accident (often oil tanker) fires，bridges might also be damaged by fires in adjacent facilities and from other causes．Quite a few of them，though rarely happened，lead to severe structural damage or collapse and casualty．On June 2，2008，fire disaster broke out under the 18th span of Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge and lasted for approximate 75min．During the fire’s development and extinguishment，the structure experienced the sharp rise and fall in temperature causing severe damage to fire- stricken segments．On April 29，2007，a gasoline tanker overturned on the connector from Interstate 8O to Interstate 880 in California．The intense heat from the subsequent fuel spill and fire weakened the stee1 underbelly of the elevated roadway ,collapsing approximately 165 feet of this elevated roadway onto a section of I—880below．On March 25，2004，Connecticut，United States，a tanker truck carrying fuel swerved to avoid a car and overturned，dumping 8000 gallons of home heating oil onto the Howard Avenue overpass．The consequent towering inferno melted the bridge structure and caused the southbound lanes to sag several feetUndocumented number of bridge fires occurring throughout the world each year cause varying degrees of disruption，repair actions，and maintenance cost．Althoughfires caused damage to the bridge structures ,some bridges continue to function after proper repair and retrofit．Still in some situations they have to be repaired for the cause of traffic pressure even though supposed to be dismantled and reconstructed．However ,in other cases，structures are severely damaged in the fire disaster and fail to function even after repair，or the costs of repair and retrofit overweigh their reconstruction costs overwhelmingly even if they are repairable，under which situation reconstruction serves as a preferable option．Therefore in—situ investigation and necessary tests and analyses should be conducted to make comprehensive assessment of the residual mechanical properties and working statuses after fire and to evaluate the degrees of damage of members and structures , in reference to which decisions are made to determine whether Fire damaged structures should be repaired or dismantled and reconstructed．Urgent need from engineering practice highlighted the necessity to understand the susceptibility and severity of these incidents as wel1 as to review available information on mitigation strategies，damage assessments，and repair techniques.2 Progress in Research and Engineering Practice2.1 Processes of Assessment and Repair of Fire damaged BridgeStructureIn China and most countries in the world，most highway bridges are built in RC structure．And the practice of the assessment and repair techniques of bridge structure after fire directly refer to that of RC structure，which，to date，domestic and foreign scholars have made great amount of research on，with their theories and practices being increasingly mature .As for the assessment and repair of fire-damaged reinforced concrete structures，there are two mainstream assessment processes in world．Countries including United States，United Kingdom and Japan adopt the assessment process stipulated by The British Concrete Society .This process grates the severity of fire damage of concrete structure into four degrees according to thedeflection，damage depth，cracking width, color，and loading capacity variation of fire-damaged structures and adopt four corresponding strategies (including demolish，strengthen after safety measures，strengthen. and strengthen in damaged segments) to deal with them accordingly．In general，this process is a qualitative method and considered，however，not quantity enough.In Chinese Mainland and Taiwan ，the prevailing as assessment and repair process of fire damaged incorporates following steps：In comparison this process is more detailed．(1)Conduct In-situ inspections，measurements，and tests including color observation，concrete observation，degree of rebar exposure observation，cracking measurement，deflection measurement，various destructive and nondestructive test methods as grounds for assessment of fire—damaged structures．In assessment of the post -fire mechanical properties of fire—damaged structures，historical highest temperature and temperature distribution of structure during the fire serve as decisive factors．The common methods to determine them incorporate petrographic analysis，ultrasonic method，Rebound method，Ignition Loss method，core test，and color observation method(2)calculate to determine whether the fire-damaged structure can meet the demand of strength and deflection under working loads after fire using mechanical properties of rebar and concrete before and after fire based on the historical highest and temperature distribution of structures obtained from step one．There are two main methods to evaluate the post -fire performance of fire-damaged structures：FEM method and Revised Classic Method．(3)On the basis of test and calculation results obtained from step two，take corresponding repair strategies and particular methods to strengthen the fire-damaged structures.2．2 Repair TechniquesFor the repair of fire—damaged bridge，proper repair methods should be taken according to the degree and range of the structure’s damage．Meanwhile the safetyand economy of the repair methods should be concerned with by avoiding destructing the original structure，preserving the valuable structural members，and minimizing unnecessary demolishment and reconstruction。

桥梁设计外文翻译文献

桥梁设计外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译) 原文：A Bridge For All CenturiesAn extremely long-and record setting-main span was designed for the second bridge to across the Panama Canal in order to meet the owner’s requirement that no piers be placed in the water.Because no disruption of canal traffic was permitted at any time,the cable-stayed bridge of cast-in-place cancrete was carefully constructed using the balanced-cantilever method.In 1962 ,the Bridge of Americas(Puente de las America) opened to traffic,serving as the only fixed link across the Panama Canal .The bridge was designed to carry 60,000 vehicles per day on four lanes, but it has beenoperating above its capacity for many years.Toalleviate bottlenecks on the route that the bridge carries over the canal-the Pan-AmericanHighway(Inter-American Highway)-and promotegrowth on the western side of Panama,the country’s Ministry of Public Works(Ministerio de Obras Publicas,or MOP )decided to build a new highway systerm linking the northern part of Panama City,on the eastern side of the canal, to the town of Arraijan,located on the western side of the canal.The Centennial Bridge –named to commemorate 100 years of Panamanian independence-has noe been constructed and, when opend, will carry six lanes of traffic. This cable-stayed bridge of cast-in-place cancrete features a main span of 420m,the longest such span for this type of bridge in the Western Hemisphere.In 200 the MOP invited international bridge design firms to compete for the design of the crossing, requesting a two-package proposal:one techinical, the other financial. A total of eight proposals were received by December 2000 from established bridge design firms all over the world. After short-listing three firms on the basis of the technical merits of their proposals, the MOP selected T.Y.Lin International, of San Francisco, to prepare the bridge design and provide field construction support based on the firm’s financial package.The Centennial Bridge desige process was unique and aggressive,incorporating concepts from the traditional design/build/bid method, the design/build method , and the sa-called fast-track design process.To complete the construction on time-that is ,within just 27 months-the design of the bridge was carried out to a level of 30 percent before construction bidding began, in December 2001.The selected contractor-the Wiesbaden,Germany,office of Bilfinger Berger,AG-was brought on board immediately after being selected by the MOP ,just as would be the case in a fast-track approach. The desige of the bridge was then completed in conjunction with construction , a process that id similan to desige/build.The design selected by the client features two single-mast towers,each supporting two sets of stay cables that align in one vertical plane.Concrete was used to construct both the towers and the box girder deck,as well as the approach structures.The MOP , in conjunction with the Panama Canal Authority,established the following requirements for the bridge design :A 420m,the minimum length for the main span to accommodate the recently widened Gaillard Cut,a narrow portion of the canal crossing the Continental Divide that was straightened and widened to 275m in 2002;A navigational envelope consisting of 80m of vertical clearance and 70mof horizontal clearance to accommodate the safe passage of a crane of World War 11 vintage-a gift from the ernment that is used by the Panama Canal Authority to maintain the canal gates and facilities;A roadway wide enough to carry six lanes of traffic, three in each direction;A deck able to accommodate a 1.5m wide pedestrian walkway;A design that would adhere to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official standard for a 100-year service life and offer HS-25 truck loading;A structure that could carry two 0.6m dianeter water lines;A construction method that would not cross the canal at any time or interrupt canal operationa in any way.Because of the bridge’s long main span and the potential for strong seismic activity in the area,no single building code covered all aspects of the project.Therefore the team from T.Y. Lin International determinded which portions of several standard bridge specifications were applicable and which were not.The following design codes were used in developing the design criteria for the bridge，it is standard specifications for highway bridge ,16th ed,1996It was paramount that the towers of the cable-stayed structucture be erected on land to avoid potential ship collision and the need to construct expensive deep foundation in water. However, geological maps and boring logs produced during the preliminary design phrase revealed that the east and west banks of the canal, where the towers were to be located, featured vastly different geologicaland soil conditions. On the east side of the canal, beneath shallow layers of overburden that rangs in consistency from soft to hard, lies a block of basalt ranging from medium hard to hard with very closely spaced joint.The engineers determined that the basalt would provide a competent platform for the construction of shallow foundation for tower, piers, and approach structures on this side of bridge.The west side, however,featured the infamous Cucaracha Formation, which is a heterogeneous conglomerate of clay shale with inclusions of sandstone, basalt,and ash that is prone to landslide. As a sudsurface stratum the Cucaracha Formation is quite stable,but it quickly erodes when exposed to the elements. The engineers determined that deep foundations would therefore be needed for the western approach structure,the west tower,and the western piers.Before a detailed design of the foundationa could be developed,a thorough analysis of the seismic hazards at the site was required,The design seismic load for the project was developed on the basis of a probabilistic seismic hazard assessment that considered the conditions at the site.Such an assessment establishes the return period for a given earthquake and the corresponding intensity of ground shaking in the horizontal directtion in terms of an acceleration response spectrum.The PSHA determined two dominant seismic sources: a subduction source zone associated with the North Panama Deformed Belt capable of producing a seimic event as strong as 7.7MW,and the Rio Gatun Fault, capable of producing an event as strong as 6.5MW.The 7.7MW NPDB event was used as the safety evluation earthquake,that is,the maximum earthquake that could strike without putting the bridge out of service.The damage to the bridge would be minor but would require some closures of the bridge.The 6.5MWRio Gatun Fault event was used as the foundational evaluation earthquake,a lower-level temblor that would cause minimal damage to the bridge and would not require closures.For the FEE load case,the SEE loading was scaled back by two-thirds.The FEE is assumed to have a peak acceleration of 0.21g and a return period of 500 years; the probability that it will be exceeded within 50 years is 10 pencent and within 100 years,18 persent.The SEE is assumed to have a peak acceleration of 1.33g and a return period of 2,500 years;the probability that it will be exceeded within 50 years is 2 pencent and within 100 years,4 persent.Because of uncertainty about the direction from which the seismic waves would approach the site, a single response spectrum-a curve showing the mathematically computed maximum response of a set of simple damped harmonic oscillators of different natural frequencies to a particular earthquake ground acceleration-was used to characterize mitions in two mutually orthogonal directions in the horizontal plane.To conduct a time-history analysis of the bridge’s multiple supports,a set of synthetic motions with three components-longitudinal,transverse,and vertical-was developd using an iterative technique.Recorded ground motions from an earthquake in Chile in 1985 were used as “seed”motions for the sythesis process.A time delay estimate-that is,an estimate of the time it would take for the motions generated by the SEEand FEE earthquakes to travel from one point to the next-was create using the assumed seismic wave velocity and the distance between the piers of the ing an assumed was velocity of approximately 2.5km/s,a delay on the order of half a second to a secondis appropriate for a bridge 1 to 2km long.Soil-foundation interaction studies were performed to determine the stiffness of the soil and foundation as well as the seismic excitation measurement that would be used in the dynamic analyses.The studieswere conducted by means of soil-pile models using linear and nonlinear soil layera of varying depths.The equivalent pile lengths in the studies-that is, the lengths representing the portions of a given pile that would actually be affected by a given earthquake-induced ground motion-ranged from2to10m.In such a three-dimensional model,there are six ways in which the soil can resist the movement of the lpile because of its stiffness:throngh axial force in the three directions and through bending moments in three directions.Because the bridge site contains so many layers of varying soil types,each layer had to be represented by a different stiffness matrix and then analyzed.Once the above analyses were completed,the T.Y.Lin International engineers-taking into consideration the project requirements developedby the owener-evaluated several different concrete cable-stayed designs.A number of structural systems were investigated,the main variables,superstructure cross sections,and the varying support conditions described above.The requirement that the evevation of the deck be quite high strongly influenced the tower configuration.For the proposed deck elevation of more than 80m,the most economical tower shapes included single-and dual-mast towers as well as “goal post”towers-that is,a design in which the two masts would be linked to each other by crossbeams.Ultimately the engineers designd the bridge to be 34.3m wide with a 420mlong cable-stayd main span,two 200mlong side spans-one on each side of the main span-and approach structures at the ends of the side spans.On the east side there is one 46m long concrete approach structure,while on the west side there are three,measuring 60,60,and 66m,for a total bridge length of 1,052m.The side spans are supported by four piers,referred to,from west to east,as P1.P2,P3,and P4.The bridge deck is a continuous single-cell box girder from abutment to abutment; the expansion joints are located at the abutments only. Deck movements on the order of 400 mm are expected at these modular expansion joints Multidirectional pot bearings are used at the piers and at the abutments to accommodate these movements.The deck was fixed to the two towers to facilitate the balanced-cantilevermethod of construction and to provide torsional rigidity and lateral restraint to the deck.. Transverse live loads, seismic loads, and wind loads are proportionally distributed to the towers and the piers by the fixity of the deck to the towers and by reinforced-concrete shear keys located at the top of P1, P3, and P4. The deck is allowed to move longitudinally over the abutments and piers. The longitudinal, seismic, live, and temperature loads are absorbed by what is known as portal frame structural behavior, whereby the towers and the deck form a portal-much like the frame of a door in a building-that acts in proportion to the relative stiffness of the two towers.As previously mentioned, the presence of competent basalt on the east side of the site meant that shallow foundations could be used there; in particular, spread footings were designed for the east tower, the east approach structure, and the east abutment. The west tower, the west approach structure, and the western piers (P2 and P3), however, had to be founded deep within the Cucaracha Formation. A total of 48 cast-in-drilled-hole (CIDH) shafts with 2 m outer diameters and lengths ranging from 25 to 35 m were required. A moment curvature analysis was performed to determine the capacity of the shafts with different amounts of longitudinal steel rebar. The results were plotted against the demands, and on the basis of the results the amount of required longitudinal reinforcing steel was determined to be 1 percent of the amount of concrete used in the shafts. The distribution of the longitudinal reinforcing steel was established by following code requirements, with consideration also given to the limitations of constructing CIDH piles with the contractor’s preferred method, which is the water or slurry displacement method.A minimum amount of transverse steel had to be determined for use in the plastic regions of the shaft-that is, those at the top one-eighth of eighth of each shaft and within the shaft caps, which would absorb the highest seismic demands. Once this amount was determined, it was used as the minimum for areas of the shafts above their points of fixity where large lateral displacements were expected to occur. The locations of the transverse steel were then established by following code requirements and by considering the construction limitations of CIDH piles. The transverse steel was spiral shaped.Even though thief foundation designs differed, the towers themselves were designed to be identical. Each measures 185.5 m from the top of its pile cap and is designed as a hollow reinforced-concrete shaft with a truncated elliptical cross section (see figure opposite). Each tower’s width in plan varies along its height, narrowing uniformly from 9.5 m at the base of the tower to 6 m at the top. In the longitudinal direction, each pylon tapers from 9.5 m at the base to about 8 m right below the deck level,which is about 87 m above the tower base. Above the deck level the tower’s sections vary from 4.6 m just above the deck to 4.5 m at the top. Each tower was designed with a 2 by 4 m opening for pedestrian passage along the deck, a design challenge requiring careful detailing.The towers were designed in a accordance with the latest provisions of the ATC earthquake design manual mentioned previously (ATC-32). Owing to the portal frame action along the bridge’s longitudinal axis, special seismic detailing was implemented in regions with the potential to develop plastic hinges in the event of seismic activity-specifically, just below the deck and above the footing. Special confining forces and alternating open stirrups-with 90 and 135 degree hooks-within the perimeter of the tower shaft.In the transverse direction, the tower behaves like a cantilever, requiring concrete-confining steel at its base. Special attention was needed at the joint between the tower and the deck because of the central-plane stay-cable arrangement, it was necessary to provide sufficient torsional stiffness and special detailing at the pier-to-deck intersection. This intersection is highly congested with vertical reinforcing steel, the closely spaced confining stirrups of the tower shaft, and the deck prestressing and reinforcement.The approach structures on either side of the main span are supported on hollow reinforced-concrete piers that measure 8.28 by 5 m in plan. The design and detailing of the piers are consistent with the latest versions of the ATC and AASHTO specifications for seismic design. Capacity design concepts were applied to the design of the piers. This approach required the use of seismic modeling with moment curvature elements to capture the inelastic behavior of elements during seismic excitation. Pushover analyses of the piers were performed to calculate the displacement capacity of the piers and to compare them with the deformations computed in the seismic time-history analyses. To ensure an adequate ductility of the piers-an essential feature of the capacity design approach-it was necessary to provide adequate concrete-confining steel at those locations within the pier bases where plastic hinges are expected to form.The deck of the cable-stayed main span is composed of single-cell box girders of cast-in-place concrete with internal, inclined steel struts and transverse posttensioned ribs, or stiffening beams, toward the tops. Each box girder segment is 4.5 m deep and 6 m long. To facilitate construction and enhance the bridge’s elegant design, similar sizes were used for the other bridge spans. An integral concrete overlay with a thickness of 350 mm was installed instead of an applied concrete overlayon the deck. In contrast to an applied overlay, the integral overlay was cast along with each segment during the deck erection. Diamond grinding equipment was used to obtain the desired surface profile and required smoothness. The minimum grinding depth was 5 mm.A total of 128 stay cables were used, the largest comprising 83 monostrands. All cables with a length of more than 80 m were equipped at their lower ends with internal hydraulic dampers. Corrosion protection for the monostrands involved galvanization of the wires through hot dipping, a tight high-density polyethylene (HDPE) sheath extruded onto each strand, and a special type of petroleum wax that fills all of the voids between the wires.The stays are spaecd every 6 m and are arranged in a fan pattern.They are designed to be stressed from the tower only and are anchored in line with a continuous stiffening beam at the centerline of the deck.The deck anchorage system is actually a composite steel frame that encapsulates two continous steel plates that anchor the stays and transfer the stay forces in a continuous and repetitive system-via shear studs-throuthout the extent of the cable-supported deck (see figure above).A steel frame was designed to transfer the stays’horizontal forces to the box girders through concrete-embedded longitudinal steel plates and to transfer the boxes’ vertical forces directly through the internal steel struts.This innovative and elegant load transfer system made rapid construction of the concrete deck segments-in cycles of three to five days-possible.In addition to the geotechnical and seismic analyses,several structural analyses were performed to accurately capture the behavior of this complex bridge.For the service-load analysis,which includes live,temperature,and wind loads,the engineers used SAP2000, a computer program created and maintained by Computers &Structrures,Inc.(CSI), of Berkeley, California.This program was selected for its ability to easily model the service loads and to account for tridimensional effects.For correct SAP2000 modeling, it was necessary to define a set of initial stresses on the cables, deck, and tower elements to capture the state of the structure at the end of construction.For the calculation of those initial stresses, a series of iterations on the basic model were performed to obtain the stay forces in the structure that balance both the bridges’s self-weight and the superimposed dead loads. Once the correct cable stiffness and stress distribution were obtained, all subsequent service-load analyses were performed to account for the geometric stiffness and P-deltaeffects, which consider the magnitude of an applied load (P) versus the displacement(delta).The seismic analysis of the structure was conducted using the SADSAP structural analysis program, also a CSI product, based on the differences in seismic motions that will be experienced at the different piers based on their distance from one another.This sophisticated program has the capability to model inelastic behavior in that flexural plastic hinges can readily be simulated.Plastic hinge elements were modeled at varous locations along the structure where the results from a preliminary response spectrum analysis in SAP2000 indicated that inelastic behavior might be expected.The time-history records pertaining to the site were used in conjunction with the SADSAP model to botain a performace-based design of the piers and towers and to verifh the design of several deck stctions.As previously mentioned,the construction contractor was brought on board early in the process;the company’s bid of $93 million was accepted and the project was awarded in March 2002.To guarantee unimpeded canal traffic,the bridge had to be constructed without the use of the canal waters.To accomplish this, the cast-in-place main-pain superstructure was erected using the balanced-cantilever method.Form travelers were used to accomplish this, and they were designed in such a way that they could be used as an integral part of the pier tables’falsework.After assembly on the ground, two 380 Mg form travelers were raised independently into the pier table casting position and connected to each other.After an initial learning period, the contractor was able to achieve a four-day cycle for the casting of the cantilevered deck segments, an achievement that greatly enhanced the ability of the team to construct the project on time.Once the side-span and mai-span closures were cast, the travelers had to be removed from locations adjacent to the towers rather than over water so as to avoid any influence on canal traffic.To save time, the towers approach structure, and piers were built simultaneously.The approach viaducts were designed and built using the span-by-span erection method by means of an underslung suupport truss.The east viaduct span was built first and the support truss was then removed and transferred to the west side so that it could be used to build the three spans of the west viaduct, one span at a time.The bridge construction was completeed in Auguse 2004 at a cost of approximately $2,780 per square meter.Its opening awaits the completion of the rest of the highway it serves.跨越世纪之桥1962年，横跨巴拿马运河的美国大桥作为仅有的固定连接开放交通车。

桥梁设计中英文摘要

摘要本设计的题目是洛阳至三门峡高速公路新汴桥预应力混凝土T型梁桥设计。

本设计采用预应力混凝土T型梁桥，跨径布置为（3×20）m，主梁为等截面截面T型梁。

桥面板横坡度假定为和桥面横坡度相同，本设计假设为平坡。

跨中梁高为1.6m，支点梁高为1.6m，梁间距2m，其中预制梁宽度1.60m，翼缘板中间湿接缝宽度0.4m。

主梁跨中肋厚0.2m，马蹄宽为0.4m，端部腹板厚度加厚到与马蹄同宽，以满足端部锚具布置和局部应力需要。

横隔梁共设置四道，间距6.5m，端横隔梁宽度0.25m，跨中横隔梁宽度0.2m。

桥面铺装设计总厚度17cm，其中水泥混凝土厚度8cm，沥青混凝土厚度9cm，两者之间加设防水层。

本文主要阐述了该桥的设计和计算过程。

首先进行桥型方案比选，对主桥进行总体结构设计，然后对上部结构进行内力、配筋计算，再进行强度、应力及变形验算。

关键词：预应力混凝土；T型梁桥；主梁作用效应；行车道板计算AbstractThis design is about LuoY ang—SanMenxia Prestressed Concrete t-shaped supported beam bridge design.The bridge belongs to the prestressed concreted structuer which is a simple supported beam bridge.The span arrangement is （3×20）m.The superstructure is variable T shaped supported beam bridge.The height of the girder on the support is1.6m,and the height of the middle is 1.3m too,Beam spacing is 2m,width of Precast beam is1.60m,the width of the middle of the wet joint flange 0.4m.The thickness of the main beam under rib is 0.2m. Horseshoe width is 0.4m.This essay focuses on the design and calculation process of the bridge.Firstly,compare and choose a best scheme from several bridge types;and make an overall structure design of the main span.Secondly perform the calculation of the internal force and reinforcing bar on the superstructure.Keywords:Prestressed conctete ;T shaped supported beam bridge;The role of the main beam effect;Lane Slabs calculation。

毕设必备道路桥梁专业毕业设计英文翻译(英文原文+中文翻译)

Accident Analysis and PreventionThis paper describes a project undertaken to establish a self-explaining roads (SER) design programmeon existing streets in an urban area. The methodology focussed on developing a process to identifyfunctional road categories and designs based on endemic road characteristics taken from functionalexemplars in the study area. The study area was divided into two sections, one to receive SER treatments designed to maximise visual differences between road categories, and a matched control area to remainuntreated for purposes of comparison. The SER design for local roads included increased landscaping andcommunity islands to limit forward visibility, and removal of road markings to create a visually distinctroad environment. In comparison, roads categorised as collectors received increased delineation, additionof cycle lanes, and improved amenity for pedestrians. Speed data collected 3 months after implementationshowed a significant reduction in vehicle speeds on local roads and increased homogeneity of speeds onboth local and collector roads. The objective speed data, combined with r esidents’ speed choice ratings,indicated that the project was successful in creating two discriminably different road categories.2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.1. Introduction1.1. BackgroundChanging the visual characteristics of roads to influencedriver behaviour has come to be called the self-explaining roads(SER) approach (Theeuwes, 1998; Theeuwes and Godthelp, 1995;Rothengatter, 1999). Sometimes referred to as sustainable safety,as applied in the Netherlands, the logic behind the approach isthe use of road designs that evoke correct expectations and drivingbehaviours from road users (Wegman et al., 2005; Weller etal., 2008). The SER approach focuses on the three key principlesof functionality, homogeneity, and predictability (van Vliet andSchermers, 2000). In practice, functionality requires the creation ofa few well-defined road categories (e.g., through roads, distributorroads, and access roads) and ensuring that the use of a particularroad matches its intended function. Multifunctional roadslead to contradictory design requirements, confusion in the mindsof drivers, and incorrect expectations and inappropriate drivingbehaviour. Clearly defined road categories promote homogeneity intheir use and prevent large differences in vehicle speed, direction,and mass. Finally, predictability, or recognisability, means keepingthe road design and layout within each category as uniform as possibleand clearly differentiated from other categories so that thefunction of a road is easily recognised and will elicit the correctbehaviour from road users. The SER approach has been pursued tothe largest extent in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom but ithas also been of some interest inNewZealand. In 2004, the NationalRoad Safety Committee and the Ministry of Transport articulateda new National Speed Management Initiative which stated “Theemphas is is not just on speed limit enforcement, it includes perceptualmeasures that influence the speed that a driver feels is appropriatefor the section of road upon which they are driving–in effect the ‘selfexplainingroad”’ (New Zealand Ministry of Transport, 2004).In cognitive psychological terms, the SER approach attempts toimprove road safety via two complementary avenues. The first is toidentify and use road designs that afford desirable driver behaviour.Perceptual properties such as road markings, delineated lane width,and roadside objects can function as affordances that serve as builtininstructions and guide driver behaviour, either implicitly orexplicitly (Charlton, 2007a; Elliott et al., 2003; Weller et al., 2008).This work is more or less a direct development of work on perceptualcountermeasures, perceptual cues in the roading environmentthat imply or suggest a particular speed or lane position, eitherattentionally or perceptually (Charlton, 2004, 2007b; Godley et al.,1999).A second aspect of the SER approach is to establish mentalschemata and scripts, memory representations that will allowroad users to easily categorise the type of road on which they are.1.2. Localised speed managementThe traditional approaches to improving speed management,traffic calming and local area traffic management (LATM) havefocussed on treating specific problem locations or “black spots”in response to crash occurrences or complaints from the public(Ewing, 1999). A potential disadvantage of these approaches is thataddressing the problem with localised treatments can lead to are-emergence of the problem at another location nearby. Further,when applied inappropriately, localised approaches may addressthe problem from only one perspective, without considering theimpact on other types of road users or residents. When traffic calmingtreatments rely on physical obstacles such as speed humpsthey can be very unpopular with bothresidents and road users andcan create new problems associated with noise, maintenance, andvandalism (Martens et al., 1997).From an SER perspective, treatments that are highly localizedor idiosyncratic may do more harm than good by adding to themultiplicity of road categories and driver uncertainty, rather thanbuilding driver expectations around a few uniform road types.Instead of considering a single location in isolation, SER roaddesigns are considered within a hierarchy of road functions; e.g.,access roads, collector roads, and arterial roads. Although SERschemes may employ physical design elements used in trafficcalming schemes (e.g., road narrowing with chicanes and accesscontrols) they also employ a range of more visually oriented featuressuch as median and edge line treatments, road markings,pavement surfaces, and roadside furniture. For an effective SERscheme it is important to select the combination of features that will afford the desired driver speeds and to ensure their consistentuse to form distinct categories of road types (van der Horst andKaptein, 1998; Wegman et al., 2005).road category that would meet the three SER principles of functional use, homogeneous use, and predictable use. Herrstedt (2006)reported on the use of a standardised catalogue of treatments compiledfrom researcher and practitioner advice. Goldenbeld and vanSchagen (2007) used a survey technique to determine road characteristicsthat minimise the difference between drivers’ ratingsof preferred speed and perceived safe speed and select road featuresthat make posted speeds “credible”. Aarts and Davidse (2007)used a driving simulator to verify whether the “essential recognisabilitycharacteristics” of different road classes conformed to theexpectations of road users. Weller et al. (2008) employed a range of statistical techniques, including factor analysis and categoricalclustering to establish the road characteristics that drivers use tocategorise different road types.The practical difficulties of implementing an SER system thusbecome a matter of finding answers to a series of questions. Howdoes one create a discriminable road hierarchy for an existingroad network? What road characteristics should be manipulatedto establish category-defining road features? How can SER roadfeatures and selection methods be made relevant and appropriatefor a local context? (Roaddesigns appropriate for The Netherlandswould not be suitable in New Zealand, in spite of its name.) A surveyof national and international expert opinion in order establishcategory-defining road features for New Zealand roads revealedthat the regional character and local topography of roads oftenundercut the usefulness of any standardised catalogue of designcharacteristics (Charlton and Baas, 2006).1.4. Goals of the present projectThe project described in this paper sought to develop anddemonstrate an SER process based on retrofitting existing roadsto establish a clear multi-level road hierarchy with appropriatedesign speeds, ensuring that each level in the hierarchy possesseda different “look and feel”. Rather than transferring SER designs already in use internationally, the project attempted to develop amethod that would build on the features of roads in the local area;extending road characteristics with desirable affordances to otherroads lacking them and creating discriminable road categories inthe process. Of interest was whether such a process could producecost-effective designs and whether those designs would be effectivein creating different road user expectations and distinct speedprofiles for roads of different categories.2. MethodsThe research methodology/SER design process developed forthis project progressed through a series of five stages: (1) selectionof study area; (2) identification of the road hierarchy; (3) analysisof the road features; (4) development of a design template; and (5)implementation and evaluation of the SER treatments. Each of thestages is described in the sections that follow.2.1. Selection of study areaThe study area for this project (Pt England/Glen Innes in Auckland)was selected in consultation with a project steering groupcomprised of representatives from the Ministry of Transport, NewZealand Transport Agency, New Zealand Police, and other localtransport and urban agencies. The study area was an establishedneighbourhood contained amix of private residences, small shops,schools, and churches, and was selected, in part, because of its historyof cyclist, pedestrian and loss of controlcrashes, almost twicethe number。

斜拉桥桥梁毕业设计

斜拉桥桥梁毕业设计斜拉桥桥梁毕业设计随着城市化的快速发展，交通建设成为了现代社会不可或缺的一部分。

而桥梁作为连接两岸的重要交通枢纽，其设计与建造更是需要精心策划和施工。

其中，斜拉桥作为一种独特的桥梁形式，因其美观、经济、高效的特点而备受青睐。

在我的桥梁毕业设计中，我选择了斜拉桥作为研究对象，旨在探索其设计与建造的相关问题。

首先，我将从斜拉桥的历史背景入手。

斜拉桥的概念最早可以追溯到古代中国的古绳桥，而现代斜拉桥的设计则始于20世纪50年代。

斜拉桥通过拉索将桥面悬挑于两岸，使得桥梁的跨度得以扩大，大大提高了交通能力。

在毕业设计中，我将研究不同历史时期的斜拉桥设计案例，分析其结构特点和建造技术，以便更好地理解斜拉桥的演变过程。

其次，我将深入研究斜拉桥的结构设计。

斜拉桥的结构设计是整个毕业设计的核心内容，它直接关系到桥梁的安全性和稳定性。

在设计过程中，我将运用有限元分析和结构优化等方法，对斜拉桥的各个构件进行力学计算和参数优化。

同时，我还将考虑桥梁的地质条件、气候条件等因素，以确保斜拉桥在各种复杂环境下都能够正常运行。

此外，斜拉桥的建造技术也是我研究的重点之一。

斜拉桥的建造需要高超的技术和精密的工艺，其中包括桥梁的吊装、拉索的张拉、锚固等步骤。

在毕业设计中，我将详细研究斜拉桥的建造工艺，探索不同材料和技术的应用，以提高斜拉桥的建造效率和质量。

除了结构设计和建造技术，我还将考虑斜拉桥的经济性和环保性。

斜拉桥的设计和建造需要耗费大量的资金和资源，因此在毕业设计中，我将分析斜拉桥的经济成本和投资回报，探讨如何在保证质量的前提下降低建造成本。

同时，我还将研究斜拉桥的环保性能，通过使用可再生材料和节能技术，减少斜拉桥对环境的影响。

最后，我将通过实地调研和案例分析，对斜拉桥的实际应用进行评估。

斜拉桥作为一种新型的桥梁形式，其实际运行情况和效果需要经过实际验证。

在毕业设计中，我将选择一座实际存在的斜拉桥进行调研，分析其运行情况和效果，并对其进行评估和改进。

毕业设计外文原文加译文

Basic Concepts PrimerTOPIC P.1: Bridge MechanicsBasic Equations of Bridge Mechanicswhere: A =area; cross-sectional areaA w = areaof web c = distance from neutral axisto extreme fiber (or surface) of beamE = modulus of elasticityF = force; axial force f a= axial stress f b= bending stress f v = shear stress I = moment of inertia L = original length M = applied moment S = stressV = vertical shear force due toexternal loadsD L = change in length e = strainBasic Concepts Primer Topic P.1 Bridge MechanicsP.1.1Introduction Mechanics is the branch of physical science that deals with energy and forces andtheir relation to the equilibrium, deformation, or motion of bodies. The bridgeinspector will primarily be concerned with statics, or the branch of mechanicsdealing with solid bodies at rest and with forces in equilibrium.The two most important reasons for a bridge inspector to study bridge mechanicsare:Ø To understand how bridge members functionØ To recognize the impact a defect may have on the load-carrying capacityof a bridge component or elementWhile this section presents the basic principles of bridge mechanics, the referenceslisted in the bibliography should be referred to for a more complete presentation ofthis subject.P.1.2Bridge Design Loadings Bridge design loadings are loads that a bridge is designed to carry or resist and which determine the size and configuration of its members. Bridge members are designed to withstand the loads acting on them in a safe and economical manner. Loads may be concentrated or distributed depending on the way in which they are applied to the structure.A concentrated load, or point load, is applied at a single location or over a very small area. Vehicle loads are considered concentrated loads.A distributed load is applied to all or part of the member, and the amount of load per unit of length is generally constant. The weight of superstructures, bridge decks, wearing surfaces, and bridge parapets produce distributed loads. Secondary loads, such as wind, stream flow, earth cover and ice, are also usually distributed loads.Highway bridge design loads are established by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). For many decades, the primary bridge design code in the United States was the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges (Specifications), as supplemented by agency criteria as applicable.During the 1990’s AASHTO developed and approved a new bridge design code, entitled AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. It is based upon the principles of Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), as described in Topic P.1.7.P.1.1SECTION P: Basic Concepts PrimerTopic P.1: Bridge MechanicsP.1.2Bridge design loadings can be divided into three principal categories:Ø Dead loadsØ Primary live loads Ø Secondary loadsDead LoadsDead loads do not change as a function of time and are considered full-time, permanent loads acting on the structure. They consist of the weight of the materials used to build the bridge (see Figure P.1.1). Dead load includes both the self-weight of structural members and other permanent external loads. They can be broken down into two groups, initial and superimposed.Initial dead loads are loads which are applied before the concrete deck is hardened, including the beam itself and the concrete deck. Initial deck loads must be resisted by the non-composite action of the beam alone. Superimposed dead loads are loads which are applied after the concrete deck has hardened (on a composite bridge), including parapets and any anticipated future deck pavement. Superimposed dead loads are resisted by the beam and the concrete deck acting compositely. Non-composite and composite action are described in Topic P.1.10.Dead load includes both the self-weight of the structural members and other permanent external loads.Example of self-weight: A 6.1 m (20-foot) long beam weighs 0.73 kN per m (50 pounds per linear foot). The total weight of the beam is 4.45 kN (1000 pounds). This weight is called the self-weight of the beam.Example of an external dead load: If a utility such as a water line is permanently attached to the beam in the previous example, then the weight of the water line is an external dead load. The weight of the water line plus the self weight of the beam comprises the total dead load.Total dead load on a structure may change during the life of the bridge due to additions such as deck overlays, parapets, utility lines, and inspection catwalks.Figure P.1.1 Dead Load on a BridgePrimary Live LoadsLive loads are considered part-time or temporary loads, mostly of short-term duration, acting on the structure. In bridge applications, the primary live loads are moving vehicular loads (see Figure P.1.2).To account for the affects of speed, vibration, and momentum, highway live loads are typically increased for impact. Impact is expressed as a fraction of the liveSECTION P: Basic Concepts PrimerTopic P.1: Bridge MechanicsP.1.3load, and its value is a function of the span length.Standard vehicle live loads have been established by AASHTO for use in bridge design and rating. It is important to note that these standard vehicles do not represent actual vehicles. Rather, they were developed to allow a relatively simple method of analysis based on an approximation of the actual live load.Figure P.1.2 Vehicle Live Load on a BridgeAASHTO Truck LoadingsThere are two basic types of standard truck loadings described in the current AASHTO Specifications . The first type is a single unit vehicle with two axles spaced at 14 feet (4.3 m) and designated as a highway truck or "H" truck (see Figure P.1.3). The weight of the front axle is 20% of the gross vehicle weight, while the weight of the rear axle is 80% of the gross vehicle weight. The "H" designation is followed by the gross tonnage of the particular design vehicle.Example of an H truck loading: H20-35 indicates a 20 ton vehicle with a front axle weighing 4 tons, a rear axle weighing 16 tons, and the two axles spaced 14 feet apart. This standard truck loading was first published in 1935.The second type of standard truck loading is a two unit, three axle vehicle comprised of a highway tractor with a semi-trailer. It is designated as a highway semi-trailer truck or "HS" truck (see Figure P.1.4).The tractor weight and wheel spacing is identical to the H truck loading. The semi-trailer axle weight is equal to the weight of the rear tractor axle, and its spacing from the rear tractor axle can vary from 4.3 to 9.1 m (14 to 30 feet). The "HS" designation is followed by a number indicating the gross weight in tons of the tractor only.SECTION P: Basic Concepts PrimerTopic P.1: Bridge MechanicsP.1.414’-0”(4.3 m)8,000 lbs (35 kN) 32,000 lbs (145 kN)(3.0 m)10’-0”CLEARANCE AND LOAD LANE WIDTH6’-0” (1.8 m)2’-0” (0.6 m)Figure P.1.3 AASHTO H20 Truck14’-0”(4.3 m)8,000 lbs (35 kN) 32,000 lbs (145 kN)(3.0 m)10’-0”CLEARANCE AND LOAD LANE WIDTH6’-0”(1.8 m)2’-0” (0.6 m)32,000 lbs (145 kN)VFigure P.1.4 AASHTO HS20 TruckExample of an HS truck loading: HS20-44 indicates a vehicle with a front tractor axle weighing 4 tons, a rear tractor axle weighing 16 tons, and a semi-trailer axle weighing 16 tons. The tractor portion alone weighs 20 tons, but the gross vehicle weight is 36 tons. This standard truck loading was first published in 1944.In specifications prior to 1944, a standard loading of H15 was used. In 1944, theSECTION P: Basic Concepts Primer Topic P.1: Bridge MechanicsP.1.5H20-44 Loading HS20-44 Loadingpolicy of affixing the publication year of design loadings was adopted. In specifications prior to 1965, the HS20-44 loading was designated as H20-S16-44, with the S16 identifying the gross axle weight of the semi-trailer in tons.The H and HS vehicles do not represent actual vehicles, but can be considered as "umbrella" loads. The wheel spacings, weight distributions, and clearance of the Standard Design Vehicles were developed to give a simpler method of analysis, based on a good approximation of actual live loads.The H and HS vehicle loads are the most common loadings for design, analysis, and rating, but other loading types are used in special cases.AASHTO Lane LoadingsIn addition to the standard truck loadings, a system of equivalent lane loadings was developed in order to provide a simple method of calculating bridge response to a series, or “train”, of trucks. Lane loading consists of a uniform load per linear foot of traffic lane combined with a concentrated load located on the span to produce the most critical situation (see Figure P.1.5).For design and load capacity rating analysis, an investigation of both a truck loading and a lane loading must be made to determine which produces the greatest stress for each particular member. Lane loading will generally govern over truck loading for longer spans. Both the H and HS loadings have corresponding lane loads.* Use two concentrated loads for negative moment in continuous spans (Refer to AASHTO Page 23)Figure P.1.5 AASHTO Lane Loadings.Alternate Military LoadingThe Alternate Military Loading is a single unit vehicle with two axles spaced at 1.2 m (4 feet) and weighing 110 kN (12 tons)each. It has been part of the AASHTO Specifications since 1977. Bridges on interstate highways or other highways which are potential defense routes are designed for either an HS20 loading or an Alternate Military Loading (see Figure P.1.6).SECTION P: Basic Concepts PrimerTopic P.1: Bridge MechanicsP.1.6110 kN (24 k)110 kN (24 k)Figure P.1.6 Alternate Military LoadingLRFD Live LoadsThe AASHTO LRFD design vehicular live load, designated HL-93, is a modified version of the HS-20 highway loadings from the AASHTO StandardSpecifications. Under HS-20 loading as described earlier, the truck or lane load is applied to each loaded lane. Under HL-93 loading, the design truck or tandem, in combination with the lane load, is applied to each loaded lane.The LRFD design truck is exactly the same as the AASHTO HS-20 design truck. The LRFD design tandem, on the other hand, consists of a pair of 110 kN axials spread at 1.2 m (25 kip axles spaced 4 feet) apart. The transverse wheel spacing of all of the trucks is 6 feet.The magnitude of the HL-93 lane load is equal to that of the HS-20 lane load. The lane load is 9 kN per meter (0.64 kips per linear foot) longitudinally and it is distributed uniformly over a 3 m (10 foot) width in the transverse direction. The difference between the HL-93 lane load and the HS-20 lane load is that the HL-93 lane load does not include a point load.Finally, for LRFD live loading, the dynamic load allowance, or impact, is applied to the design truck or tandem but is not applied to the design lane load. It is typically 33 percent of the design vehicle.Permit VehiclesPermit vehicles are overweight vehicles which, in order to travel a state’s highways, must apply for a permit from that state. They are usually heavy trucks (e.g., combination trucks, construction vehicles,or cranes) that have varying axle spacings depending upon the design of the individual truck. To ensure that these vehicles can safely operate on existing highways and bridges, most states require that bridges be designed for a permit vehicle or that the bridge be checked to determine if it can carry a specific type of vehicle. For safe and legal operation, agencies issue permits upon request that identify the required gross weight, number of axles, axle spacing, and maximum axle weights for a designated route (see Figure P.1.7).SECTION P: Basic Concepts PrimerTopic P.1: Bridge MechanicsP.1.7Figure P.1.7 910 kN (204 kip) Permit Vehicle (for Pennsylvania)Secondary LoadsIn addition to dead loads and primary live loads, bridge components are designed to resist secondary loads, which include the following:Ø Earth pressure - a horizontal force acting on earth-retaining substructureunits, such as abutments and retaining wallsØ Buoyancy -the force created due to the tendency of an object to rise whensubmerged in waterØ Wind load on structure - wind pressure on the exposed area of a bridge Ø Wind load on live load -wind effects transferred through the live loadvehicles crossing the bridgeØ Longitudinal force -a force in the direction of the bridge caused bybraking and accelerating of live load vehiclesØ Centrifugal force -an outward force that a live load vehicle exerts on acurved bridgeØ Rib shortening -a force in arches and frames created by a change in thegeometrical configuration due to dead loadØ Shrinkage - applied primarily to concrete structures, this is a multi-directional force due to dimensional changes resulting from the curing processØ Temperature -since materials expand as temperature increases andcontract as temperature decreases, the force caused by these dimensional changes must be consideredØ Earthquake -bridge structures must be built so that motion during anearthquake will not cause a collapseØ Stream flow pressure -a horizontal force acting on bridge componentsconstructed in flowing waterØ Ice pressure - a horizontal force created by static or floating ice jammedagainst bridge componentsØ Impact loading - the dynamic effect of suddenly receiving a live load;this additional force can be up to 30% of the applied primary live load forceØ Sidewalk loading - sidewalk floors and their immediate supports aredesigned for a pedestrian live load not exceeding 4.1 kN per square meter (85 pounds per square foot)Ø Curb loading -curbs are designed to resist a lateral force of not less than7.3 kN per linear meter (500 pounds per linear foot)Ø Railing loading -railings are provided along the edges of structures forprotection of traffic and pedestrians; the maximum transverse load appliedto any one element need not exceed 44.5 kN (10 kips)SECTION P: Basic Concepts PrimerTopic P.1: Bridge MechanicsP.1.8A bridge may be subjected to several of these loads simultaneously. The AASHTO Specifications have established a table of loading groups. For each group, a set of loads is considered with a coefficient to be applied for each particular load. The coefficients used were developed based on the probability of various loads acting simultaneously.P.1.3Material Response to LoadingsEach member of a bridge has a unique purpose and function, which directly affects the selection of material, shape, and size for that member. Certain terms are used to describe the response of a bridge material to loads. A working knowledge of these terms is essential for the bridge inspector.ForceA force is the action that one body exerts on another body. Force has two components: magnitude and direction (see Figure P.1.8). The basic English unit of force is called pound (abbreviated as lb.). The basic metric unit of force is called Newton (N). A common unit of force used among engineers is a kip (K), which is 1000 pounds. In the metric system, the kilonewton (kN), which is 1000 Newtons, is used. Note: 1 kip = 4.4 kilonewton.FyFigure P.1.8 Basic Force ComponentsStressStress is a basic unit of measure used to denote the intensity of an internal force. When a force is applied to a material, an internal stress is developed. Stress is defined as a force per unit of cross-sectional area.The basic English unit of stress is pounds per square inch (abbreviated as psi). However, stress can also be expressed in kips per square inch (ksi) or in any other units of force per unit area. The basic metric unit of stress is Newton per square meter, or Pascal (Pa). An allowable unit stress is generally established for a given material. Note: 1 ksi = 6.9 Pa.)A (Area )F (Force )S (Stress =毕业设计外文译文桥梁力学基本概论《美国桥梁检测手册》译文：桥梁结构的基础方程S=F/A(见1.8节)fa=P/A(见1.14节)ε=△L/L(见1.9节)fb=Mc/I(见1.16节)E=S/ε(见1.11节)fv=V/Aw（见1.18节）桥梁额定承载率=（允许荷载–固定荷载）*车辆总重量/车辆活荷载冲击力式中：A=面积；横截面面积Aw=腹板面积c=中性轴与横梁边缘纤维或外表面之间的距离E=弹性模量F=轴心力；轴向力fa=轴向应力fb=弯曲应力fv=剪切应力I=惯性距L=原长M=作用力距S=应力V=由外荷载引起的垂直剪应力△L=长度变量ε=应变1桥梁主要的基本概论第一章桥梁力学1.1引言结构力学是研究物体的能量、力、能量和力的平衡关系、变形及运动的物理科学的分支。

关于斜拉桥的中英文翻译

关于斜拉桥的中英文翻译Study on nonlinear analysis of a highly redundantcable-stayed bridge1．AbstractA comparison on nonlinear analysis of a highly redundant cable-stayed bridge is performed in the study. The initial shapes including geometry and prestress distribution of the bridge are determined by using a two-loop iteration method, i.e., an equilibrium iteration loop and a shape iteration loop. For the initial shape analysis a linear and a nonlinear computation procedure are set up. In the former all nonlinearities of cable-stayed bridges are disregarded, and the shape iteration is carried out without considering equilibrium. In the latter all nonlinearities of the bridges are taken into consideration and both the equilibrium and the shape iteration are carried out. Based on the convergent initial shapes determined by the different procedures, the natural frequencies and vibration modes are then examined in details. Numerical results show that a convergent initial shape can be found rapidly by the two-loop iteration method, a reasonable initial shape can be determined by using the linear computation procedure, and a lot of computation efforts can thus be saved. There are only small differences in geometry and prestress distribution between the results determined by linear and nonlinear computation procedures. However, for the analysis of natural frequency and vibration modes, significant differences in the fundamental frequencies and vibration modes will occur, and the nonlinearities of the cable-stayed bridge response appear only in the modes determined on basis of the initial shape found by the nonlinear computation.2. IntroductionRapid progress in the analysis and construction of cable-stayed bridges has been made over the last three decades. The progress is mainly due to developments in the fields of computer technology, high strength steel cables, orthotropic steel decks and construction technology. Since the first modern cable-stayed bridge was built in Sweden in 1955, their popularity has rapidly been increasing all over the world. Because of its aesthetic appeal, economic grounds and ease of erection, the cable-stayed bridge is considered as the most suitable construction type for spans ranging from 200 to about 1000 m. The world’s longest cable-stayed bridge today is the Tatara bridge across the Seto Inland Sea, linking the main islands Honshu and Shikoku in Japan. The Tatara cable-stayed bridge was opened in 1 May, 1999 and has a center span of 890m and a total length of 1480m. A cable-stayed bridge consists of three principal components, namely girders, towers and inclined cable stays. The girder is supported elastically at points along its length by inclined cable stays so that the girder can span a much longer distance without intermediate piers. The dead load and traffic load on the girders are transmitted to the towers by inclined cables. High tensile forces exist in cable-stays which induce high compression forces in towers and part of girders. The sources of nonlinearity in cable-stayedbridges mainly include the cable sag, beam-column and large deflection effects. Since high pretension force exists in inclined cables before live loads are applied, the initial geometry and the prestress of cable-stayed bridges depend on each other. They cannot be specified independently as for conventional steel or reinforced concrete bridges. Therefore the initial shape has to be determined correctly prior to analyzing the bridge. Only based on the correct initial shape a correct deflection and vibration analysis can be achieved. The purpose of this paper is to present a comparison on the nonlinear analysis of a highly redundant stiff cable-stayed bridge, in which the initial shape of the bridge will be determined iteratively by using both linear and nonlinear computation procedures. Based on the initial shapes evaluated, the vibration frequencies and modes of the bridge are examined.3. System equations3.1. General system equationWhen only nonlinearities in stiffness are taken into account, and the system mass and damping matrices are considered as constant, the general system equation of a finite element model of structures in nonlinear dynamics can be derived from the Lagrange’s virtual work principle and written as follows:K j bαj-∑S j a jα= Mαβqβ”+ Dαβqβ’3.2. Linearized system equationIn order to incrementally solve the large deflection problem, the linearized system equations has to be derived. By taking the first order terms of the Taylor’s expansion of the general system equation, the linearized equation for a small time (or load) interval is obtained as follows:MαβΔqβ”+ΔDαβqβ’ +2KαβΔqβ=Δpα- u pα3.3. Linearized system equation in staticsIn nonlinear statics, the linearized system equation becomes2KαβΔqβ=Δpα- u pα4. Nonlinear analysis4.1. Initial shape analysisThe initial shape of a cable-stayed bridge provides the geometric configuration as well as the prestress distribution of the bridge under action of dead loads of girders and towers and under pretension force in inclined cable stays. The relations for the equilibrium conditions, the specified boundary conditions, and the requirements of architectural design should be satisfied. For shape finding computations, only the dead load of girders and towers is taken into account, and the dead load of cables is neglected, but cable sag nonlinearity is included. The computation for shape finding is performed by using thetwo-loop iteration method, i.e., equilibrium iteration and shape iteration loop. This can start with an arbitrary small tension force in inclined cables. Based on a reference configuration (the architectural designed form), having no deflection and zero prestress in girders and towers, the equilibrium position of thecable-stayed bridges under dead load is first determined iteratively (equilibrium iteration). Although this first determined configuration satisfies the equilibriumconditions and the boundary conditions, the requirements of architectural design are, in general, not fulfilled. Since the bridge span is large and no pretension forces exist in inclined cables, quite large deflections and very large bending moments may appear in the girders and towers. Another iteration then has to be carried out in order to reduce the deflection and to smooth the bending moments in the girder and finally to find the correct initial shape. Such an iterationprocedure is named here the ‘shape iteration ’. For shape iteration, the element axial forces determined in the previous step will be taken as initial element forces for the next iteration, and a new equilibrium configuration under the action of dead load and such initial forces will be determined again. During shapeiteration, several control points (nodes intersected by the girder and the cable) will be chosen for checking the convergence tolerance. In each shape iteration the ratio of the vertical displacement at control points to the main span length will be checked, i.e.,ε<|spanm ain points control at nt displaceme vertical | The shape iteration will be repeated until the convergence tolerance ε, say 10-4, is achieved. When the convergence tolerance is reached, the computation will stop and the initial shape of the cable-stayed bridges is found. Numerical experiments show that the iteration converges monotonously and that all three nonlinearities have less influence on the final geometry of the initial shape. Only the cable sag effect is significant for cable forces determined in the initial shape analysis, and the beam-column and large deflection effects become insignificant.The initial analysis can be performed in two different ways: a linear and a nonlinear computation procedure. 1. Linear computation procedure: To find the equilibrium configuration of the bridge, all nonlinearities of cable stayed bridges are neglected and only the linear elastic cable, beam-column elements and linear constant coordinate transformation coefficients are used. The shape iteration is carried out without considering the equilibrium iteration. A reasonableconvergent initial shape is found, and a lot of computation efforts can be saved.2. Nonlinear computation procedure: All nonlinearities of cable-stayedbridges are taken into consideration during the whole computation process. The nonlinear cable element with sag effect and the beam-column element including stability coefficients and nonlinear coordinate transformation coefficients are used. Both the shape iteration and the equilibrium iteration are carried out in the nonlinear computation. Newton –Raphson method is utilized here for equilibrium iteration.4.2. Static deflection analysisBased on the determined initial shape, the nonlinear static deflectionanalysis of cable-stayed bridges under live load can be performed incrementwise or iterationwise. It is well known that the load increment method leads to large numerical errors. The iteration method would be preferred for the nonlinear computation and a desired convergence tolerance can be achieved. Newton –Raphson iteration procedure is employed. For nonlinear analysis of large or complex structural systems, a ‘full’iteration procedure (iteration performed for a single full load step) will often fail. An increment–iteration procedure is highly recommended, in which the load will be incremented, and the iteration will be carried out in each load step. The static deflection analysis of the cable stayed bridge will start from the initial shape determined by the shape finding procedure using a linear or nonlinear computation. The algorithm of the static deflection analysis of cable-stayed bridges is summarized in Section 4.4.2.4.3. Linearized vibration analysisWhen a structural system is stiff enough and the external excitation is not too intensive, the system may vibrate with small amplitude around a certain nonlinear static state, where the change of the nonlinear static state induced by the vibration is very small and negligible. Such vibration with small amplitude around a certain nonlinear static state is termed linearized vibration. The linearized vibration is different from the linear vibration, where the system vibrates with small amplitude around a linear static state. The nonlinear static state qαa can be statically determined by nonlinear deflection analysis. After determining qαa , the system matrices may be established with respect to such a nonlinear static state, and the linearized system equation has the form as follows: MαβA qβ”+ DαβA qβ’+ 2KαβA qβ=pα(t)- TαAwhere the superscript ‘A’denotes the quantity calculated at the nonlinear static state qαa . This equation represents a set of linear ordinary differential equations of second order with constant coefficient matrices MαβA, DαβA and2KαβA. The equation can be solved by the modal superposition method, the integral transformation methods or the direct integration methods.When damping effect and load terms are neglected, the system equation becomesMαβA qβ” + 2KαβA qβ=0This equation represents the natural vibrations of an undamped system based on the nonlinear static state qαa The natural vibration frequencies and modes can be obtained from the above equation by using eigensolution procedures, e.g., subspace iteration methods. For the cable-stayed bridge, its initial shape is the nonlinear static state qαa . When the cable-stayed bridge vibrates with small amplitude based on the initial shape, the natural frequencies and modes can be found by solving the above equation.4.4. Computation algorithms of cable-stayed bridge analysisThe algorithms for shape finding computation, static deflection analysis and vibration analysis of cable-stayed bridges are briefly summarized in the following.4.4.1. Initial shape analysis1. Input of the geometric and physical data of the bridge.2. Input of the dead load of girders and towers and suitably estimated initial forces in cable stays.3. Find equilibrium position(i) Linear procedure•Linear cable and beam-column stiffness elements are used.•Linear constant coordinate transformation coefficients a jαare used. •Establish the linear system stiffness matrix Kαβby assembling element stiffness matrices.•Solve the linear system equation for qα(equilibrium position).•No equilibrium iteration is carried out.(ii) Nonlinear procedure•Nonlinear cables with sag effect and beam-column elements are used. •Nonlinear coordinate transformation coeffi- cients a jα; a jα，βare used. •Establish the tangent system stiffness matrix 2Kαβ.•Solve the incremental system equation for △qα.•Equilibrium iteration is performed by using the Newton–Raphson method.4. Shape iteration5. Output of the initial shape including geometric shape and element forces.6. For linear static deflection analysis, only linear stiff-ness elements and transformation coefficients are used and no equilibrium iteration is carried out.4.4.3. Vibration analysis1. Input of the geometric and physical data of the bridge.2. Input of the initial shape data including initial geometry and initial element forces.3. Set up the linearized system equation of free vibrations based on the initial shape.4. Find vibration frequencies and modes by sub-space iteration methods, such as the Rutishauser Method.5. Estimation of the trial initial cable forcesIn the recent study of Wang and Lin, the shape finding of small cable-stayed bridges has been performed by using arbitrary small or large trial initial cable forces. There the iteration converges monotonously, and the convergent solutions have similar results, if different trial values of initial cable forces are used. However for large cable-stayed bridges, shape finding computations become more difficult to converge. In nonlinear analysis, the Newton-type iterative computation can converge, only when the estimated values of the solution is locate in the neighborhood of the true values. Difficulties in convergence may appear, when the shape finding analysis of cable-stayed bridges is started by use of arbitrary small initial cable forces suggested in the papers of Wang et al. Therefore, to estimate a suitable trial initial cable forces in order to get a convergent solution becomes important for the shape finding analysis. In the following, several methods to estimate trial initial cable forces will be discussed.5.1. Balance of vertical loads5.2. Zero moment control5.3. Zero displacement control5.4. Concept of cable equivalent modulus ratio5.5. Consideration of the unsymmetryIf the estimated initial cable forces are determined independently for eachcable stay by the methods mentioned above, there may exist unbalanced horizontal forces on the tower in unsymmetric cable-stayed bridges. Forsymmetric arrangements of the cable-stays on the central (main) span and the side span with respect to the tower, the resultant of the horizontal components of the cable-stays acting on the tower is zero, i.e., no unbalanced horizontal forces exist on the tower. For unsymmetric cable-stayed bridges, in which the arrangement of cable-stays on the central (main) span and the side span is unsymmetric, and if the forces of cable stays on the central span and the side span are determined independently, evidently unbalanced horizontal forces will exist on the tower and will induce large bending moments and deflections therein. Therefore, for unsymmetric cable-stayed bridges, this problem can be overcome as follows. The force of cable stays on the central (main) span T i m can be determined by the methods mentioned above independently, where the superscript m denotes the main span, the subscript I denotes the ith cable stay. Then the force of cable stays on the side span is found by taking the equilibrium of horizontal force components at the node on the tower attached with the cable stays, i.e., T i m cosαi= T i s cosβi, and T i s = T i m cosαi/ cosβi, where αi is the angle between the ith cable stay and the girder on the main span, andβi, angle between the ith cable stay and the girder on the side span.6. ExamplesIn this study, two different types of small cable-stayed bridges are taken from literature, and their initial shapes will be determined by the previously described shape finding method using linear and nonlinear procedures. Finally, a highly redundant stiff cable-stayed bridge will be examined. A convergence tolerance e =10-4 is used for both the equilibrium iteration and the shape iteration. The maximum number of iteration cycles is set as 20. The computation is considered as not convergent, if the number of the iteration cycles exceeds 20.The initial shapes of the following two small cable stayed bridges in Sections 6.1 and 6.2 are first determined by using arbitrary trial initial cable forces. The iteration converges monotonously in these two examples. Their convergent initial shapes can be obtained easily without difficulties. There are only small differences between the initial shapes determined by the linear and the nonlinear computation. Convergent solutions offer similar results, and they are independent of the trial initial cable forces.7. ConclusionThe two-loop iteration with linear and nonlinear computation is established for finding the initial shapes of cable-stayed bridges. This method can achieve the architecturally designed form having uniform prestress distribution, and satisfies all equilibrium and boundary conditions. The determination of the initial shape is the most important work in the analysis of cable-stayed bridges. Only with a correct initial shape, a meaningful and accurate deflection and/or vibration analysis can be achieved. Based on numerical experiments in the study, some conclusions are summarized as follows:(1). No great difficulties appear in convergence of the shape finding of smallcable-stayed bridges, where arbitrary initial trial cable forces can be used to start the computation. However for large scale cable-stayed bridges, serious difficulties occurred in convergence of iterations.(2). Difficulties often occur in convergence of the shape finding computation of large cable-stayed bridge, when trial initial cable forces are given by the methods of balance of vertical loads, zero moment control and zero displacement control.(3). A converged initial shape can be found rapidly by the two-loop iteration method, if the cable stress corresponding to about 80% of E eq=E value is used for the trial initial force of each cable stay in the main span, and the trial force of the cables in side spans is determined by taking horizontal equilibrium of the cable forces acting on the tower.(4). There are only small differences in geometry and prestress distributionforces. The iteration converges monotonously in these two examples. Their convergent initial shapes can be obtained easily without difficulties. There are only small differences between the initial shapes determined by the linear and the nonlinear computation. Convergent solutions offer similar results, and they are independent of the trial initial cable forces.7. ConclusionThe two-loop iteration with linear and nonlinear computation is established for finding the initial shapes of cable-stayed bridges. This method can achieve the architecturally designed form having uniform prestress distribution, and satisfies all equilibrium and boundary conditions. The determination of the initial shape is the most important work in the analysis of cable-stayed bridges. Only with a correct initial shape, a meaningful and accurate deflection and/or vibration analysis can be achieved. Based on numerical experiments in the study, some conclusions are summarized as follows:(1). No great difficulties appear in convergence of the shape finding of small cable-stayed bridges, where arbitrary initial trial cable forces can be used to start the computation. However for large scale cable-stayed bridges, serious difficulties occurred in convergence of iterations.(2). Difficulties often occur in convergence of the shape finding computation of large cable-stayed bridge, when trial initial cable forces are given by the methods of balance of vertical loads, zero moment control and zero displacement control.(3). A converged initial shape can be found rapidly by the two-loop iteration method, if the cable stress corresponding to about 80% of E eq=E value is used for the trial initial force of each cable stay in the main span, and the trial force of the cables in side spans is determined by taking horizontal equilibrium of the cable forces acting on the tower.(4). There are only small differences in geometry and prestress distribution between the results of initial shapes determined by linear and nonlinear procedures.(5). The shape finding using linear computation offers a reasonable initial shape and saves a lot of computation efforts, so that it is highly recommended from the point of view of engineering practices.(6). In small cable-stayed bridges, there are only small difference in the natural frequencies based on initial shapes determined by linear and nonlinear computation procedures, and the mode shapes are the same in both cases. (7). Significant differences in the fundamental frequency and in the mode shapes of highly redundant stiff cable stayed bridges is shown in the study. Only the vibration modes determined by the initial shape based on nonlinear procedures exhibit the nonlinear cable sag and beam-column effects ofcable-stayed bridges, e.g., the first and third modes of the bridge are dominated by the transversal motion of the tower, not of the girder. The difference of the fundamental frequency in both cases is about 12%. Hence a correct analysis of vibration frequencies and modes of cable-stayed bridges can be obtained only when the ‘correct’initial shape is determined by nonlinear computation, not by the linear computation.高度超静定斜拉桥的非线性分析研究1.摘要一个拉索高度超静定的斜拉桥的非线性分析比较在研究中被实行。

桥梁中英文摘要

6×25m预应力混凝土简支T型梁桥设计专业：土木工程学号：200810211221学生：朱亮指导教师：廖玉凤摘要：本设计上部结构为钢筋混凝土简支T型梁桥，标准跨径为25m×6，采用重力式桥墩和桥台。

桥梁全长为150m，桥面总宽10m，桥面纵坡为0.0%，横坡为1.5%；桥垮轴线为直线，设计荷载标准为：公路-Ⅱ级。

本文主要阐述了该桥设计和计算过程，首先对主桥进行总体结构设计，然后对上部结构进行内力、配筋计算，再进行强度，应力及变形验算，最后进行下部结构设计和结构验算。

同时，也给出了各部分内容相关的表格与图纸。

通过这次设计不但了解设计桥梁的各个步骤，而且也能熟练的运用AUTOCAD进行制图。

关键词：现浇混凝土 T形简支桥梁结构设计验算强度]6×25m Prestressed Concrete Simple SupportedT-beam Bridge DesignSpecialty: Civil Engineering Student Number: 200810211221Student: zhu liang Supervisor: Liao YufengAbstract：The design for the upper structure of reinforced concrete beam T-shape bridge, standard span for 25 meters x 6, adopt the piers and gravity type abutment. Bridge deck 150m, stretches for total wide ZongPo 0.0%, 10m bridge deck, at the center of the slope for rice, 1.5%; Bridge collapse, design load for linear axis for: highway - Ⅱstandard, This paper mainly expounds the bridge design and calculation process, first makes an overall structure design of bridge, then to the upper structure force, reinforcement calculation, again, stress and deformation strength, then check the structure design and structure checking. At the same time, also gives the relevant sections of the form and drawings. This design not only understand each step of designing the bridge, but also can skilled use AUTOCAD for drawing.Key words：cast-in-situ concrete simply-supported t-shaped bridge structure design checking intensity。

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摘要
XX大桥主孔斜拉桥是一座公铁两用的斜拉桥，跨度为504米。

是国内首座上层为六车道公路桥面，下层为四线铁路的斜拉桥。

本文以该斜拉桥为工程背景。

首先采用SAP90程序，建立全桥三维有限元模型，考虑了主桁、主塔和斜拉索的关系。

三片桁架通过横梁联系，将混凝土桥面板、钢桥面板按恒载考虑。

进行恒活载计算时，将横纵梁、桥面板、道碴、道碴槽、汽车活载、列车活载等转化为集中力施加到桁架节点上。

并以刚度控制为标准确定斜拉索初张力。

在恒活载内力分析中，上层公路桥面用弹性支撑连续梁法，下层铁路桥面用杠杆法计算横向分布系数，从而确定中桁为最不利桁架。

结构计算以跨中和支座处的断面为控制断面，绘出控制杆件的轴力影响线，利用影响线加活载并求内力。

按照公路规范进行内力组合，对控制杆件进行强度、刚度和疲劳强度的检算。

最后进行结构性能评定。

关键词：斜拉桥，钢桁梁，初张力，内力分析，结构验算
ABSTRACT
The main span of Tianxingzhou Bridge is a Cable-stayed Bridge in Wuhan, which is used for highway and railway. The main span is 504m．It is the first bridge that its up layer can hold 6 lanes of highway, and it’s down layer is used for 4 track railway in our country．The thesis takes this Cable-stayed Bridge for engineering background．First, three dimensional finite element model is set up using SAP90 program．Consider revising the connection of primary truss, main tower and cables，regarding concrete deck and steel deck as dead load．The three trusses are integrated through cross beams. In the process of load calculating, the gravity of cross beams, girders, deck, ballast, ballast trough are transformed into concentrated force which compel on the joints of trusses．Moreover, according to the stiffness norm, the initial prestress are added to the cables．
In the process of internal force analysis, the middle truss is determined as the most dangerous truss through calculating cross subsection factor. The up layer adopts the method of continuous beams on elastic support，and the down layer use heaver method．Next, definite the most dangerous section, the influence line of the most dangerous member is made , and calculate the internal force．According to the highway bridge standard and railway, combine internal force．Check the strength, rigidity and fatigue initiation of the control member．Last, the structural performance is evaluated．
Key words: Cable-stayed Bridge, steel truss girder, initial prestress, internal force analysis, structural check。