论文英文翻译
论文 英文文翻译
Guidance Notes for completing application formPart 1 Personal InformationEligibility to work at the British CouncilWe are only able to accept applications from individuals who have the right to work in the country to which they have applied.Personal InformationThe British Council’s normal retirement age is 65. If you are over this age, or within 6 months of it, at the time you apply to join us, in line with the Equality (Age) Regulations 2006, we will consider your application but reserve the right to reject it if we consider that we would be unlikely to derive sufficient benefit from your appointment in the period before your retirement.Criminal Convictions (UK)Subject to certain exempted occupations, convictions that are ‘spent’ under the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974 need not be mentioned. Please be aware that declaring a conviction will not automatically disqualify you from being employed unless this post is subject to a Criminal Records Bureau Check.If the post is subject to a Criminal Records Bureau Check, British Council is committed to safeguarding and promoting the welfare of children and young people and expects all of its partners to share this commitment. Appointment to these roles are subject to enhanced Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) checks in the UK, and, where appropriate, equivalent systems overseas.Data ProtectionThe British Council will use the information you provide in this form to process your application. If your application is successful and you take up employment with the British Council, this form will be kept on your personnel file and some details from it will be held electronically by Human Resources in line with the Data Protection Act (1998). If your application is unsuccessful, this form willbe kept on file for one year after completion of the recruitment exercise and then securely destroyed.The British Council will treat all personal details in accordance with UK law and its own privacy policy. Under Data Protection law you have the right to ask for a copy of the information we hold on you, for which we may charge a fee, and the right to ask us to correct any inaccuracies in that information. If you do want more information about this please contact your local British Council office or the Data Protection Team dataprotection@. Part 2 Job-Related InformationDisabilityThe UK Disability Discrimination Act 1995 defines a person with a disability as someone who has a physical or mental impairment (including a learning or sensory impairment) that has a substantial and long term adverse effect on his/her ability to carry out normal day to day activities. In any country, it is British Council policy to interview all applicants who are disabled and who meet the essential criteria for an advertised job.Employment and professional informationPlease give details of your employment for the last 10 years, or since leaving full-time education if this is sooner, starting with the most recent employment. Account for all your time, including voluntary work or other periods away from work. Please be aware that it will not prejudice your application if you disclose a period of ill health or a period out of formal employment (e.g. time spent at home bringing up children).Other relevant experiencePlease note that this does not need to be limited to work experience. It can include experience of volunteering or of roles held within the community e.g. youth worker, community worker or leader etc..。
毕业论文英文参考文献与译文
Inventory managementInventory ControlOn the so-called "inventory control", many people will interpret it as a "storage management", which is actually a big distortion.The traditional narrow view, mainly for warehouse inventory control of materials for inventory, data processing, storage, distribution, etc., through the implementation of anti-corrosion, temperature and humidity control means, to make the custody of the physical inventory to maintain optimum purposes. This is just a form of inventory control, or can be defined as the physical inventory control. How, then, from a broad perspective to understand inventory control? Inventory control should be related to the company's financial and operational objectives, in particular operating cash flow by optimizing the entire demand and supply chain management processes (DSCM), a reasonable set of ERP control strategy, and supported by appropriate information processing tools, tools to achieved in ensuring the timely delivery of the premise, as far as possible to reduce inventory levels, reducing inventory and obsolescence, the risk of devaluation. In this sense, the physical inventory control to achieve financial goals is just a means to control the entire inventory or just a necessary part; from the perspective of organizational functions, physical inventory control, warehouse management is mainly the responsibility of The broad inventory control is the demand and supply chain management, and the whole company's responsibility.Why until now many people's understanding of inventory control, limited physical inventory control? The following two reasons can not be ignored:First, our enterprises do not attach importance to inventory control. Especially those who benefit relatively good business, as long as there is money on the few people to consider the problem of inventory turnover. Inventory control is simply interpreted as warehouse management, unless the time to spend money, it may have been to see the inventory problem, and see the results are often very simple procurement to buy more, or did not do warehouse departments .Second, ERP misleading. Invoicing software is simple audacity to call it ERP, companies on their so-called ERP can reduce the number of inventory, inventory control, seems to rely on their small software can get. Even as SAP, BAAN ERP world, the field ofthese big boys, but also their simple modules inside the warehouse management functionality is defined as "inventory management" or "inventory control." This makes the already not quite understand what our inventory control, but not sure what is inventory control.In fact, from the perspective of broadly understood, inventory control, shouldinclude the following:First, the fundamental purpose of inventory control. We know that the so-called world-class manufacturing, two key assessment indicators (KPI) is, customer satisfaction and inventory turns, inventory turns and this is actually the fundamental objective of inventory control.Second, inventory control means. Increase inventory turns, relying solely on the so-called physical inventory control is not enough, it should be the demand and supply chain management process flow of this large output, and this big warehouse management processes in addition to including this link, the more important The section also includes: forecasting and order processing, production planning and control, materials planning and purchasing control, inventory planning and forecasting in itself, as well as finished products, raw materials, distribution and delivery of the strategy, and even customs management processes.And with the demand and supply chain management processes throughout the process, it is the information flow and capital flow management. In other words, inventory itself is across the entire demand and supply management processes in all aspects of inventory control in order to achieve the fundamental purpose, it must control all aspects of inventory, rather than just manage the physical inventory at hand.Third, inventory control, organizational structure and assessment.Since inventory control is the demand and supply chain management processes, output, inventory control to achieve the fundamental purpose of this process must be compatible with a rational organizational structure. Until now, we can see that many companies have only one purchasing department, purchasing department following pipe warehouse. This is far short of inventory control requirements. From the demand and supply chain management process analysis, we know that purchasing and warehouse management is the executive arm of the typical, and inventory control should focus on prevention, the executive branch is very difficult to "prevent inventory" for the simple reason that they assessment indicatorsin large part to ensure supply (production, customer). How the actual situation, a reasonable demand and supply chain management processes, and thus set the corresponding rational organizational structure and is a question many of our enterprisesto exploreThe role of inventory controlInventory management is an important part of business management. In the production and operation activities, inventory management must ensure that both the production plant for raw materials, spare parts demand, but also directly affect the purchasing, sales of share, sales activities. To make an inventory of corporate liquidity, accelerate cash flow, the security of supply under the premise of minimizing Yaku funds, directly affects the operational efficiency. Ensure the production and operation needs of the premise, so keep inventories at a reasonable level; dynamic inventory control, timely, appropriate proposed order to avoid over storage or out of stock; reduce inventory footprint, lower total cost of inventory; control stock funds used to accelerate cash flow.Problems arising from excessive inventory: increased warehouse space andinventory storage costs, thereby increasing product costs; take a lot of liquidity, resultingin sluggish capital, not only increased the burden of payment of interest, etc., would affect the time value of money and opportunity income; finished products and raw materials caused by physical loss and intangible losses; a large number of enterprise resource idle, affecting their rational allocation and optimization; cover the production, operation of the whole process of the various contradictions and problems, is not conducive to improve the management level.Inventory is too small the resulting problems: service levels caused a decline in the profit impact of marketing and corporate reputation; production system caused by inadequate supply of raw materials or other materials, affecting the normal production process; to shorten lead times, increase the number of orders, so order (production) costs; affect the balance of production and assembly of complete sets.NotesInventory management should particularly consider the following two questions:First, according to sales plans, according to the planned production of the goods circulated in the market, we should consider where, how much storage.Second, starting from the level of service and economic benefits to determine howto ensure inventories and supplementary questions.The two problems with the inventory in the logistics process functions.In general, the inventory function:(1)to prevent interrupted. Received orders to shorten the delivery of goods fromthe time in order to ensure quality service, at the same time to prevent out of stock.(2)to ensure proper inventory levels, saving inventory costs.(3)to reduce logistics costs. Supplement with the appropriate time interval compatible with the reasonable demand of the cargo in order to reduce logistics costs, eliminate or avoid sales fluctuations.(4)ensure the production planning, smooth to eliminate or avoid sales fluctuations.(5)display function.(6)reserve. Mass storage when the price falls, reduce losses, to respond to disasters and other contingencies.About the warehouse (inventory) on what the question, we must consider the number and location. If the distribution center, it should be possible according to customer needs, set at an appropriate place; if it is stored in central places to minimize the complementary principle to the distribution centers, there is no place certain requirements. When the stock base is established, will have to take into account are stored in various locations in what commodities.库存管理库存控制在谈到所谓“库存控制”的时候，很多人将其理解为“仓储管理”，这实际上是个很大的曲解。
毕业论文摘要英文翻译
毕业论文摘要英文翻译Abstract:This paper examines the effects of exercise on mental health and well-being. As individuals continue to face increasing levels of stress and anxiety, it is important to explore alternative methods of managing and improving mental well-being. Exercise has been widely recognized as a potential solution, and numerous studies have investigated the relationship between physical activity and mental health. This research aims to synthesize and evaluate existing literature to determine the impact of exercise on mental health outcomes. The study also investigates the mechanisms through which exercise influences mental well-being.The literature review confirms the positive relationship between exercise and mental health. Regular physical activity has been shown to reduce symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Furthermore, exercise is associated with improved cognitive function and increased self-esteem. Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the beneficial effects of exercise, including the release of endorphins, increased blood flow to the brain, and social interaction.Despite the evidence supporting the positive effects of exercise on mental health, barriers exist that prevent individuals from engaging in regular physical activity. These barriers include lack of time, motivation, and access to exercise facilities. Strategies to overcome these barriers are discussed, such as incorporating exercise intodaily routines, setting realistic goals, and utilizing community resources.In conclusion, exercise has a significant positive impact on mental health and well-being. This research highlights the importance of integrating physical activity into daily life, especially in the face of increasing levels of stress and anxiety. The findings of this study provide valuable insights for individuals, healthcare providers, and policymakers. By promoting the benefits of exercise and addressing the barriers to physical activity, society can strive towards improved mental well-being for all.。
论文的英文翻译
论文的英文翻译Translation of the paper:Title: [Title of the paper]Abstract:The abstract provides a summary of the paper's main points, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions.1. Introduction:This section introduces the research topic, provides background information, and clearly states the research objectives. It also includes a brief literature review to highlight the relevance of the study and identify any research gaps.2. Methodology:The methodology section explains the research design, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used. It also discusses any limitations or assumptions made during the research process.3. Results:This section presents the findings of the study, including any quantitative or qualitative data collected. The results are organized in a logical and clear manner, with appropriate tables, figures, or graphs to support the findings.4. Discussion:The discussion section interprets the results, compares them toprevious research, and provides explanations for any unexpected findings. It also explores the implications and applications of the research, highlighting its contribution to the field.5. Conclusion:The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study, restates the research objectives, and offers final thoughts on the topic. It may also suggest areas for future research or provide recommendations for practitioners.6. References:This section lists all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, etc.). The references should be organized alphabetically and provide all the necessary details for readers to locate the source.Appendix:If necessary, an appendix section can be included to provide additional information that supports the main text but is not essential to the understanding of the paper. This may include raw data, lengthy tables, questionnaires, or supplementary material.。
论文翻译成英文
论文翻译成英文The Translation of the PaperWith the development of the world and rapid advancement of science and technology, the importance of communication among different countries has become increasingly prominent. This has led to a surge in demand for translation services, making translation an essential and indispensable profession.Translation is the act of conveying the meaning of a text from one language to another. It involves not only the transfer of the words, but also the ability to accurately capture the cultural nuances and context of the original text. A skilled translator must have a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as a broad knowledge of various subject areas.The translation process can be divided into several stages. First, the translator needs to carefully read and comprehend the source text to fully grasp its meaning. Then, they must accurately transfer the message, while considering the characteristics and conventions of the target language. Next, the translator needs to revise and edit the translation to ensure accuracy and clarity. Finally, the completed translation should undergo rigorous proofreading to eliminate any errors or omissions.Translation plays a crucial role in numerous fields. In the business world, accurate translation of documents such as contracts, proposals, and marketing materials is essential for successful international transactions and collaborations. In the academic field, translation allows for the exchange and dissemination ofknowledge among researchers from different countries, enabling cross-cultural understanding and cooperation. In the legal field, translation of legal documents ensures that individuals from different linguistic backgrounds have equal access to justice. In the entertainment industry, translation allows for the enjoyment of foreign films, TV shows, and literature.However, translation is not as simple as replacing words from one language with their equivalents in another. Translators often face linguistic and cultural challenges that require them to make difficult decisions. They need to find equivalent expressions, idiomatic phrases, and appropriate terminology that reflect the intended meaning and cultural connotations of the original text. Additionally, the translator needs to be aware of the target audience and adapt the translation accordingly, ensuring that it is easily understood and culturally appropriate.Advancements in technology have greatly impacted the translation profession. Computer-assisted translation tools, such as translation memory software, have made the translation process more efficient and consistent. Machine translation, although still in its early stages, has shown potential for aiding human translators by providing initial drafts that can be refined. However, human translators are still irreplaceable due to their ability to understand the subtleties of language and capture the essence of a text.In conclusion, translation is a complex and multifaceted profession that plays a crucial role in facilitating communication and understanding among different cultures. It requires not only linguistic proficiency, but also cultural awareness and subjectknowledge. As the world continues to grow more interconnected, the demand for skilled translators will only continue to rise, making translation an essential skill in an increasingly globalized world.。
英语议论文经典范文3篇(带翻译)
英语议论文经典范文3篇（带翻译）有很多的同学在写英语作文的时候，也会写一些经典的议论文，小编整理了相关范文，希望会对大家有所帮助！英语作文范文带中文翻译Manyyearsago,themovieabouttheyouthbecameverypopular,everyyear,wecanseeman yhotmoviesabouttheprotagonist’spassedyouth.Peopleliketorecalltheirpassedyouth, whichmakessuchmoviessellgood.ButIfindthecommonthingsaboutthesemovies,alltheprotagonists’youthareaboutfighting,loveandothernegativethings.Iunderstandthedirectors’intention,theywanttotellpeopleyouthisnotperfectandhavingpities.Ofcourse movieisexaggerating,therealyouthisaboutstudying,atleast,mostpeoplehaveworkedso hardtogetintotheiridealcolleges.Whatthemoviesdescribemakeupsomepeople’syouth,forwhichtheydon’thavethechancetoexperience.Weshouldnotbemisledbythesemovies,fortheteenagers,theirjobistostudy,sothattheycanhaveabrightfuture.【翻译】很多年以前，关于青春的电影很受欢迎，此后每年，我们都可以看到很多热门电影是关于主人公逝去的青春。
论文英文摘要翻译
论文英文摘要翻译AbstractThe rapid development of technology has greatly affected various industries, including the education sector. E-learning, as a form of remote education, has gained popularity in recent years. This paper aims to investigate the impact of e-learning on students' learning outcomes and motivation.To achieve this objective, a literature review was conducted to identify the relevant research on e-learning and its effects. The findings show that e-learning has positive effects on students' learning outcomes, such as increased knowledge acquisition and self-directed learning skills. E-learning provides a flexible learning environment, allowing students to access educational resources anytime and anywhere. This convenience enhances students' motivation and engagement in learning activities.However, the effectiveness of e-learning depends on various factors. The quality of the e-learning platform and instructional design plays a crucial role in engaging students and promoting effective learning. In addition, the role of teachers in facilitating e-learning is also important. Teachers' guidance and support are essential in helping students navigate the online learning platform and clarify any doubts.Moreover, the digital divide is a significant challenge in implementing e-learning. Not all students have access to reliable internet connection and necessary technological devices. Therefore, it is crucial to bridge the digital divide to ensure equalopportunities in e-learning.Furthermore, challenges such as limited social interaction and a lack of personalized feedback in e-learning need to be addressed. Efforts should be made to incorporate interactive features and provide timely feedback to promote effective learning and address students' individual needs.In conclusion, e-learning has the potential to positively impact students' learning outcomes and motivation. However, it is crucial to address challenges related to technological infrastructure, instructional design, and teacher support to maximize the benefits of e-learning. Future research should focus on exploring effective strategies for integrating e-learning into traditional educational settings to create a blended learning approach.Keywords: e-learning, learning outcomes, motivation, instructional design, teacher support。
论文英文翻译
论文英文翻译Essay 1 - College EducationIn recent years, college education has become a topic of great debate. Some people argue that a college degree is essential for success in today's society, while others believe that it is not necessary. This essay will argue that college education is indeed important and beneficial for several reasons.Firstly, obtaining a college degree can provide individuals with better career opportunities. In today's competitive job market, employers often prioritize candidates with a higher education background. College graduates are more likely to find stable employment and earn higher salaries compared to those without a degree. Furthermore, many professions require specific knowledge and skills that can only be acquired through a college education. For example, doctors, engineers, and lawyers must complete several years of study in order to obtain the necessary qualifications for their respective fields.Secondly, college education can help individuals develop important life skills. During their time at college, students are exposed to a variety of subjects and experiences, which enable them to develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills. College also provides opportunities for students to engage in extracurricular activities and interact with a diverse group of individuals. This fosters social and cultural awareness, as well as teamwork and leadership skills. These skills are valuable not only in the workplace but also in everyday life.Moreover, college education promotes personal growth and lifelong learning. The college environment encourages students to explore new ideas, challenge their assumptions, and discover their passions. It provides a platform for intellectual development and self-discovery. Students are exposed to a wide range of subjects, perspectives, and cultures, which broadens their knowledge and worldview. College education also instills a sense of curiosity and a desire for continuous learning, which are essential qualities in today's rapidly changing world.In conclusion, college education is important and beneficial for several reasons. It provides better career opportunities, helps individuals develop important life skills, and promotes personal growth and lifelong learning. While it is true that college education may not be necessary for everyone, obtaining a degree can significantly enhance one's chances of success in both personal and professional aspects of life.。
毕业论文英文翻译
毕业论文英文翻译Title: The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment Abstract:This paper explores the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on employment. The rise of AI technologies has sparked concerns about its potential to replace human jobs. Through an analysis of existing literature and case studies, this study investigates the ways in which AI has affected various industries and job sectors. The findings indicate that while AI has the potential to automate certain tasks and reduce the need for human intervention, it also creates new job opportunities and contributes to economic growth. Additionally, the study highlights the importance of retraining and upskilling workers to adapt to the changing job market. Overall, this research contributes to a better understanding of the complex relationship between AI and employment and provides insights into proactive strategies to address the challenges posed by AI. Introduction:Artificial intelligence has emerged as a powerful technology with the potential to transform various aspects of society, including the workforce. The rapid advancement of AI has raised concerns about potential job losses and increased automation. This study aims to explore the impact of AI on employment and identify strategies to mitigate negative effects. By examining existing literature and case studies, this research provides a comprehensive analysis of AI's influence on different industries and job sectors.Literature Review:The literature offers a wide range of perspectives on the impact ofAI on employment. Some studies suggest that AI will lead to significant job losses in sectors such as manufacturing, transportation, and customer service. They argue that AI technologies, such as autonomous vehicles and chatbots, can perform tasks previously done by humans more efficiently and at a lower cost. On the other hand, other studies argue that AI will create new job opportunities and enhance productivity. For example, the healthcare sector benefits from AI technologies by improving diagnosis accuracy and streamlining administrative processes.Case Studies:This study includes several case studies that examine the impact of AI on specific industries. The manufacturing industry, for instance, has experienced both job losses and job creation due to the introduction of AI. While certain tasks have been automated, new roles related to AI maintenance and programming have emerged. Similarly, the retail industry has witnessed the integration of AI technologies, leading to job displacement in traditional retail jobs but also the creation of new positions in data analysis and online customer support.Mitigation Strategies:To address the challenges posed by AI, strategies should focus on retraining and upskilling the workforce to adapt to the changing job market. Governments and organizations should encourage workers to acquire in-demand skills such as data analysis and AI programming. Additionally, collaboration between academia and industry is crucial to ensure that education and training programs remain relevant and effective. Finally, policies that support jobtransition and income support for displaced workers will help minimize the negative impact of AI on employment. Conclusion:The impact of artificial intelligence on employment is a complex and multifaceted issue. While concerns about job losses are valid, it is important to recognize that AI also creates new job opportunities and contributes to economic growth. By implementing proactive strategies, such as retraining and upskilling, societies can better navigate the changes brought about by AI and ensure a future where humans and machines can coexist harmoniously.。
减速器论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献
减速器论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献What is a Gearbox?A XXX.1.The n of a Gearbox1) The gearbox ces the speed while increasing the output torque。
The torque output。
is the motor output multiplied by the n。
but it should not exceed the XXX.2) The gearbox also ces the inertia of the load。
which decreases by the square of the n。
Most motors have an inertia value that can be XXX.2.Types of GearboxesCommon gearboxes include bevel gear cers (including parallel-axis bevel gear cers。
worm gear cers。
and cone gear cers)。
ary gear cers。
cycloid cers。
worm gear cers。
XXX.mon Gearboxes1) The main feature of the worm gear cer is its reverse self-locking n。
which can achieve a large n。
The input and output shafts are not on the same axis or in the same plane。
However。
it generally has a large volume。
low n efficiency。
and low n.2) XXX and power。
It has a small size and high n。
毕业论文的英文翻译
毕业论文的英文翻译Title: The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Modern Society Abstract:Artificial intelligence (AI) is a rapidly advancing field that has made significant contributions to various aspects of modern society. This paper aims to explore the impact of AI on society, including its benefits, challenges, and ethical considerations. The research methodology includes a comprehensive review of relevant literature and analysis of case studies.1. Introduction:Artificial intelligence refers to the simulation of human intelligence by computer systems. Advances in AI have led to the development of technologies such as machine learning, natural language processing, and computer vision. These technologies have found applications in diverse sectors, ranging from healthcare and finance to transportation and entertainment.2. Benefits of AI:AI has brought several benefits to society. One significant advantage is the automation of repetitive and mundane tasks, which has increased efficiency and productivity in various industries. For example, in manufacturing, AI-powered robots can complete complex tasks with precision and speed, reducing the need for human intervention. Additionally, AI has improved the accuracy and speed of medical diagnoses, leading to better patient outcomes.3. Challenges of AI:Despite its numerous benefits, AI also poses several challenges. One major concern is the potential loss of jobs due to automation. The displacement of workers by AI-powered machines raises questions about unemployment rates and income inequality. Moreover, the ethical implications of AI in decision making, privacy and security, and the potential for bias also need to be addressed.4. Ethical considerations:AI raises ethical concerns related to privacy, transparency, and accountability. As AI systems collect and analyze vast amounts of personal data, there is a need for strict regulations and safeguards to protect individuals' privacy. Furthermore, issues of transparency and accountability arise when AI algorithms make decisions that impact people's lives. The development of ethical frameworks and guidelines is crucial to ensure responsible AI usage.5. Case studies:The paper includes case studies to highlight the real-world impact of AI. One example is the use of AI in autonomous vehicles. Self-driving cars equipped with AI technology promise safer and more efficient transportation. However, accidents involving autonomous vehicles have raised concerns about liability and accountability. 6. Conclusion:Artificial intelligence has revolutionized various aspects of modern society, offering benefits such as increased productivity and improved healthcare outcomes. However, challenges related to job displacement, ethical considerations, and potential biases need to be addressed. To fully harness the benefits of AI whilesafeguarding society's interests, it is essential to develop and implement comprehensive regulations and ethical frameworks.。
法学 毕业论文 文献 外文 英文 翻译
附件一：英文文献INTRODUCTIONOffences of strict liability are those crimes which do not require mens rea with regard to at least one or more elements of the actus reus. The defendant need not have intended or known about that circumstance or consequence. Liability is said to be strict with regard to that element. For a good example see:R v Prince[1875]：The defendant ran off with an under-age girl. He was charged with an offence of taking a girl under the age of 16 out of the possession of her parents contrary to s55 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861. The defendant knew that the girl was in the custody her father but he believed on reasonable grounds that the girl was aged 18. It was held that knowledge that the girl was under the age of 16 was not required in order to establish the offence. It was sufficient to show that the defendant intended to take the girl out of the possession of her father.It is only in extreme and rare cases where no mens rea is required for liability, thereby making the particular offence "absolute".GENERAL PRINCIPLESThe vast majority of strict liability crimes are statutory offences. However, statutes do not state explicitly that a particular offence is one of strict liability. Where a statute uses terms such as "knowingly" or "recklessly" then the offence being created is one that requires mens rea. Alternatively, it may make it clear that an offence of strict liability is being created. In many cases it will be a matter for the courts to interpret the statute and decide whether mens rea is required or not. What factors are taken into account by the courts when assessing whether or not an offence falls into the category of strict liability offences?THE MODERN CRITERIAIn Gammon (Hong Kong) Ltd v Attorney-General for Hong Kong [1984], the Privy Council considered the scope and role of strict liability offences in the modern criminal law and their effect upon the "presumption of mens rea". Lord Scarman laid down the criteria upon which a court should decide whether or not it is appropriate to impose strict liability: "In their Lordships' opinion, the law … may be stated in the following propositions … : (1) there is a presumption of law that mens rea is required before a person can be held guilty of a criminal offence; (2) the presumption is particularly strong where the offence is "truly criminal" in character; (3) the presumption applies to statutory offences, and can be displaced only if this is clearly or by necessary implication the effect of the statute; (4) the only situation in which the presumption can be displaced is where the statute is concerned with an issue of social concern, and public safety is such an issue; (5) even where a statute is concerned with such an issue, the presumption of mens rea stands unless it can be shown that the creation of strict liability will be effective to promote the objects of the statute by encouraging greater vigilance to prevent the commission of the prohibited act."(1) PRESUMPTION OF MENS REACourts usually begin with the presumption in favor of mens rea, seeing the well-known statement by Wright J in Sherras v De Rutzen：There is a presumption that mens rea, or evil intention, or knowledge of the wrongfulness of the act, is an essential ingredient in every offence; but that presumption is liable to be displaced either by the words of the statute creating the offence or by the subject-matter with which it deals, and both must be considered(2) GRAVITY OF PUNISHMENTAs a general rule, the more serious the criminal offence created by statute, the less likely the courts is to view it as an offence of strict liability. See:Sweet v Parsley [1970]：The defendant was a landlady of a house let to tenants. She retained one room in the house for herself and visited occasionally to collect the rent and letters. While she was absent the police searched the house and found cannabis. The defendant was convicted under s5 of the Dangerous Drugs Act 1965, of "being concerned in the management of premises used for the smoking of cannabis". She appealed alleging that she had no knowledge of the circumstances and indeed could not expect reasonably to have had such knowledge.The House of Lords,quashing her conviction, held that it had to be proved that the defendant had intended the house to be used for drug-taking, since the statute in question created a serious, or "truly criminal" offence, conviction for which would have grave consequences for the defendant. Lord Reid stated that "a stigma still attaches to any person convicted of a truly criminal offence, and the more serious or more disgraceful the offence the greater the stigma". And equally important, "the press in this country are vigilant to expose injustice, and every manifestly unjust conviction made known to the public tends to injure the body politic [people of a nation] by undermining public confidence in the justice of the law and of its administration."Lord Reid went on to point out that in any event it was impractical to impose absolute liability for an offence of this nature, as those who were responsible for letting properties could not possibly be expected to know everything that their tenants were doing.(3) WORDING OF THE STATUTEIn determining whether the presumption in favor of mens rea is to be displaced, the courts are required to have reference to the whole statute in which the offence appears. See:Cundy v Le Cocq (1884) ：The defendant was convicted of unlawfully selling alcohol to an intoxicated person, contrary to s13 of the Licensing Act 1872. On appeal, the defendant contended that he had been unaware of the customer's drunkenness and thus should be acquitted. The Divisional Court interpreted s13 as creating an offence of strict liability since it was itself silent as to mens rea, whereas other offences under the same Act expressly required proof of knowledge on the part of the defendant. It was held that it was not necessary to consider whether the defendant knew, or had means of knowing, or could with ordinary care have detected that the person served was drunk. If he served a drink to a person who was in fact drunk, he was guilty. Stephen J stated: Here, as I have already pointed out, the object of this part of the Act is to prevent the sale of intoxicating liquor to drunken persons, and it is perfectly natural to carry that out by throwing on the publican the responsibility of determining whether the person supplied comes within that category.(4) ISSUES OF SOCIAL CONCERNSee :R v Blake (1996) :Investigation officers heard an unlicensed radio station broadcast and traced it to a flat where the defendant was discovered alone standing in front of the record decks, still playing music and wearing a set of headphones. Though the defendant admitted that he knewhe was using the equipment, he claimed that he believed he was making demonstration tapes and did not know he was transmitting. The defendant was convicted of using wireless telegraphy equipment without a license, contrary to s1 (1) Wireless Telegraphy Act 1949 and appealed on the basis that the offence required mens rea.The Court of Appeal held that the offence was an absolute (actually a strict) liability offence. The Court applied Lord Scarman's principles in Gammon and found that, though the presumption in favor of mens rea was strong because the offence carried a sentence of imprisonment and was, therefore, "truly criminal", yet the offence dealt with issues of serious social concern in the interests of public safety (namely, frequent unlicensed broadcasts on frequencies used by emergency services) and the imposition of strict liability encouraged greater vigilance in setting up careful checks to avoid committing the offence.(5) IS THERE ANY PURPOSE IN IMPOSING STRICT LIABILITY?The courts will be reluctant to construe a statute as imposing strict liability upon a defendant, where there is evidence to suggest that despite his having taken all reasonable steps, he cannot avoid the commission of an offence. See:Sherras v De Rutzen [1895]: The defendant was convicted of selling alcohol to a police officer whilst on duty, contrary to s16(2) of the Licensing Act 1872. He had reasonably believed the constable to be off duty as he had removed his arm-band, which was the acknowledged method of signifying off duty. The Divisional Court held that the conviction should be quashed, despite the absence from s16 (2) of any words requiring proof of mens rea as an element of the offence. Wright J expressed the view that the presumption in favor of mens rea would only be displaced by the wording of the statute itself, or its subject matter. In this case the latter factor was significant, in that no amount of reasonable care by the defendant would have prevented the offence from being committed. Wright J stated: "It is plain that if guilty knowledge is not necessary, no care on the part of the publican could save him from a conviction under section 16, subsection (2), since it would be as easy for the constable to deny that he was on duty when asked, or to produce a forged permission from his superior officer, as to remove his armlet before entering the public house. I am, therefore, of opinion that this conviction ought to be quashed."MODERN EXAMPLESThe following case is a modern example of the imposition of strict liability: Alphacell v Woodward [1972] The defendants were charged with causing polluted matter to enter a river contrary to s2 of the Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Act 1951. The river had in fact been polluted because a pipe connected to the defendant's factory had been blocked, and the defendants had not been negligent. The House of Lords nevertheless held that the defendants were liable. Lord Salmon stated: If this appeal succeeded and it were held to be the law that no conviction be obtained under the 1951 Act unless the prosecution could discharge the often impossible onus of proving that the pollution was caused intentionally or negligently, a great deal of pollution would go unpunished and undeterred to the relief of many riparian factory owners. As a result, many rivers which are now filthy would become filthier still and many rivers which are now clean would lose their cleanliness. The legislature no doubt recognized that as a matter of public policy this would be most unfortunate. Hence s2(1)(a) which encourages riparian factory owners not only to take reasonable steps to prevent pollution but to do everything possible to ensure that they do not cause it.ARGUMENTS FOR STRICT LIABILITY1. The primary function of the courts is the prevention of forbidden acts. What acts should be regarded as forbidden? Surely only such acts as we can assert ought not to have been done. Some of the judges who upheld the conviction of Prince did so on the ground that men should be deterred from taking girls out of the possession of their parents, whatever the girl's age. This reasoning can hardly be applied to many modern offences of strict liability. We do not wish to deter people from driving cars, being concerned in the management of premises, financing hire purchase transactions or canning peas. These acts, if done with all proper care, are not such acts as the law should seek to prevent.2. Another argument that is frequently advanced in favor of strict liability is that, without it, many guilty people would escape - that there is neither time nor personnel available to litigate the culpability of each particular infraction. T his argument assumes that it is possible to deal with these cases without deciding whether D had mens rea or not, whether he was negligent or not. Certainly D may be convicted without deciding these questions, but how can he be sentenced? Suppose that a butcher sells some meat which is unfit for human consumption. Clearly the court will deal differently with (i) the butcher who knew that the meat was tainted; (ii) the butcher who did not know, but ought to have known; and (iii) the butcher who did not know and had no means of finding out. Sentence can hardly be imposed without deciding into which category the convicted person falls.3. The argument which is probably most frequently advanced by the courts for imposing strict liability is that it is necessary to do so in the interests of the public. Now it may be conceded that in many of the instances where strict liability has been imposed, the public does need protection against negligence and, assuming that the threat of punishment can make the potential harm doer more careful, there may be a valid ground for imposing liability for negligence as well as where there is mens rea. This is a plausible argument in favor of strict liability if there were no middle way between mens rea and strict liability - that is liability for negligence - and the judges have generally proceeded on the basis that there is no such middle way. Liability for negligence has rarely been spelled out of a statute except where, as in driving without due care, it is explicitly required. Lord Devlin has said: "It is not easy to find a way of construing a statute apparently expressed in terms of absolute liability so as to produce the requirement of negligence."ARGUMENTS AGAINST STRICT LIABILITY1. The case against strict liability, then, is, first, that it is unnecessary. It results in the conviction of persons who have behaved impeccably and who should not be required to alter their conduct in any way.2. Secondly, that it is unjust. Even if an absolute discharge can be given D may feel rightly aggrieved at having been formally convicted of an offence for which he bore no responsibility. Moreover, a conviction may have far-reaching consequences outside the courts, so that it is no answer to say that only a nominal penalty is imposed.3. The imposition of liability for negligence would in fact meet the arguments of most of those who favor strict liability. Such statutes are not meant to punish the vicious will but to put pressure upon the thoughtless and inefficient to do their whole duty in the interest of public health or safety or morals." The "thoughtless and inefficient" are, of course, the negligent. The objection tooffences of strict liability is not that these persons are penalized, but that others who are completely innocent are also liable to conviction. Though Lord Devlin was skeptical about the possibility of introducing the criterion of negligence (above), in Reynolds v Austin (1951) he stated that strict liability should only apply when there is something that the defendant can do to promote the observance of the law - which comes close to requiring negligence. If there were something which D could do to prevent the commission of the crime and which he failed to do, he might generally be said to have failed to comply with a duty - perhaps a high duty - of care; and so have been negligent.4. In Alphacell v Woodward (1972) Lord Salmon thought the relevant statutory section, "encourages riparian factory owners not only to take reasonable steps to prevent pollution but to do everything possible to ensure that they do not cause it." This suggests that, however vast the expenditure involved, and however unreasonable it may be in relation to the risk, D is under a duty to take all possible steps. Yet it may be doubted whether factory owners will in fact do more than is reasonable; and it is questionable whether they ought to be required to do so, at the risk - even though it be unlikely - of imprisonment. The contrary argument is that the existence of strict liability does induce organizations to aim at higher and higher standards.POSSIBLE DEVELOPMENTSThere are several possible compromises between mens rea and strict liability in regulatory offences. A "halfway house" has developed in Australia. The effect of Australian cases is: D might be convicted without proof of any mens rea by the Crown; but acquitted if he proved on a balance of probabilities that he lacked mens rea and was not negligent; ie, that he had an honest and reasonable belief in a state of facts which, would have made his act innocent. The onus of proving reasonable mistake is on D.STATUTORY DEFENCESIt is common for the drastic effect of a statute imposing strict liability to be mitigated by the provision of a statutory defense. It is instructive to consider one example. Various offences relating to the treatment and sale of food are enacted by the first twenty sections of the Food Safety Act 1990. Many, if not all, of these are strict liability offences. Section 21(1), however, provides that it shall be a defense for the person charged with any of the offences to prove that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid the commission of the offence by himself or by a person under his control. Statutory defenses usually impose on the defendant a burden of proving that he had no mens rea and that he took all reasonable precautions and exercised all due diligence to avoid the commission of an offence. The effect of such provisions is that the prosecution need do no more than prove that the accused did the prohibited act and it is then for him to establish, if he can, that he did it innocently. Such provisions are a distinct advance on unmitigated strict liability.附件二：英文文献翻译介绍严格责任犯罪是关于客观方面的一个或多个因素不要求犯罪意图的那些犯罪。
毕业论文英文文献及翻译
英文原文 and the .NET Framework is part of Microsoft's overall .NET framework, which contains a vast set of programming classes designed to satisfy any conceivable programming need. In the following two sections, you learn how fits within the .NET framework, and you learn about the languages you can use in your pages.The .NET Framework Class LibraryImagine that you are Microsoft. Imagine that you have to support multiple programming languages—such as Visual Basic, JScript, and C++.A great deal of the functionality of these programming languages overlaps. For example, for each language, you would have to include methods for accessing the file system, working with databases, and manipulating strings.Furthermore, these languages contain similar programming constructs. Every language, for example, can represent loops and conditionals. Even though the syntax of a conditional written in Visual Basic differs from the syntax of a conditional written in C++, the programming function is the same.Finally, most programming languages have similar variable data types. In most languages, you have some means of representing strings and integers, for example. The maximum and minimum size of an integer might depend on the language, but the basic data type is the same.Maintaining all this functionality for multiple languages requires a lot of work. Why keep reinventing the wheel? Wouldn't it be easier to create all this functionality once and use it for every language?The .NET Framework Class Library does exactly that. It consists of a vast set of classes designed to satisfy any conceivable programming need. For example, the .NET framework contains classes for handling database access, working with the file system, manipulating text, and generating graphics. In addition, it contains more specialized classes for performing tasks such as working with regular expressions and handling network protocols.The .NET framework, furthermore, contains classes that represent all the basic variable data types such as strings, integers, bytes, characters, and arrays.Most importantly, for purposes of this book, the .NET Framework Class Library contains classes for building pages. You need to understand, however, that you can access any of the .NET framework classes when you are building your pages.Understanding NamespacesAs you might guess, the .NET framework is huge. It contains thousands of classes (over 3,400). Fortunately, the classes are not simply jumbled together. The classes of the .NET framework are organized into a hierarchy of namespaces.ASP Classic NoteIn previous versions of Active Server Pages, you had access to only five standard classes (the Response, Request, Session, Application, and Server objects). , in contrast, provides you with access to over 3,400 classes!A namespace is a logical grouping of classes. For example, all the classes that relate to working with the file system are gathered together into the System.IO namespace.The namespaces are organized into a hierarchy (a logical tree). At the root of the tree is the System namespace. This namespace contains all the classes for the base data types, such as strings and arrays. It also contains classes for working with random numbers and dates and times.You can uniquely identify any class in the .NET framework by using the full namespace of the class. For example, to uniquely refer to the class that represents a file system file (the File class), you would use the following:System.IO.FileSystem.IO refers to the namespace, and File refers to the particular class.NOTEYou can view all the namespaces of the standard classes in the .NET Framework Class Library by viewing the Reference Documentation for the .NET Framework.Standard NamespacesThe classes contained in a select number of namespaces are available in your pages by default. (You must explicitly import other namespaces.) These default namespaces contain classes that you use most often in your applications:System— Contains all the base data types and other useful classes such as those related to generating random numbers and working with dates and times.System.Collections— Contains classes for working with standard collection types such as hash tables, and array lists.System.Collections.Specialized— Contains classes that represent specialized collections such as linked lists and string collections.System.Configuration— Contains classes for working with configuration files (Web.config files).System.Text— Contains classes for encoding, decoding, and manipulating the contents of strings.System.Text.RegularExpressions— Contains classes for performing regular expression match and replace operations.System.Web— Contains the basic classes for working with the World Wide Web, including classes for representing browser requests and server responses.System.Web.Caching— Contains classes used for caching the content of pages and classes for performing custom caching operations.System.Web.Security— Contains classes for implementing authentication and authorization such as Forms and Passport authentication.System.Web.SessionState—Contains classes for implementing session state.System.Web.UI—Contains the basic classes used in building the user interface of pages.System.Web.UI.HTMLControls— Contains the classes for the HTML controls.System.Web.UI.WebControls— Contains the classes for the Web controls..NET Framework-Compatible LanguagesFor purposes of this book, you will write the application logic for your pages using Visual Basic as your programming language. It is the default language for pages (and the most popular programming language in the world). Although you stick to Visual Basic in this book, you also need to understand that you can create pages by using any language that supports the .NET Common Language Runtime. Out of the box, this includes C# (pronounced See Sharp), (the .NET version of JavaScript), and the Managed Extensions to C++.NOTEThe CD included with this book contains C# versions of all the code samples.Dozens of other languages created by companies other than Microsoft have been developed to work with the .NET framework. Some examples of these other languages include Python, SmallTalk, Eiffel, and COBOL. This means that you could, if you really wanted to, write pages using COBOL.Regardless of the language that you use to develop your pages, you need to understand that pages are compiled before they are executed. This means that pages can execute very quickly.The first time you request an page, the page is compiled into a .NET class, and the resulting class file is saved beneath a special directory on your server named Temporary Files. For each and every page, a corresponding class file appears in the Temporary Files directory. Whenever you request the same page in the future, the corresponding class file is executed.When an page is compiled, it is not compiled directly into machine code. Instead, it is compiled into an intermediate-level language called Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL). All .NET-compatible languages are compiled into this intermediate language.An page isn't compiled into native machine code until it is actually requested by a browser. At that point, the class file contained in the Temporary Files directory is compiled with the .NET framework Just in Time (JIT) compiler and executed.The magical aspect of this whole process is that it happens automatically in the background. All you have to do is create a text file with the source code for your page, and the .NET framework handles all the hard work of converting it into compiled code for you.ASP CLASSIC NOTEWhat about VBScript? Before , VBScript was the most popular language for developing Active Server Pages. does not support VBScript, and this is good news. Visual Basic is a superset of VBScript, which means that Visual Basic has all the functionality of VBScript and more. So, you have a richer set of functions and statements with Visual Basic.Furthermore, unlike VBScript, Visual Basic is a compiled language. This means that if you use Visual Basic to rewrite the same code that you wrote with VBScript, you can get better performance.If you have worked only with VBScript and not Visual Basic in the past, don't worry. Since VBScript is so closely related to Visual Basic, you'll find it easy to make the transition between the two languages.NOTE Microsoft includes an interesting tool named the IL Disassembler (ILDASM) with the .NET framework. You can use this tool to view the disassembled code for any of the classes in the Temporary Files directory. It lists all the methods and properties of the class and enables you to view the intermediate-level code.This tool also works with all the controls discussed in this chapter. For example, you can use the IL Disassembler to view the intermediate-level code for the TextBox control (located in a file named System.Web.dll).中文翻译 和 .NET Framework是微软.NET框架总体战略的一部分。
一篇经济类英文论文（含中文翻译）
The Problem of Social Cost 社会成本问题RONALD COASE 罗纳德·科斯Ronald Coase is Professor Emeritus at University of Chicago LawSchool and a Nobel Laureate in Economics. This article is fromThe Journal of Law and Economics (October 1960). Several passages devoted to extended discussions of legal decisions have been omitted. 罗纳德·科斯在芝加哥大学法学院名誉教授和诺贝尔经济学奖得主。
本文是其外法学与经济学杂志（1960年10月）。
专门的法律问题的决定的延伸讨论的几个段落已被省略。
I.THE PROBLEM TO BE EXAMINED This paper is concerned with those actions of business firms which have harm-ful effects on others. The standard example is that of a factory the smoke from which has harmful effects on those occupying neighbouring properties. The economic analysis of such a situation has usually proceeded in terms of a divergence between the private and social product of the factory, in which economists have largely followed the treatment of Pigou in The Economies of Welfare. The conclusion to which this kind of analysis seems to have led most economists is that it would be desirable to make the owner of the factory li-able for the damage caused to those injured by the smoke, or alternatively, to place a tax on the factory owner varying with the amount of smoke produced and equivalent in money terms to the damage it would cause, or finally, to exclude the factory from residential districts (and presumably from other areas in which the emission of smoke would have harmful effects on others). It is my contention that the suggested courses of action are inappropriate, in that they lead to results which are not necessarily, or even usually, desirable. 一、要检查的问题本文关注的是这些行动的企业有伤害他人有用的影响。
毕业论文英文文献翻译
毕业论文英文文献翻译The translation of a 700-word English literature for a graduation thesis would take a considerable amount of time and effort. Due to limitations in this platform, it is not feasible to provide a high-quality translation within the given word count.However, I can provide you with some guidelines and key points that can help you translate the literature on your own:1. Read the literature thoroughly and understand its main arguments and ideas.2. Make a list of keywords and important terms mentioned in the literature.3. Research the keywords and terms to understand their accurate translations in your target language.4. Identify the main structure and flow of the literature.5. Start translating paragraph by paragraph, making sure to preserve the original meaning and tone of the text.6. Use appropriate transition words and phrases to ensure coherence and logical progression in your translation.7. Proofread and revise your translation multiple times to correct any grammatical or syntactical errors.It is crucial to note that translating academic literature requires a deep understanding of the subject matter and proficiency in both languages. If you are not confident in your translation skills, it might be wise to seek professional help or consult a native speaker proficient in both languages.Remember that the translation of academic literature is animportant step in any graduation thesis, so it's essential to give ample time and attention to the task.。
中文论文翻译成英文
中文论文翻译成英文Translation of a Chinese research paper into English:Title: "The Impact of Social Media on Consumer Behavior: A Study of Chinese Market"Abstract:This research paper aims to explore the influence of social media on consumer behavior in the Chinese market. With the increasing popularity and influence of social media platforms, such as WeChat, Weibo, and Douyin, understanding how these platforms affect purchasing decisions has become crucial for marketers and researchers alike. By examining various sources of literature and conducting surveys among Chinese consumers, this study intends to provide insights into the characteristics and consequences of social media usage on consumer behavior.Introduction:Social media platforms have revolutionized the way people communicate and gather information. In China, a country with a massive population and a unique digital landscape, social media platforms play a significant role in shaping consumers' decision-making processes. Aspects such as social endorsement, viral marketing, and personalized product recommendations have become essential factors affecting consumer behavior. Therefore, understanding the impact of social media on consumer behavior in the Chinese market is of utmost importance for marketing professionals and researchers.Literature Review:This section reviews and summarizes relevant literature from both domestic and international sources. The literature covers a wide range of topics, including social media's influence on purchase intention, social media's role in brand communication and loyalty, and the effects of peer recommendations on consumer decision-making. By analyzing and synthesizing existing studies, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between social media and consumer behavior in the Chinese context.Methodology:To investigate the impact of social media on consumer behavior, a mixed-method approach was employed in this study. Firstly, a comprehensive review of relevant literature was conducted to establish a theoretical foundation. Secondly, surveys were administered to a sample of Chinese consumers to collect quantitative data on their social media usage and its influence on their purchasing behavior. The survey also included open-ended questions to obtain qualitative insights from respondents. Finally, data analysis was carried out using statistical methods and content analysis to identify patterns and draw meaningful conclusions. Results and Discussion:Based on the analysis of survey data and literature review, several key findings emerged. Firstly, the majority of Chinese consumers actively use social media platforms for information-seeking, opinion-sharing, and product evaluation purposes. Secondly, social media influencers and recommendations from friends and family significantly impact consumers' purchasing decisions. Furthermore, social media acts as an important medium for brandcommunication, providing opportunities for marketers to engage with consumers directly. The implications of these findings for marketing strategies and future research directions are also discussed in this section.Conclusion:This research paper contributes to the growing body of knowledge on social media's influence on consumer behavior in the Chinese market. The findings suggest that social media platforms play a crucial role in shaping consumers' purchasing decisions, brand loyalty, and product evaluations. By leveraging the power of social media, marketers can better understand and engage with Chinese consumers. Future research should explore additional variables and expand the sample size to further investigate the complexities of social media usage and its impact on consumer behavior.。
土木工程毕业论文中英文翻译
外文翻译班级：xxx学号：xxx姓名：xxx一、外文原文：Structural Systems to resist lateral loads Commonly Used structural SystemsWith loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows:1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Core-interactive structures.6.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriate computer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.Braced Frame sThe braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly inconjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis. Shear wallsThe shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems. The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally but not always concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economical than steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The system has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.Framed or Braced TubesThe concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two- dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations, as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.Tube-in-Tube StructuresThe tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wallin resisting over-turning and shearing forces. The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders , the webs of the framed tube while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns , the flanges of the framed tube. In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane , the floor slabs,then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or evenhigher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced , shear-stiff tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed , shear-flexible tube.Core Interactive StructuresCore interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about 5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shearstiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:1.The structural system is 94 ft wide, 196ft long, and 601ft high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft by 40 ft , centered 90 ft apartin the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shearstiffness in the long direction.4.A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the buildingperimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shearstiffness for the center50ft of each of the long sides.6.A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7.A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twinsteel-plate tubes, because the shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.Cellular structuresA classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago,a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Towercontains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression△=ΣfL/EFor buildings of 12 ft floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi 138MPa, the shortening of a column under load is 15 1212/29,000 or per story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to in. 94mm less than its unstressed length. Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulatingthe weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.二、原文翻译：抗侧向荷载的结构体系常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重,那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了;确实,较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点;这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地;实际上,正是因为有了这种宏观的构思,新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展,可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了;如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈,高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：1．抗弯矩框架;2．支撑框架,包括偏心支撑框架;3．剪力墙,包括钢板剪力墙;4．筒中框架;5．筒中筒结构;6．核心交互结构;7．框格体系或束筒体系;特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式,同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力,大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系;而且,就较高的建筑物而言,大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列;将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质;其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展,以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构;这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑;正相反,有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了,然而,如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导,那么,得以发展的就只能是好的结构,并非是伟大的建筑;无论如何,要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计,两者都需要最好的;虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论,但是在这里还值得进一步讨论;设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论;设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中;抗弯矩框架抗弯矩框架也许是低,中高度的建筑中常用的体系,它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点;这种框架用作独立的体系,或者和其他体系结合起来使用,以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力;对于较高的高层建筑,可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系,这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度;我们可以利用STRESS,STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析;所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地,由于柱梁节点固有柔性,并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点,所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的;当然,在设计的后期阶段,实际地评价结点的变形很有必要;支撑框架支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强,在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用;这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色,它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑,并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中;尤其引人关注的是,在强震区使用偏心支撑框架;此外,可以利用STRESS,STRUDL,或一系列二维或三维计算机分析程序中的任何一种进行结构分析;另外,初步分析中常用中心距尺寸;剪力墙剪力墙在加强结构体系刚性的发展过程中又前进了一步;该体系的特点是具有相当薄的,通常是而不总是混凝土的构件,这种构件既可提供结构强度,又可提供建筑物功能上的分隔;在高层建筑中,剪力墙体系趋向于具有相对大的高宽经,即与宽度相比,其高度偏大;由于基础体系缺少应力,任何一种结构构件抗倾覆弯矩的能力都受到体系的宽度和构件承受的重力荷载的限制;由于剪力墙宽度狭狭窄受限,所以需要以某种方式加以扩大,以便提从所需的抗倾覆能力;在窗户需要量小的建筑物外墙中明显地使用了这种确有所需要宽度的体系;钢结构剪力墙通常由混凝土覆盖层来加强以抵抗失稳,这在剪切荷载大的地方已得到应用;这种体系实际上比钢支撑经济,对于使剪切荷载由位于地面正上方区域内比较高的楼层向下移特别有效;这种体系还具有高延性之优点,这种特性在强震区特别重要;由于这些墙内必然出同一些大孔,使得剪力墙体系分析变得错综复杂;可以通过桁架模似法、有限元法,或者通过利用为考虑剪力墙的交互作用或扭转功能设计的专门计处机程序进行初步分析框架或支撑式筒体结构：框架或支撑式筒体最先应用于IBM公司在Pittsburgh的一幢办公楼,随后立即被应用于纽约双子座的110层世界贸易中心摩天大楼和其他的建筑中;这种系统有以下几个显着的特征：三维结构、支撑式结构、或由剪力墙形成的一个性质上差不多是圆柱体的闭合曲面,但又有任意的平面构成;由于这些抵抗侧向荷载的柱子差不多都被设置在整个系统的中心,所以整体的惯性得到提高,刚度也是很大的;在可能的情况下,通过三维概念的应用、二维的类比,我们可以进行筒体结构的分析;不管应用那种方法,都必须考虑剪力滞后的影响;这种最先在航天器结构中研究的剪力滞后出现后,对筒体结构的刚度是一个很大的限制;这种观念已经影响了筒体结构在60层以上建筑中的应用;设计者已经开发出了很多的技术,用以减小剪力滞后的影响,这其中最有名的是桁架的应用;框架或支撑式筒体在40层或稍高的建筑中找到了自己的用武之地;除了一些美观的考虑外,桁架几乎很少涉及与外墙联系的每个建筑功能,而悬索一般设置在机械的地板上,这就令机械体系设计师们很不赞成;但是,作为一个性价比较好的结构体系,桁架能充分发挥它的性能,所以它会得到设计师们持续的支持;由于其最佳位置正取决于所提供的桁架的数量,因此很多研究已经试图完善这些构件的位置;实验表明：由于这种结构体系的经济性并不十分受桁架位置的影响,所以这些桁架的位置主要取决于机械系统的完善,审美的要求,筒中筒结构：筒体结构系统能使外墙中的柱具有灵活性,用以抵抗颠覆和剪切力;“筒中筒”这个名字顾名思义就是在建筑物的核心承重部分又被包围了第二层的一系列柱子,它们被当作是框架和支撑筒来使用;配置第二层柱的目的是增强抗颠覆能力和增大侧移刚度;这些筒体不是同样的功能,也就是说,有些筒体是结构的,而有些筒体是用来支撑的;在考虑这种筒体时,清楚的认识和区别变形的剪切和弯曲分量是很重要的,这源于对梁的对比分析;在结构筒中,剪切构件的偏角和柱、纵梁例如：结构筒中的网等的弯曲有关,同时,弯曲构件的偏角取决于柱子的轴心压缩和延伸例如：结构筒的边缘等;在支撑筒中,剪切构件的偏角和对角线的轴心变形有关,而弯曲构件的偏角则与柱子的轴心压缩和延伸有关;根据梁的对比分析,如果平面保持原形例如：厚楼板,那么外层筒中柱的轴心压力就会与中心筒柱的轴心压力相差甚远,而且稳定的大于中心筒;但是在筒中筒结构的设计中,当发展到极限时,内部轴心压力会很高的,甚至远远大于外部的柱子;这种反常的现象是由于两种体系中的剪切构件的刚度不同;这很容易去理解,内筒可以看成是一个支撑或者说是剪切刚性的筒,而外筒可以看成是一个结构或者说是剪切弹性的筒;核心交互式结构：核心交互式结构属于两个筒与某些形式的三维空间框架相配合的筒中筒特殊情况;事实上,这种体系常用于那种外筒剪切刚度为零的结构;位于Pittsburgh的美国钢铁大楼证实了这种体系是能很好的工作的;在核心交互式结构中,内筒是一个支撑结构,外筒没有任何剪切刚度,而且两种结构体系能通过一个空间结构或“帽”式结构共同起作用;需要指出的是,如果把外部的柱子看成是一种从“帽”到基础的直线体系,这将是不合适的；根据支撑核心的弹性曲线,这些柱子只发挥了刚度的15%;同样需要指出的是,内柱中与侧向力有关的轴向力沿筒高度由拉力变为压力,同时变化点位于筒高度的约5/8处;当然,外柱也传递相同的轴向力,这种轴向力低于作用在整个柱子高度的侧向荷载,因为这个体系的剪切刚度接近于零;把内外筒相连接的空间结构、悬臂梁或桁架经常遵照一些规范来布置;美国电话电报总局就是一个布置交互式构件的生动例子;1、结构体系长米,宽米,高米;2、布置了两个筒,每个筒的尺寸是米×米,在长方向上有米的间隔;3、在短方向上内筒被支撑起来,但是在长方向上没有剪切刚度;4、环绕着建筑物布置了一个外筒;5、外筒是一个瞬时抵抗结构,但是在每个长方向的中心米都没有剪切刚度;6、在建筑的顶部布置了一个空间桁架构成的“帽式”结构;7、在建筑的底部布置了一个相似的空间桁架结构;8、由于外筒的剪切刚度在建筑的底部接近零,整个建筑基本上由两个钢板筒来支持;框格体系或束筒体系结构：位于美国芝加哥的西尔斯大厦是箱式结构的经典之作,它由九个相互独立的筒组成的一个集中筒;由于西尔斯大厦包括九个几乎垂直的筒,而且筒在平面上无须相似,基本的结构体系在不规则形状的建筑中得到特别的应用;一些单个的筒高于建筑一点或很多是很常见的;事实上,这种体系的重要特征就在于它既有坚固的一面,也有脆弱的一面;这种体系的脆弱,特别是在结构筒中,与柱子的压缩变形有很大的关系,柱子的压缩变形有下式计算：△=ΣfL/E对于那些层高为米左右和平均压力为138MPa的建筑,在荷载作用下每层柱子的压缩变形为1512/29000或毫米;在第50层柱子会压缩94毫米,小于它未受压的长度;这些柱子在50层的时候和100层的时候的变形是不一样的,位于这两种体系之间接近于边缘的那些柱需要使这种不均匀的变形得以调解;主要的结构工作都集中在布置中;在Melbourne的Rialto项目中,结构工程师发现至少有一幢建筑,很有必要垂直预压低高度的柱子,以便使柱不均匀的变形差得以调解,调解的方法近似于后拉伸法,即较短的柱转移重量到较高的邻柱上;。
Transportation 英语论文中英文翻译
TransportationTransportation (Sum up)There are two types of transportation: public transportation and private transportation. Examples of public transportation are: buses, trains, tramways, subways, cable cars, ships etc. Examples of private transportation include: private cars, bicycles, motorbikes, as well as walking on foot. Many people prefer means of private transportation to the public transportation, because it is a lot more comfortable, even though it’s pricier: you don’t have to get crammed in a crowded in a crowded wagon if you are driving your own vehicle. Also, riding a bike or a motorbike permits to avoid the traffic on the streets, since in the big cities there are special biking lanes which don’t allow buses or cars. On the other hand, using means of public transportation also has its advantages; first of all, it’s really cheap, nowadays you can purchase a special IP card, and then swipe it every time you get on and get off the bus and save up additional money on cost of transportation. Second, subways are built underground so if you use it, you don’t have to experience the congested streets on the ground. They are fast, and there are many different lines so if you transfer you can get almost anywhere you need. Third, using cable cars or special buses that don’t emit carbon dioxide into the air helps protecting the environment and the ozone layer above.Traffic jams (traffic congestion) is a big problem in big and developed cities all over the world. The situation could be improved if the public transportation system is radically changed; if the subway and train system gets more developed it will be more attractive to the citizens, than purchasing private cars that pollute the air and are responsible of the growing traffic jam problem. In consequence, the streets wouldn’t be jammed with private cars going in all the possible directions.To improve the situation on the streets of the big cities, the government should take various measures; for example, try to relocate some of the companies into the suburbs in order to make the centre of the city less crowded. This reorganization of a densely populated area could be one of the crucial solutions to the traffic congestion problem. The officials should also think of creating new projects to make new subway lines, bus routes and biking lanes so that the means of public transportation are more appealing to the citizens. Also, creating green tax (the kind of tax that the citizens pay the government for them to take measures to protect the environment) is one of the possibilities to help the traffic congestion and resulting from it, air pollution (smog). Unfortunately, these projects cost a lot of money, and take a lot of time and effort, so the situation on the streets can only improve gradually and in a very slow pace.Should Government Spend Money On PublicTransportations Or Roads?Polluted air, sun heated temperature, and poor quality of public transportations are Jakarta’s traffic condition. It’s worsen by the road traffics cause by the increasing amount in the usages of personal cars, that always take part in the crowds. Although there are many options of transportations and the access of highways and roads to shortened the amount of time consuming, Jakarta inhabitants are still dealing with the same problem continually.Well-improved public transportations will decrease the amount of personal cars usages. The public transportation companies have very poor services for jakarta’s citizens which served as their loyal customers. If the facility has been reconditioned, it will attract more attentions from the new and potential customers who never use it before. As a result from the growth of public transportations usages, the rush-hour traffic will be lessened. As an instance, Jakarta has many options for public transportations. Although reconsidered as a metropolitan city, the condition of the public transportation facilitiy is a tragic. Corroded iron bench, non air conditioner applied, unclean passengers area, and high lists of criminalities “performed” in the facilities show the credibility of Jakarta’s publ ic transportation image. But, the government surprised the citizens by launching the new alternative transportation that offers safety, comfort, and hygiene for their customers. The most wanted facility to enjoy is the Busway. When Busway was first introduced to Jakarta inhabitants, the public joyfully welcome the new alternative transportation and hoped that it will be the solution for road traffics which are their main problem.Improving roads and highways cost more funds and time. To recondition and to build roads and highways will pressure the government to strategically planned the budget. Highway constuctions budget usually does not refund until long period of time usages. If the funds are not available to support the roads and highways constructions, the result will not be as what the citizens expect of. Building roads and highways are a time consuming project that includes a lot of proffesional architects and workers, the project will provoked the comfort of roads and highways users and causing more road traffics problem. The example is the project to broaden the highway to Soekarno-hatta international airport. The project cause more road traffic for the customers who want to arrive as fast as they can in the airport to avoid lateness. Huge construction machines, constructionworkers, and the restricted area for the customers that reserved as the construction workers workstation are the main cause that annoyed the customers.Highways and roads are not accessible for all vehicles and all communities. Highways and roads access are not approachable to those who only have two-wheel drive. They will not receive the same conveniences that the government supplied for those who have more than two-wheel drive. Furthermore, the toll for using highways and roads are costly for middle to low class society. As an illustration, from the first time three years ago, Busway has influenced the highest admiration from the Jakarta citizens because Busway offers comfort, safety, and the efficiency of time to reach vary destinations in Jakarta with affordable prices that fits into all communities.Improving roads and highways can induce the society to use personal transportations. When the constructions of the highways are increasing, the citizens are captive in a situation with no options. The citizens are forced to use the highways to reach their destinations. Despite of the unflexible rule that restrict two-wheel drive vehicles and high priced tickets, highways are constructed to link the route from one place to another. In the end, the society will be addicted in using expressway and the construction of highways will happen in cycles and wasting a lot of funds. For example, the first highway constructed in Jakarta is the Jagorawi highway which links the route from Jakarta to Bogor and in the opposite way. The Jagorawi highway has reached the success in facilitating the citizens especially commuters to move from one city to another in a short amount of time. When the government realized how much the benefits and popularity gained from the Jagorawi highway, they immediately formed PT. Jasamarga as the management of Indonesia’s highways and planned for the forthcoming highway projects.In conclusion, public transportations have a very remarkable reputation amongst the society. Therefore, government should pay more attention on improving and creating public transportation facilities that offer safety, comfort, hygienic space, affordable prices, and accessible for all communities.Transportation SafteyTransportation SafetyFor my third and final paper regarding the transportation bill that President Barack Obama has brought to the table. According to , there are nearly 1,800 interest groups both public and private that are lobbying on transportation infrastructure. From these groups there are primarily cities, counties, transit agencies or construction interests that are searching for government funding from congress to create new highways and more efficient transitsystems. There are two major umbrella groups who have enacted a campaign to persuade voters to get their representatives to finish thebill to help their local transportation roadways. These two groups are called Americans for Transportation Mobility and the Transportation Construction Coalition. These two groups also account for members that are included in the Associated General Contractors as well as the U.S. Chamber of Commerce.This major campaign is a nationwide effort to enlighten voters about how the passing of this transportation bill will, among many issues, help road conditions throughout the country and the safety of people using the roadways. This nationwide effort with many different sectors involved includes but not limited to business, labor and transportation organizations throughout the United States. The mission statement of the Americans for Transportation Mobility states that the decline in the transportation infrastructure of our nation is dangerous to our safety, jeopardizes our quality of life, undermines the economy and finally, harms the environment substantially. According to their website, a recent study estimated that $225 billion is needed annually to maintain our surface transportation system and currently there is a $60 billion gap in that much needed investment. In 2006, there was a death on our nation’s roads every five hours and one-third of these fatalities are due to under maintained roads. This major inter est group is heavily interested in fixing America’s roads also because the cost of the millions of traffic crashes accounted for over $162 billion a year.Within the Americans for Transportation Mobility there is a management committee comprised of many different associations, each that have their own president. Three of the major management committees are the American Public Transportation Association headed by William Millar, American Road Transportation Builders Association headed by Pete Ruane, and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce run by Thomas J. Donohue. Each of these associations has major interest in different sectors, and all of which want to have their own input on this dominant bill.The American Public Transportation Association is an international organization that has been representing the transit industry since 1882. Their mission is to strengthen and improve public transport and has a very diverse membership that is trying to make public transportation available and accessible for all Americans across the country. This interest group is very open to ideas and suggestions on the improvement of America’s public transportation and over ninety percent of passengers using transit in both the United States and Canada are sustained by the American Public Transportation Association. According to their membership handbook, the APTA is your voice in Washington and they represent your issues and interests while providing members consistent updates on those interests as well as legislative issues. The APTA has many business opportunities to obtain contacts, exposure and focuspotential customers on your particular products and services you provide. The APTA has many conferences across the country in which you are able to obtain information and training so that you are able to further your career as well as business opportunities. As a member you are also entitled to unlimited use of their resources and information as well as participate in their many committees and audit programs to benefit you and your career. To join this interest group there are dues based upon their criteria and which category you will join. The annual minimum fee is $1,250 and from there, there are additional charges based upon criteria such as how many buses your company runs as well as the amount of operating expenses you incur.The American Road Transportation Builders Association is a major player in the U.S. transportation and design sector of transportation infrastructure which goes before congress, the White House and the Executive Brand and federal agencies. The primary reason for joining this group is the impressive track record of growing the federal transportation construction and is involved in every major piece of federal transportation legislation. In order to become a member and to view the membership benefits, you must contact their National Field Director Kenyon Gleason. Their dues also fluctuate into which category you and your company falls in such as the amount of annual volume to dues for a single executive from a government agency.The U.S. Chamber of Commerce website states that they believe that without proper investment and attention to the infrastructure systems, the economic stability of our nation, the potential for job growth and America’s competitiveness globally are in jeopardy. The Chamber’s plans are to motivate private spending, invest in the declining transportation infrastructure and modernize and protect the energy infrastructure. They believe that by removing legal and regulatory barriers, this will help protect public health as well as public safety and improving the environment. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce is fighting for the improvement of allowing industries to make investments with confidence and by making efficiently timed decisions on energy projects to avoid pricey delays. To become a member you need to identify what type of organization you are whether it is business, chambers or associations. In order to obtain information regarding fees, you must provide name, e-mail and which membership type you want to join. There are many membership benefits such as discounts on services like car renta ls and memberships to Sam’s club.Overall these are just a few of the hundreds of transportation infrastructure interest groups available to the public to become a member. All of these interest groups have major influence on Congress and to become a member there are many stipulations and fees involved. By having to pay these fees, I believe that the peopleinvolved with these groups have much more involvement with the transportation issues this country needs to address and fix. Our transportation is sub-par especially locally in Green Bay, Wisconsin. Many of the roads are extremely rugged and take a serious toll on cars, buses and trucks. Another major local issue is the public bus system. The availability of buses at night are non-existent so if someone were to take a bus to a movie at night, they would not be able to get back home by bus.。
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毕业设计（论文）英文文献翻译电力系统电力系统介绍随着电力工业的增长，与用于生成和处理当今大规模电能消费的电力生产、传输、分配系统相关的经济、工程问题也随之增多。
这些系统构成了一个完整的电力系统。
应该着重提到的是生成电能的工业，它与众不同之处在于其产品应按顾客要求即需即用。
生成电的能源以煤、石油，或水库和湖泊中水的形式储存起来，以备将来所有需。
但这并不会降低用户对发电机容量的需求。
显然，对电力系统而言服务的连续性至关重要。
没有哪种服务能完全避免可能出现的失误，而系统的成本明显依赖于其稳定性。
因此，必须在稳定性与成本之间找到平衡点，而最终的选择应是负载大小、特点、可能出现中断的原因、用户要求等的综合体现。
然而，网络可靠性的增加是通过应用一定数量的生成单元和在发电站港湾各分区间以及在国内、国际电网传输线路中使用自动断路器得以实现的。
事实上大型系统包括众多的发电站和由高容量传输线路连接的负载。
这样，在不中断总体服务的前提下可以停止单个发电单元或一套输电线路的运作。
当今生成和传输电力最普遍的系统是三相系统。
相对于其他交流系统而言，它具有简便、节能的优点。
尤其是在特定导体间电压、传输功率、传输距离和线耗的情况下，三相系统所需铜或铝仅为单相系统的75%。
三相系统另一个重要优点是三相电机比单相电机效率更高。
大规模电力生产的能源有：1.从常规燃料（煤、石油或天然气）、城市废料燃烧或核燃料应用中得到的蒸汽；2.水；3.石油中的柴油动力。
其他可能的能源有太阳能、风能、潮汐能等，但没有一种超越了试点发电站阶段。
在大型蒸汽发电站中，蒸汽中的热能通过涡轮轮转换为功。
涡轮必须包括安装在轴承上并封闭于汽缸中的轴或转子。
转子由汽缸四周喷嘴喷射出的蒸汽流带动而平衡地转动。
蒸汽流撞击轴上的叶片。
中央电站采用冷凝涡轮，即蒸汽在离开涡轮后会通过一冷凝器。
冷凝器通过其导管中大量冷水的循环来达到冷凝的效果，从而提高蒸汽的膨胀率、后继效率及涡轮的输出功率。
而涡轮则直接与大型发电机相连。
涡轮中的蒸汽具有能动性。
蒸汽进入涡轮时压力较高、体积较小，而离开时却压力较低、体积较大。
蒸汽是由锅炉中的热水生成的。
普通的锅炉有燃烧燃料的炉膛燃烧时产生的热被传导至金属炉壁来生成与炉体内压力相等的蒸汽。
在核电站中，蒸汽的生成是在反应堆的帮助下完成的。
反应堆中受控制的铀或盥的裂变可提供使水激化所必需的热量，即反应堆代替了常规电站的蒸汽机。
水电站是利用蕴藏在消遣的能来发电的。
为了将这种能转换为功，我们使用了水轮机。
现代水轮机可分为两类：脉冲式和压力式（又称反应式）。
前者用于重要设备，佩尔顿轮是唯一的类型；对于后者而言，弗朗西斯涡轮或其改进型被广泛采用。
在脉冲式涡轮中，整个水头在到达叶轮前都被转化为动能，因为水是通过喷嘴提供给叶轮的；而在压力式或反应式涡轮中，水通过其四周一系列引导叶版先直接导入叶片再提供给叶轮（或转子）。
离开引导叶片的水有压力，并且以一部分动能、一部分压力的形式来提供能量。
对于低于10,000千伏安的发电站而言柴油机是出色的原动机。
其优点是燃料成本低、预热时间短以及标准损耗低。
此外，其所需冷却水量极少。
柴油发电通常选择用于满足少量电力需求，如市政当局、宾馆及工厂等；医院通常备有独立的柴油发电机，以备紧急情况时使用。
通过电线来传输电能是电力系统中的一个重大问题。
而从下面研修目的目的架设输电线路又是必要的：1.将电力从水电站输送到可能很远的负载中心；2.从蒸汽站到相对较近负载中心电力的批量供应；3.出于内部连接目的将电能在紧急情况下从一系统转换至另一系统。
传输电压主要由经济因素决定。
实际上，当距离、功率、功耗固定时，输电线路中导体的重量与传输电压成反比。
因此，出于经济方面的考虑，长距离传输时电压一定要高。
当然，电压超高绝缘成本也就超高，要找到最佳电压必须通过减小导体横截面积来取得绝缘成本与经济节省之间的平衡。
高压传输通常使用配以悬挂式绝缘设备的高架结构。
称为路标铁塔用于负载绝缘设备，各导体悬挂于一组或一串绝缘体的底部。
最常用的导体类型如下：多芯铜导线、空心铜导线和ACSR（用钢加强的铝线）导线。
电力分配系统包括由高夺线供能的子电站与用户开关之间的所有部件。
电力从子电站接收，并以电压标准按不同类型用户均能接受的持续程度分送到各用户。
在大城市中，高架与地下布线方式均被采用。
尽管地下布线方式比高架方式昂贵，但在高度城市化地区却必不可少。
而在小城镇和较疏散的大城市区域，整个分配系统通常都是高架式的。
电力系统监控现代电力系统都是由许多部分组成的统一体，而每个部分又都影响着其他部分的特性。
为了整个系统能正常运行，就必须在系统的许多不同地点监控其工作情况以确保系统处于最佳工作状态。
用户方根关心的是供电频率和电压的变化范围要小。
既然系统内的频率在任何地方都是相同的，因而只要在便于观测之处安装一个频率表就能进行监控与此相反，系统的电压在不同的测试点上会有很大的差别。
因此，有必要在系统的某些关键测点上对电压进行不断的观测，以便提供满意的服务。
给系统内每台发电机规定适当的负荷时间访问演出能使系统有效地运行。
纵然一些新的电厂各自都有较高的效率，但是由于设置地点不当，可能产生巨大的系统电能损失。
发电机之间的负荷分配应使总的燃料费用最小。
要在任何意相不到的情况下保证正常供电，所有发电机的总额定功率就必须略大于总负荷加上损耗值。
这种富余电量通称为旋转备用容量，它可以弥补用户突然增加的负荷或某台发电机因需要检修而突然甩掉的负荷。
为了向用户征收电费，就必须安装电表。
在不同的电力系统之间有许多联结线。
仪表必须安装在联接点上，以便记录从一个系统传输到另一个系统的电能。
这种监测要连续进行，以确保相互输送的电力在合同允许的限度之内。
为防止过截造成的损坏，有必要对各个主要设备的工作状态进行不断的监测。
由于负载逐月增加，需要增加设备容量的地点是可以查明的，附加设备的安装就有可能得到保障。
因此，在日益扩大的电力系统的未来建设中，检测仪表起着指南的作用。
有时，在紧急情况下，系统操作人员观测到时他的系统负荷超过了发电能力和输电能力。
那么他就面临着甩掉部分负荷或者确切地说保持负荷不变这样的问题因而就有必要在中断供电造成损失最小的地区有选择地甩掉负荷。
在这种情况下，系统操作人员依靠许许多多仪表进行工作。
这些仪表显示着系统运行情况的信息。
当设备的运行走出其设计极限时，仪表可以发出警报声，作为要求采取避免设备损坏的行动的预告。
在出现像电力系统发生故障这种极端不利的情况时，有毛病的设备就会自动停止运行。
监控电流、电压和其他指标的仪表必须能识别有故障的设备，并使断路器开始工作，让有故障的设备停止运行，而让运行系统中的其余设备仍继续工作。
电力系统上的那些众多而不同的电气设备和用户拥有的那些电气设备都是按照在特定范围内运行而设计的。
凡超出这些设计限度的运行都是不合适的，因为这可能导致运行效率很低、能量损耗很多或者（在极端的情况下）使设备毁坏。
仔细观察设备的运行情况就可以发现需要采取的修正措施。
各种电气设备都不应该出现过量电流，因为它会产生过高的温度使运行效率降低而缩短设备的使用寿命。
居民区电路上出现过量电流时，由于保险丝和电闸的作用会造成电路中断。
马达内的过量电流有可能损坏绝缘而过早出现绝缘故障。
电压不足会极大地降低白炽灯泡的亮度，并可能使荧光灯不发光。
供电电压过低会在马达内造成过量电流而有可能损坏马达的线圈。
电压过高提高了灯泡的发光亮度，但是在许多情况下会严重缩短灯泡的使用寿命。
给马达和变压器超夺供电能在绕组铁芯里产生过多的能量损失，有可能使保持铁芯或绕组线圈的绝缘遭到损坏。
机器的超速旋转有可能对机器的转动部件造成结构上的损坏。
用户生产设备的超速运行可能造成劣质产品。
在两台发电机或一台发电机与一台同步马达之间存在的不协调状态会导致这两台机器有效功率传输的中断。
不协调状态应立即查明，两台机器也应立即分开。
然后，才可以使它们恢复同步继续运行。
在电力系统的许多工作位置上和许多用户的家中都要安装许多各种型号的仪表。
有了这些仪表，就能连续监控供电的工作状态。
Electric Power SystemsIntroduction of Electric Power SystemsAs the power industry grows, so do the economic and engineering problems connected with the generating, transmission and distribution systems used to produce and handle the vast quantities of electrical energy consumed today. These systems together form an electrical power system.It is important to note that the industry that produces electrical energy is unique in that it manufactures its product at the very instant that it is required by the customer. Energy for the generation of electricity can be stored in the form of coal and oil, and of water in reservoirs and lakes, to meet future requirements, but this does not decrease the need for generator capacity to meet the customers’ demands.It is obvious that the problem of the continuity of service is very important for an electrical power system. No service can be completely protected from the possibility of failure and clearly the cost of the system will depend on its requirements. However a net reliability gain is obtained by employing a certain number of generating unitsand by using automatic breakers for the separation into sections of the bus bars in generating stations and of the transmission lines in a national or international grid system. In fact a large system comprises numerous generating stations and loads interconnected by high-capacity transmission lines. An individual unit of generation or set of transmission ‘lines can usually cease to function without interrupting the general service.The most usual system today for generation and for the general transmission of power is the three-phase system. In favor of this system are its simplicity and its simplicity and its saving with respect to other a.c. system. In particular, for a given voltage between conductors, with a given power transmitted, with a given distance, and with a give line loss, the three-phase system requires only 75 per cent of the copper or aluminium needed in the single-phase system. Another important advantage of the three-phase system is that three-phase motors are more efficient than single-phase ones. The sources of energy ofr large-scale electricity generation are:1.steam obtained by means of a conventional fuel (coal, oil or natural gas),the combustion of city refuse or the employment of nuclear fuel;2.water;3.diesel power from oil.There are other possible sources of energy such as direct solar heat, wind power, tidal power, etc., but none of these has yet gone beyond the pilot-plant stage.In large steam power plants, the thermal energy stored in steam is converted into work by means of turbines. A turbine consists essentially of a shaft or rotor fixed in bearings and enclosed in a cylindrical casing. The rotor is made to turn smoothly by means of jets of steam from nozzles around the periphery of the turbine cylinder. These steam jets strike blades attached to the shaft. Central power stations employ condensing turbines in which the steam passes into a condenser after leaving the turbine. Condensation is effected by the circulation of large quantities of cold water through the tubes of the condenser,thus increasing the expansion ratio of the steam and the consequent efficiency and work output of the turbine. The turbines are connected directly to large electricity generators.In turbines the action of the steam is kinetic. There is progressive expansion of the steam from the high pressure and relatively small volume at which it leaves.Steam is made by heating water in a boiler. The usual boiler has a furnace in which fuel is burned, and the heat given off during combustion is conducted through the metal walls of the boiler to generate steam at a pressure within the boiler vessel. In nuclear plants, steam is generated with the aid of a reactor in which the controlled fission of uranium or plutonium supplies the necessary heat for the vaporization of water. Thus the reactor rep; aces the steam generator of conventional plants.Use is made of the energy possessed by water in hydroelectric stations. In order to transform this energy into work, hydraulic turbines are used. Modern hydraulic turbines may be divided into two classes: impulse turbines and pressure or reaction turbines. Of the former, the Pelton wheel is the only type used in important installations; of the latter, the Francis turbine or one of its modifications is universally employed.In an impulse turbine, the whole head of water is converted into kinetic energy before the wheel is reached, as the water is supplied to the wheel through a nozzle. In the pressure or reaction turbine the wheel (or runner) is provided with vanes into which water is directed by means of a series of guide vanes around the whole periphery. The water leaving these guide vanes is under pressure and supplies energy partly in the kinetic form and partly in the pressure form.The diesel engine is an excellent prime mover for electricity generation in plant below about 10,000 KV A. It has the advantage of low fuel cost, a brief warming-up period and low standing losses. Moreover it requires little cooling water. Diesel generation is generally chosen for small power requirements by municipalities, hotels and factories; hospitals often keep and independent diesel generator for emergency supply.The transmission of electrical energy by means of lines is a great problem in electrical power systems. Transmission lines are essential for three purposes:1.To transmit power from a hydroelectric site to a load center perhaps aconsiderable distance away;2.For the bulk supply of power from steam stations to load centers arelatively short distance away;3.For interconnection purposes to transfer energy from one system toanother in case of emergency.The transmission voltage is determined largely by economic factors. In fact, in a transmission line, if the distance, the power and the power loss are fixed, the total weight of the conductor varies inversely as the square of the transmission voltage. For the economic transmission of power over considerable distances the voltage must therefore be high. Naturally with higher voltages the insulation cost also rises and to find the optimum voltage we must strike a balance between this cost and the saving through the reduction of the cross-section of the conductors.For high voltages, overhead-line construction is generally used with suspension-type insulators. Steel tower, called pylons serve to carry the insulators, with each conductor suspended from the bottom of a group or string of insulator units. The following types of conductor are those most commonly used: stranded copper conductors, hollow copper conductors and ACSR (aluminum cable, steel reinforced) conductors.Distribution includes all the parts of the electricity system between the power substations supplied from high-voltage transmission lines and the consumer’s switch. Electric power is received from substations and distributed to the consumers at the voltage levels and with the degree of continuity that are acceptable to the various types of consumer. In large metropolitan systems both over head and underground distribution methods are used. Although underground distribution is more expensive than an overhead system, it is virtually a necessary in heavily urbanized areas. In smaller towns and in the less congested districts of large cities, the entire distribution system is usually overhead.Electric System MonitoringA modern electric power system is an assembly of many components each of which influences the behavior of every other part. Proper functioning of the system as a whole makes it necessary to monitor conditions existion at many different points on the system in order to assure optimum operation.The concern of the customers is primarily that the frequency and voltage of the supply are held within certain rather narrow limits. Since frequency of the system is the same everywhere, it may be monitored by a single frequency meter located at any convenient point. In contrast the voltage of the system may be quite different at different points. Consequently, it is necessary to make continuous observation of the voltage at certain key points on the system in order to provide acceptable service.Efficient operation of the system is obtained by assigning proper load schedules to each of the generators on the system. Newer plants, although individually more efficient, may be located at points on the system where their loading occasions large system losses. It is desirable to operate with a division of the load between generators so that the total cost of fuel consumed is minimized. To provide reliability of the power supply in tile event of unexpected conditions, it is desirable to have the total kilowatt rating of all machines in operation somewhat greater than the total load plus losses. This excess of generation, known as spinning reserve, is then available for picking up suddenly applied customer loads or to pick up the load dropped by a generator that must be removed from service for emergency maintenance.Instrumentation is necessary to permit billing of Customers for energy used. Many interconnections exist between different power systems. Instruments must be provided at interchange points to permit billing for energy transferred from one system to another. The continuous monitoring of energy transfer is necessary to assure that interchanged power is within the limits of contract agreements.The continuous measurement of conditions on major pieces of equipment is necessary to avoid damage due to overload. As load increases from month to month, points at which additional capacity of equipment is required may be recognized and provision made for the installation of additional equipment. Thus instrumentation serves as a guide for future construction in a growing power system.Occasionally, under emergency conditions, a system operator observes that his system load exceeds the ability of the available generating and transmission equipment. He is then faced with the problem of load shedding or ,more properly, load conservation. It is then necessary to drop selected loads where service interruption is least objectionable. In such an event, he relies on the many instruments which provide information relative to system-operation conditions.Instruments may sound alarms as advance warnings of conditions requiring action to avoid damage to equipment operating beyond its design limitation. In the event of extreme conditions such as power-system faults, defective equipment is switched out of service automatically. Instruments that continuously monitor current voltage, and other quantities must be able to identify the faulted equipment and to bring about operation of the circuit breakers which remove it from service, while leaving in service all other equipment on the operating system.The many different electrical devices on a power system and those owned by thecustomers are designed for operation within certain specified ranges. Operation, excessive deterioration, or (in extreme cases ) the destruction of the device. Careful attention to the conditions under which equipment is operating may indicate corrective action that must be taken.Overcurrent on all electrical devices is undesirable, as it produces excessive temperatures, inefficient operation, and reduced service life. Overcurrent in residential circuits may bring about disconnection of the circuit by fuse or breaker action. Overcurrent in motors may damage insulation, with possible early insulation failure.Undervoltage considerably reduces the efficiency of incandescent lamps and may result in nonoperation of fluorescent lamps. Undervoltage of the power supply to motors may result in excessive currents in the motors, with possible damage to windings.Overvoltage increases the light output of lamps but in many instances seriously shortens useful life. Overvoltage applied to motors and transformers may result in excessive losses within the iron, with possible damage to the iron or to the adjacent winding insulation.Overspeed of rotating machines may result in structural damage to rotating parts. The overspeed of the customers’production equipment may result in an inferior quality of the product.An out-of-step condition existing between two generators or between a generator and a synchronous motor results in an interruption of useful power transfer between the two machines. An out-of-step condition should be recognized promptly and the machines separated from each other. They may then be resynchronized and brought back into service.Instruments of many different types must be installed at many locations on a power system and on the premises of the many customers. With such instruments, conditions existing on the system may be continuously monitored.。