管理经济学英文版·原书第9版-知识点总结
罗宾斯《管理学》第九版笔记
第一章管理与组织导论一、谁是管理者管理者是组织中这样的成员，他告诉别人该做什么以及怎么样去做。
管理者〔manager〕是这样的人，他们通过协调和监督其他人的活动到达组织目的。
管理者通常分为基层管理者、中层管理者和高层管理者。
二、什么是管理管理〔management〕通过协调和监督他人的活动，有效果和有效率地完成工作。
效率〔efficiency〕是指以尽可能少的投入获得尽可能多的产出。
效果通常指的是“正确地做事〞，即不浪费资源。
效果〔effectiveness〕通常指“做正确的事〞，即所从事的工作和活动有助于组织到达其目标。
在成功的组织中高效率和高效果是相辅相成的。
三、管理者做什么1、管理职能〔亨利.法尔约〕。
方案组织领导控制定义目标，制定战略，开发方案以协调活动决定需要做什么，怎么做，谁去做指导和鼓励所有群体和个人，解决冲突监控活动以确保它们按方案完成2、管理角色〔亨利.明茨伯格〕。
人际关系信息传递决策制定挂名首脑领导者联络者监听者传播者发言人企业家混乱驾驭者资源分配者谈判者3、管理技能〔罗伯特.卡茨〕。
技术技能：熟练完成特定工作所需要的特定领域的知识和技术。
人际技能：包括与单独的个人或群体中的其他成员和睦相处的能力。
概念技能：管理者对抽象、复杂情况进行思考和概念化的技能。
四、什么是组织组织〔organization〕是对人员的一种精心安排，以实现某些特定的目的。
组织的三个特征：明确的目的、人员、精细的结构。
现在的组织更倾向于依靠灵活的工作安排、雇员工作团队、开放的沟通系统和供给商联盟。
传统组织新型组织稳定的缺乏灵活性关注职位根据职位定义工作个人导向永久性职位命令导向由管理者作决策规那么导向相对均质的员工队伍工作日从上午8时到下午5时等级关系在上班时间利用组织设施从事工作动态的灵活的关注技能根据任务定义工作团队导向临时性职位参与导向雇员参与决策制定顾客导向多样化的员工队伍工作日长度没有限制横向的和网络化的关系在任何地点、任何时间工作第二章管理的昨天和今天一、管理的历史背景两个重大事件：776，亚当.斯密发表?国富论?主张组织和社会将从劳动分工或工作专业化中获得经济利益。
笔记_管理学_罗宾斯_第九版41
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笔记_管理学_罗宾斯_第九版全
第Ⅲ篇计划
第七章计划的基础
1、计划的定义
计划是一个确定目标和评估实现了佳方式的过程 (正式计划、非正式计划)
2、计划的目的：:指出方向，减少变化冲击，尽可能减少浪费和冗余；设上标准以利于进行控制。
3、计划和债效
计划与债效关系
（1）.一般地说，正式计划通常与更高的利润，更高的资产报酬率及其他积极
的财务成果的联系。
（2）.高质量的计划过程和适当的实施过程比泛泛的计划更可以导致较高的债效。
（3）.凡是正式计划来能导致高债效的情况，一般都是因为环境的原因。
4、对计划存在着的误解
（1）不准确的计划是在浪费管理当局的时间
（2）计划消除变化
（3）计划降低灵活性
5、计划的类型：
①以计划的广度分：战略性计划：应用于整体组织，为组织设立总体目标和寻求组织在环境中的位的计划。
作业计划：规定总体目标如何实现的细节的计划。
②计划的时间框架分：短期计划长期计划
③计划的明确性分：具体性计划：具有明确的目标，不存在模棱两可，没有容易引起误解的问题的计划。
指导性计划：只规定一些一般的方针，指出重点但
笔记_管理学_罗宾斯_第九版41
笔记_管理学_罗宾斯_第九版41 2 2 不限定具体目标上或是特定的行动成果上。
当环境的不确定很高，以及当组织处于生命周期的形成阶段或衰退阶段或衰退阶段时，指导必计划与具体性计划更可取。
管理学,罗宾斯,9版,英文Robbins_fom9_ppt(2)
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Personality Theories
Personality: A unique combination of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns that affect how a person reacts to situations and interacts with others.
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Perceptual Shortcuts
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Understanding Perception
1. Employees react to perception, not reality. 2. The potential for perceptual distortion exists.
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9.2 Explain the role that attitudes play in job performance.
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Attitudes and Job Performance
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Matching Personalities and Jobs
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Personality Traits Across Cultures
National cultures differ in terms of the degree to which people believe they control their environment.
管理学(斯蒂芬 罗宾斯 第九版)英文课件(第二章)
– Industrial Revolution • substitution of machine power for human power • large organizations required formal management
– Describe the contributions of the general administrative theorists一般行政管理
– Summarize the quantitative approach定量方法 to management
– Describe the contributions of the early organizational behavior组织行为 advocates
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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EARLY ADVOCATES OF OB
© Prentice Hall, 2002ehavior (cont.)
Hawthorne Studies
– started in 1924 at Western Electric Company
– use of scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be done
– perspective of improving the productivity and efficiency of manual workers
管理学(第九版)知识点归纳
第一章管理与组织导论一、为什么要学习管理（一）管理的普遍性（二）工作的现实（三）成为一名管理者的挑战与回报二、谁是管理者管理者的定义：通过协调和监督其他人的活动达到组织目标的人管理者的分类：基层管理者：管理非管理雇员的工作（区域经理、部门经理、工长）中层管理者：处于基层与高层之间（地区经理、项目主管、工厂厂长）高层管理者：制定广泛的组织决策、为整个组织制定计划和目标（执行副总裁、总裁、管理懂事、首席运营官、首席执行官、董事会主席）三、什么是管理管理的定义：通过协调和监督他人的活动，有效率和有效果地完成工作——协调性、有效性、目的性（区分管理岗位和非管理岗位）四、管理者做什么（一）管理职能计划：定义目标，制定战略以获取目标，以及制定计划和协调活动的过程组织：决定需要做什么，怎么做，谁去做领导：同别人一起或者通过别人去完成组织目标的过程控制：监控活动以确保它们按计划完成（二）管理角色（亨利明茨伯格）▲ 管理者角色的强调重点随组织的层次不同而变化 （三）管理技能（罗伯特 卡茨）技术技能：熟练完成特定工作所需的特定领域的知识和技术 人际技能：与单独的个人或群体中的其他成员和睦相处的能力 概念技能：管理者对抽象、复杂情况进行思考和概念化的技能概念技能利用信息解决工作问题的能力识别创新的机会界定问题范围并实施解决方案从大量数据中筛选重要信息掌握技术上在商业的运用掌握组织运营模式沟通技能将构思表述为语言，转化为行动的能力同时、下属之间的信任倾听并提出问题表现技能：口头方式表现技能：书面或图示方式效果技能为企业使命或部门目标做出贡献关注顾客多任务：同时进行多项工作谈判技能项目管理检查工作并实施改进设定和维持内外的行为准则赋予受关注的事物和特殊活动优先权时间管理人际技能指导技能多样化技能：在不同的文化中与不同的人一起工作组织内部网络化组织外部网络化在团队中工作：合作与承诺（四）管理者工作是如何变化的（顾客、创新）（五）什么是组织组织：对人员的一种精心的安排，以实现某些特定的目的特征：明确的目的、人员、精细的结构稳定的动态的第二章管理的昨天和今天一、管理的历史背景（一）亚当斯密《国富论》：主张组织和社会将从劳动分工或工作专业化中得到经济利益经济人观点（二）工业革命：机械力代替人力；大型组织需要正式化的管理——体现管理自然属性二、科学管理：应用科学方法确定从事工作的“最佳方式”→关注处于组织最低层次的管理（一）泰罗（科学管理之父）的四条管理原则1.对工人工作的每一个要素开发出一种科学方法，用以代替老的经验方法2.科学地挑选工人，并对他们进行培训、教育，使之成长3.与工人们衷心地合作，以保证一切工作都按已形成的科学原则去办4.管理当局与工人在工作和职责的划分上几乎是相等的，管理当局把自己比工人更胜任的各种工作都承揽下来缺陷：激励前提简单化，只考虑金钱是工作的唯一动机；将工人看作机器一部分；排除了高层管理者处理更广泛外部事务的机会（二）吉尔布雷斯夫妇的动作分类体系（使用照片来研究身体与四肢动作；显微定时器；归纳出17种手部基本动作的分类体系）（三）甘特与甘特图（奖励工资制、甘特图）三、一般行政管理理论：描述了管理者做什么以及什么构成了良好的管理实践→关注全部管理者的活动（一）法约尔的14条管理原则1使雇员的工作更有效率，从而提高了工作的产出2凡行使职权的地方，都应当建立责任3456个人利益服从整体利益：任何雇员个人或雇员群体的利益不应置于组织的整体利益之上7 报酬：对工人提供的服务必须付给公平的工资8 集中：集中是指下级参与决策制定的程度9 等级链：从最高层管理到最低层管理的直线职权是一个等级链10秩序：人员和物料应当在恰当的时间处在恰当的位置上11公平：管理者应当和蔼和公平地对待下属12人员的稳定：管理当局应当提供有规则的人事计划，并保证有合适的人选接替职位的空缺13 首创精神：允许雇员发起和实施计划将会调动他们的极大热情14 团结精神：鼓励团队精神将会在组织中建立起和谐与团结贡献：（从组织整体出发）认为管理作为一个专业可以被培训和开发；强调高层管理者的更广泛的政策层面；提供普遍的管理原则和管理理论框架缺陷：管理原则过于僵硬；缺少对环境、技术和人三者之间制约关系的考虑而忽略了数学工具（二）马克思韦伯的官僚行政组织（一种理想的组织形式）依据劳动分工原则，具有以下特征：•劳动分工•清楚定义的层次•详细的规则和规章制度•非个人的关系贡献：促进组织日常活动的效率，消除员工和管理者的主观判断，强调位置而不是人缺陷：有限的组织是灵活性和缓慢的决策；忽视了人和人际关系的重要性；权利的累积导致独裁管理；规划可能成为目的；一旦建立行政组织体系就很难消除四、管理的定量方法（采用定量技术来改进决策制定：运筹学/管理科学）–采用定量技术改进决策制定•统计的运用•最优化模型•信息模型•管理行为的计算机模拟–线性规划- 改进资源的分配决策–关键路线进度分析- 使作业计划更有效贡献：通过建立模型和定量计算，准确的解决管理决策中的实际问题缺陷：不够直观，很多管理问题无法量化五、行为科学理论（这个领域的研究涉及工作中人的行为——组织行为）（一）组织行为的早期贡献（二）霍桑研究结论：人们的生产率不仅受物质、环境的影响，更重要的是受社会因素和心理因素等方面的影响梅奥的人际关系理论：1.主要内容：工人是社会人不是经济人；企业中存在着非正式组织；新型的领导能力在于提高职工的满足程度以提高生产率2.评价：贡献：强调社会和心理过程将影响工作绩效缺陷：忽视了工人理性和正式组织对生产率的贡献，后来的研究结论反映了“满足的工人总是更具生产性”的原则过于简单六、系统观点系统：由相互作用、相互依存的若干组成部分结合而成的具有特定功能的有机整体●开放系统（动态地与它所处的环境发生相互作用）●封闭系统（不与动态地与它所处的环境发生相互作用，不受环境的影响）系统具有整体性、目的性、相关性、动态性管理者应将组织看作一个整体的系统●协调组织内的各个不同部门的活动●组织内某一部分的决定和行动，会影响到其它部分。
罗宾斯管理学第九版第二章（英文版）
高二语文必修1-必修4必背篇目测试一、必修至必修四上下句默写（20分）1.骐骥一跃，不能十步。
驽马十驾，功在不舍。
(荀子《劝学》)2.锲而舍之，朽木不折;锲而不舍，金石可镂。
(荀子《劝学》)3.句读之不知，惑之不解，或师焉，或不焉，小学而大遗，吾未见其明也。
(韩愈《师说》)4．清风徐来，水波不兴。
举酒属客，诵明月之诗，歌窈窕之章。
(苏轼《赤壁赋》)5．浩浩乎如冯虚御风，而不知其所止;飘飘乎如遗世独立，羽化而登仙。
(苏轼《赤壁赋》)6．乱石穿空，惊涛拍岸，卷起千堆雪。
江山如画，一时多少豪杰。
7.想当年，金戈铁马，气吞万里如虎。
《京口北固亭怀古》8.亦余心之所善兮，虽九死其犹未悔；路曼曼其修远兮，吾将上下而求索《离骚》9．剑阁峥嵘而崔嵬，一夫当关，万夫莫开。
《蜀道难》10.弟走从军阿姨死，暮去朝来颜色故。
门前冷落鞍马稀，老大嫁作商人妇。
二、必修至必修四情景式默写（60分）1．《氓》中与“青梅竹马”意境相仿的一句是：总角之宴，言笑晏晏。
2. 《氓》中通过写桑叶凋落喻指女子年华逝去的一句是：桑之落矣，其黄而陨。
3. 《氓》中写男子变化无常，三心二意的句子是：士也罔极，二三其德.4．《离骚》一文中以博大的胸怀，对广大劳动人民寄予深深同情的语句是：长太息以掩涕兮,哀民生之多艰。
5.《离骚》中用香草做比喻说明自己遭贬黜是因为德行高尚的两句：既替余以蕙纕兮,又申之以揽茝。
6.《离骚》中用大鸟和小鸟不合群来比喻说明自己绝不随波逐流的两句：鸷鸟之不群兮，自前世而固然。
7.《离骚》中屈原委婉表达自己后悔选择做官，想要归隐的两句：悔相道之不察兮，延伫乎吾将反。
8. 《赤壁赋》中概括了曹操军队在攻破荆州顺流而下的军容盛状的句子是：舳舻千里，旌旗蔽空。
9.苏轼在《赤壁赋》中慨叹“人生短促，人很渺小”的句子是：寄蜉蝣于天地，渺沧海之一粟。
10. 《赤壁赋》中写希望与神仙相交，与明月同在的句子：挟飞仙以遨游，抱明月而长终。
11．《蜀道难》的主旨句是：蜀道之难，难于上青天。
管理学,罗宾斯,9版,英文Robbins_fom9_ppt
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15.2
Define the nature and purpose of value chain management.
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Value Chain Management
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The Value Chain Management Process
The dynamic, competitive environment facing contemporary global organizations demands new solutions.
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Employees and Human Resources
• Flexible job design • Effective hiring process • Ongoing training
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Obstacles to Value Chain Management
1. Technology 2. Quality initiatives 3. Project management
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Quality Control
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《管理经济学》课程笔记
《管理经济学》课程笔记第一章：管理经济学基础一、管理经济学的性质与任务1. 管理经济学的定义：管理经济学是经济学的一个分支，它将经济学的理论、方法和技术应用于企业和其他组织的决策过程中，以帮助管理者在有限资源的约束下，做出最优的资源配置和经营决策。
2. 管理经济学的特点：- 微观性：管理经济学专注于单个企业或组织的经济行为，而不是整个经济体系。
- 实用性：管理经济学提供了一系列分析工具和模型，可直接用于解决实际问题。
- 多学科性：管理经济学融合了经济学、数学、统计学、心理学、管理学等多个学科的知识。
- 决策导向：管理经济学的核心在于提供决策支持，帮助管理者做出更好的决策。
3. 管理经济学的任务：- 提供决策工具：管理经济学为管理者提供了一套分析工具，如成本分析、需求预测、投资评估等。
- 优化资源配置：管理经济学帮助企业在资源有限的情况下，如何分配资源以实现最大化的效益。
- 增强企业竞争力：通过分析市场和竞争环境，管理经济学帮助企业制定策略，提高市场竞争力。
- 评估风险与不确定性：管理经济学提供方法来评估和应对企业在运营过程中可能遇到的风险和不确定性。
二、企业的性质及其目标1. 企业的性质：- 经济实体：企业是一个独立的经济实体，拥有自己的资产、负债和权益。
- 利润追求者：企业的首要目标是追求利润，这是企业生存和发展的基础。
- 市场参与者：企业在市场中与其他参与者（如消费者、供应商、竞争对手）互动。
2. 企业的目标：- 经济目标：包括利润最大化、成本最小化、市场份额扩大、收入增长等。
- 社会目标：企业还应承担社会责任，如环境保护、员工福利、社区服务等。
- 长期目标：企业的长期目标是持续成长和价值最大化，确保企业在未来市场中保持竞争力。
三、管理经济学的六个决策依据1. 成本与收益分析：- 成本概念：固定成本、变动成本、总成本、边际成本等。
- 收益概念：总收入、边际收入、利润等。
- 成本-收益比较：确保项目的收益大于成本，实现盈利。
罗宾斯管理学第9版第五章课件
I. What Is Social Responsibility?
1、有关社会责任的两种相反的观点 Two Views of Social Responsibility （2）社会经济学观点(socioeconomic
view)：认为管理着的社会责任不只是创造 利润，还包括保护和增进社会福利。这一 立场是基于社会对企业的期望已经发生了 变化这样一信念。
I. What Is Social Responsibility?
3、从义务到响应
From Obligations to Responsiveness to Responsibility
（2）社会响应(social responsiveness)：是指— 个企业适应变化的社会状况的能力。社会响应的 观点强调管理者针对其从事的社会行动做出实际 的决策。一个具有社会响应能力的组织之所以采 取某种行为方式，是因为它希望满足某种普遍的 社会需要。社会响应是由社会准则(social norms) 所引导的。
第5章 社会责任和管理道德
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND MANAGERIAL ETHICS
一、什么是社会责任 What Is Social Responsibility? 二、社会责任和经济绩效 Social Responsibility and Economic Performance 三、管理的“绿色化” The Greening of Management 四、以价值观为基础的管理 Values-Based Management 五、管理道德 Managerial Ethics 六、当今世界的社会责任和道德问题 Social Responsibility and Ethics in Today’s World
nbpcyu管理经济学知识点
-+懒惰是很奇怪的东西，它使你以为那是安逸，是休息，是福气；但实际上它所给你的是无聊，是倦怠，是消沉;它剥夺你对前途的希望，割断你和别人之间的友情，使你心胸日渐狭窄，对人生也越来越怀疑。
—罗兰绪论：一．管理经济学与微观经济学的异同同：前者与后者都是研究企业的行为，都要根据对企业目标的假设，再结合企业内外的环境来研究。
异：（1）后者是一门理论科学，研究的是抽象的企业，而前者则是一门应用科学，研究的是现实的企业（2）后者是以企业的唯一目标是追求最大利润为假设的，而前者则认为实现企业的目标从短期看，只能是有条件地谋求尽可能多的利润，从长期看，则是追求企业价值的最大化（3）后者是以企业所处环境的全部信息已知为假设的，据此来研究企业行为的一般规律，而前者则认为企业的环境信息是不确定的，因而需要依靠多种学科的知识对有关数据进行预测和估计，在不确定条件下进行具体决策。
二、管经的理论和支柱主要有：建立经济模型，边际分析法，需求弹性原理，关于市场机制和市场竞争的基本原理，边际收益递减规律，机会成本概念和资金的时间价值。
三、管经的决策准则1、企业目标：企业分为短期目标和长期目标。
短期目标是多样化的，长期目标是实现企业长期利润的最大化。
2、利润的种类及其在决策中的作用：可分为会计利润和经济利润，经济利润是决策的基础。
几种特殊情况下的机会成本：（1）业主用自己的资金办企业——把这笔资金借出可得到的利息。
（2）业主自己兼任经理——他在别处从事其他工作可得到的薪水。
（3）机器原来闲置，现在用来生产某种产品——零。
（4）机器原来生产A，可得利润X元，现在改生产B——生产A可得到的利润X元。
（5）过去买进的物料，现在市价变了，其机会成本——按市价计算。
（6）按目前市价购进的物料、雇用的职工以及贷入的资金——与其会计成本一致。
（7）机器设备折旧——该机器设备期初与期未可变卖价值之差。
3、经济利润的意义：大于零，则说明资源用于本用途的价值要高于其他用途，资源配置较优，否则说明本用途的资源配置不合理。
曼昆宏观经济经济学第九版英文原版复习资料3
Answers to Textbook Questions and ProblemsCHAPTER3 National Income: Where It Comes From and Where It GoesQuestions for Review1. The factors of production and the production technology determine the amount of output an economycan produce. The factors of production are the inputs used to produce goods and services: the most important factors are capital and labor. The production technology determines how much output can be produced from any given amounts of these inputs. An increase in one of the factors of production or an improvement in technology leads to an increase in the economy’s output.2. When a firm decides how much of a factor of production to hire or demand, it considers how thisdecision affects profits. For example, hiring an extra unit of labor increases output and thereforeincreases revenue; the firm compares this additional revenue to the additional cost from the higher wage bill. The additional revenue the firm receives depends on the marginal product of labor (MPL) and the price of the good produced (P). An additional unit of labor produces MPL units of additional output, which sells for P dollars per unit. Therefore, the additional revenue to the firm is P ⨯MPL. The cost of hiring the additional unit of labor is the wage W. Thus, this hiring decision has the following effect on profits:ΔProfit= ΔRevenue –ΔCost= (P ⨯MPL) –W.If the additional revenue, P ⨯MPL, exceeds the cost (W) of hiring the additional unit of labor, then profit increases. The firm will hire labor until it is no longer profitable to do so—that is, until the MPL falls to the point where the change in profit is zero. In the equation above, the firm hires labor until ΔP rofit = 0, which is when (P ⨯MPL) = W.This condition can be rewritten as:MPL = W/P.Therefore, a competitive profit-maximizing firm hires labor until the marginal product of labor equals the real wage. The same logic applies to the firm’s decision regarding how much capital to hire: the firm will hire capital until the marginal product of capital equals the real rental price.3. A production function has constant returns to scale if an equal percentage increase in all factors ofproduction causes an increase in output of the same percentage. For example, if a firm increases its use of capital and labor by 50 percent, and output increases by 50 percent, then the production function has constant returns to scale.If the production function has constant returns to scale, then total income (or equivalently, total output) in an economy of competitive profit-maximizing firms is divided between the return to labor, MPL ⨯L, and the return to capital, MPK ⨯K. That is, under constant returns to scale, economic profit is zero.4. A Cobb–Douglas production function has the form F(K,L) = AKαL1–α. The text showed that theparameter αgives capital’s share of income. So if capital earns one-fourth of total income, then α=0.25. Hence, F(K,L) = AK0.25L0.75.5. Consumption depends positively on disposable income—i.e. the amount of income after all taxes havebeen paid. Higher disposable income means higher consumption.The quantity of investment goods demanded depends negatively on the real interest rate. For an investment to be profitable, its return must be greater than its cost. Because the real interest ratemeasures the cost of funds, a higher real interest rate makes it more costly to invest, so the demand for investment goods falls.6. Government purchases are a measure of the value of goods and services purchased directly by thegovernment. For example, the government buys missiles and tanks, builds roads, and provides services such as air traffic control. All of these activities are part of GDP. Transfer payments are government payments to individuals that are not in exchange for goods or services. They are the opposite of taxes: taxes reduce household disposable income, whereas transfer payments increase it. Examples of transfer payments include Social Security payments to the elderly, unemployment insurance, and veterans’ benefits.7. Consumption, investment, and government purchases determine demand for the economy’s output,whereas the factors of production and the production function determine the supply of output. The real interest rate adjusts to ensure that the demand for the ec onomy’s goods equals the supply. At theequilibrium interest rate, the demand for goods and services equals the supply.8. When the government increases taxes, disposable income falls, and therefore consumption falls as well.The decrease in consumption equals the amount that taxes increase multiplied by the marginalpropensity to consume (MPC). The higher the MPC is, the greater is the negative effect of the tax increase on consumption. Because output is fixed by the factors of production and the production technology, and government purchases have not changed, the decrease in consumption must be offset by an increase in investment. For investment to rise, the real interest rate must fall. Therefore, a tax increase leads to a decrease in consumption, an increase in investment, and a fall in the real interest rate.Problems and Applications1. a. According to the neoclassical theory of distribution, the real wage equals the marginal product oflabor. Because of diminishing returns to labor, an increase in the labor force causes the marginalproduct of labor to fall. Hence, the real wage falls.Given a Cobb–Douglas production function, the increase in the labor force will increase the marginal product of capital and will increase the real rental price of capital. With more workers,the capital will be used more intensively and will be more productive.b. The real rental price equals the marginal product of capital. If an earthquake destroys some of thecapital stock (yet miraculously does not kill anyone and lower the labor force), the marginalproduct of capital rises and, hence, the real rental price rises.Given a Cobb–Douglas production function, the decrease in the capital stock will decrease the marginal product of labor and will decrease the real wage. With less capital, each worker becomes less productive.c. If a technological advance improves the production function, this is likely to increase the marginalproducts of both capital and labor. Hence, the real wage and the real rental price both increase.d. High inflation that doubles the nominal wage and the price level will have no impact on the realwage. Similarly, high inflation that doubles the nominal rental price of capital and the price levelwill have no impact on the real rental price of capital.2. a. To find the amount of output produced, substitute the given values for labor and land into theproduction function:Y = 1000.51000.5 = 100.b. According to the text, the formulas for the marginal product of labor and the marginal product ofcapital (land) are:MPL = (1 –α)AKαL–α.MPK = αAKα–1L1–α.In this problem, α is 0.5 and A is 1. Substitute in the given values for labor and land to find themarginal product of labor is 0.5 and marginal product of capital (land) is 0.5. We know that thereal wage equals the marginal product of labor and the real rental price of land equals the marginal product of capital (land).c. Labor’s share of the output is given by the marginal product of labor times the quantity of labor, or50.d. The new level of output is 70.71.e. The new wage is 0.71. The new rental price of land is 0.35.f. Labor now receives 35.36.3. A production function has decreasing returns to scale if an equal percentage increase in all factors ofproduction leads to a smaller percentage increase in output. For example, if we double the amounts of capital and labor output increases by less than double, then the production function has decreasing returns to scale. This may happen if there is a fixed factor such as land in the production function, and this fixed factor becomes scarce as the economy grows larger.A production function has increasing returns to scale if an equal percentage increase in all factorsof production leads to a larger percentage increase in output. For example, if doubling the amount of capital and labor increases the output by more than double, then the production function has increasing returns to scale. This may happen if specialization of labor becomes greater as the population grows.For example, if only one worker builds a car, then it takes him a long time because he has to learn many different skills, and he must constantly change tasks and tools. But if many workers build a car, then each one can specialize in a particular task and become more productive.4. a. A Cobb–Douglas production function has the form Y = AKαL1–α. The text showed that the marginalproducts for the Cobb–Douglas production function are:MPL = (1 –α)Y/L.MPK = αY/K.Competitive profit-maximizing firms hire labor until its marginal product equals the real wage, and hire capital until its marginal product equals the real rental rate. Using these facts and theabove marginal products for the Cobb–Douglas production function, we find:W/P = MPL = (1 –α)Y/L.R/P = MPK = αY/K.Rewriting this:(W/P)L = MPL ⨯L = (1 –α)Y.(R/P)K = MPK ⨯K = αY.Note that the terms (W/P)L and (R/P)K are the wage bill and total return to capital, respectively.Given that the value of α = 0.3, then the above formulas indicate that labor receives 70 percent of total output (or income) and capital receives 30 percent of total output (or income).b. To determine what happens to total output when the labor force increases by 10 percent, considerthe formula for the Cobb–Douglas production function:Y = AKαL1–α.Let Y 1 equal the initial value of output and Y 2 equal final output. We know that α = 0.3. We also know that labor L increases by 10 percent:Y 1 = AK 0.3L 0.7. Y 2 = AK 0.3(1.1L )0.7.Note that we multiplied L by 1.1 to reflect the 10-percent increase in the labor force. To calculate the percentage change in output, divide Y 2 by Y 1:Y 2Y 1=AK 0.31.1L ()0.7AK 0.3L 0.7=1.1()0.7=1.069.That is, output increases by 6.9 percent.To determine how the increase in the labor force affects the rental price of capital, consider the formula for the real rental price of capital R/P :R/P = MPK = αAK α–1L 1–α.We know that α = 0.3. We also know that labor (L ) increases by 10 percent. Let (R/P )1 equal the initial value of the rental price of capital, and let (R/P )2 equal the final rental price of capital after the labor force increases by 10 percent. To find (R/P )2, multiply L by 1.1 to reflect the 10-percent increase in the labor force:(R/P )1 = 0.3AK –0.7L 0.7. (R/P )2 = 0.3AK –0.7(1.1L )0.7.The rental price increases by the ratioR /P ()2R /P ()1=0.3AK -0.71.1L ()0.70.3AK -0.7L 0.7=1.1()0.7=1.069So the rental price increases by 6.9 percent. To determine how the increase in the labor forceaffects the real wage, consider the formula for the real wage W/P :W/P = MPL = (1 – α)AK αL –α.We know that α = 0.3. We also know that labor (L ) increases by 10 percent. Let (W/P )1 equal the initial value of the real wage, and let (W/P )2 equal the final value of the real wage. To find (W/P )2, multiply L by 1.1 to reflect the 10-percent increase in the labor force:(W/P )1 = (1 – 0.3)AK 0.3L –0.3. (W/P )2 = (1 – 0.3)AK 0.3(1.1L )–0.3.To calculate the percentage change in the real wage, divide (W/P )2 by (W/P )1:W /P ()2W /P ()1=1-0.3()AK 0.31.1L ()-0.31-0.3()AK 0.3L-0.3=1.1()-0.3=0.972That is, the real wage falls by 2.8 percent.c. We can use the same logic as in part (b) to setY 1 = AK 0.3L 0.7. Y 2 = A (1.1K )0.3L 0.7.Therefore, we have:Y 2Y 1=A 1.1K ()0.3L 0.7AK 0.3L 0.7=1.1()0.3=1.029This equation shows that output increases by about 3 percent. Notice that α < 0.5 means thatproportional increases to capital will increase output by less than the same proportional increase to labor.Again using the same logic as in part (b) for the change in the real rental price of capital:R /P ()2R /P ()1=0.3A 1.1K ()-0.7L 0.70.3AK -0.7L 0.7=1.1()-0.7=0.935The real rental price of capital falls by 6.5 percent because there are diminishing returns to capital; that is, when capital increases, its marginal product falls.Finally, the change in the real wage is:W /P ()2W /P ()1=0.7A 1.1K ()0.3L -0.30.7AK 0.3L -0.3=1.1()0.3=1.029Hence, real wages increase by 2.9 percent because the added capital increases the marginalproductivity of the existing workers. (Notice that the wage and output have both increased by the same amount, leaving the labor share unchanged —a feature of Cobb –Douglas technologies.)d. Using the same formula, we find that the change in output is:Y 2Y 1=1.1A ()K 0.3L 0.7AK 0.3L 0.7=1.1This equation shows that output increases by 10 percent. Similarly, the rental price of capital and the real wage also increase by 10 percent:R /P ()2R /P ()1=0.31.1A ()K -0.7L 0.70.3AK -0.7L 0.7=1.1W /P ()2W /P ()1=0.71.1A ()K 0.3L -0.30.7AK 0.3L -0.3=1.15. Labor income is defined asW P ´L =WLP Labor’s share of income is defined asWL P æèççöø÷÷/Y =WL PYFor example, if this ratio is about constant at a value of 0.7, then the value of W /P = 0.7*Y /L . Thismeans that the real wage is roughly proportional to labor productivity. Hence, any trend in laborproductivity must be matched by an equal trend in real wages. O therwise, labor’s share would deviate from 0.7. Thus, the first fact (a constant labor share) implies the second fact (the trend in real wages closely tracks the trend in labor productivity).6. a. Nominal wages are measured as dollars per hour worked. Prices are measured as dollars per unitproduced (either a haircut or a unit of farm output). Marginal productivity is measured as units of output produced per hour worked.b. According to the neoclassical theory, technical progress that increases the marginal product offarmers causes their real wage to rise. The real wage for farmers is measured as units of farm output per hour worked. The real wage is W /P F , and this is equal to ($/hour worked)/($/unit of farm output).c. If the marginal productivity of barbers is unchanged, then their real wage is unchanged. The realwage for barbers is measured as haircuts per hour worked. The real wage is W /P B , and this is equal to ($/hour worked)/($/haircut).d. If workers can move freely between being farmers and being barbers, then they must be paid thesame wage W in each sector.e. If the nominal wage W is the same in both sectors, but the real wage in terms of farm goods isgreater than the real wage in terms of haircuts, then the price of haircuts must have risen relative to the price of farm goods. We know that W /P = MPL so that W = P MPL . This means that P F MPL F = P H MPL B , given that the nominal wages are the same. Since the marginal product of labor for barbers has not changed and the marginal product of labor for farmers has risen, the price of a haircut must have risen relative to the price of the farm output. If we express this in growth rate terms, then the growth of the farm price + the growth of the marginal product of the farm labor = the growth of the haircut price.f. The farmers and the barbers are equally well off after the technological progress in farming, giventhe assumption that labor is freely mobile between the two sectors and both types of peopleconsume the same basket of goods. Given that the nominal wage ends up equal for each type ofworker and that they pay the same prices for final goods, they are equally well off in terms of what they can buy with their nominal income. The real wage is a measure of how many units of output are produced per worker. Technological progress in farming increased the units of farm outputproduced per hour worked. Movement of labor between sectors then equalized the nominal wage.7. a. The marginal product of labor (MPL)is found by differentiating the production function withrespect to labor:MPL=dY dL=13K1/3H1/3L-2/3An increase in human capital will increase the marginal product of labor because more human capital makes all the existing labor more productive.b. The marginal product of human capital (MPH)is found by differentiating the production functionwith respect to human capital:MPH=dY dH=13K1/3L1/3H-2/3An increase in human capital will decrease the marginal product of human capital because there are diminishing returns.c. The labor share of output is the proportion of output that goes to labor. The total amount of outputthat goes to labor is the real wage (which, under perfect competition, equals the marginal product of labor) times the quantity of labor. This quantity is divided by the total amount of output to compute the labor share:Labor Share=(13K1/3H1/3L-2/3)LK1/3H1/3L1/3=1 3We can use the same logic to find the human capital share:Human Capital Share=(13K1/3L1/3H-2/3)HK1/3H1/3L1/3=1 3so labor gets one-third of the output, and human capital gets one-third of the output. Since workers own their human capital (we hope!), it will appear that labor gets two-thirds of output.d. The ratio of the skilled wage to the unskilled wage is:Wskilled Wunskilled =MPL+MPHMPL=13K1/3L-2/3H1/3+13K1/3L1/3H-2/31K1/3L-2/3H1/3=1+LHNotice that the ratio is always greater than 1 because skilled workers get paid more than unskilled workers. Also, when H increases this ratio falls because the diminishing returns to human capitallower its return, while at the same time increasing the marginal product of unskilled workers.e. If more colleges provide scholarships, it will increase H, and it does lead to a more egalitariansociety. The policy lowers the returns to education, decreasing the gap between the wages of more and less educated workers. More importantly, the policy even raises the absolute wage of unskilled workers because their marginal product rises when the number of skilled workers rises.8. The effect of a government tax increase of $100 billion on (a) public saving, (b) private saving, and (c)national saving can be analyzed by using the following relationships:National Saving = [Private Saving] + [Public Saving]= [Y –T –C(Y –T)] + [T –G]= Y –C(Y –T) –G.a. Public Saving—The tax increase causes a 1-for-1 increase in public saving. T increases by $100billion and, therefore, public saving increases by $100 billion.b. Private Saving—The increase in taxes decreases disposable income, Y –T, by $100 billion. Sincethe marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is 0.6, consumption falls by 0.6 $100 billion, or $60 billion. Hence,ΔPrivate Saving = –$100b – 0.6 (–$100b) = –$40b.Private saving falls $40 billion.c. National Saving—Because national saving is the sum of private and public saving, we canconclude that the $100 billion tax increase leads to a $60 billion increase in national saving.Another way to see this is by using the third equation for national saving expressed above, that national saving equals Y –C(Y –T) –G. The $100 billion tax increase reduces disposableincome and causes consumption to fall by $60 billion. Since neither G nor Y changes, nationalsaving thus rises by $60 billion.d. Investment—To determine the effect of the tax increase on investment, recall the nationalaccounts identity:Y = C(Y –T) + I(r) + G.Rearranging, we findY –C(Y –T) –G = I(r).The left side of this equation is national saving, so the equation just says that national savingequals investment. Since national saving increases by $60 billion, investment must also increaseby $60 billion.How does this increase in investment take place? We know that investment depends on thereal interest rate. For investment to rise, the real interest rate must fall. Figure 3-1 illustrates saving and investment as a function of the real interest rate.The tax increase causes national saving to rise, so the supply curve for loanable funds shifts to the right. The equilibrium real interest rate falls, and investment rises.9. If consumers increase the amount that they consume today, then private saving and, therefore, nationalsaving will fall. We know this from the definition of national saving:National Saving = [Private Saving] + [Public Saving]= [Y –T –C(Y –T)] + [T –G].An increase in consumption decreases private saving, so national saving falls.Figure 3-2 illustrates saving and investment as a function of the real interest rate. If national saving decreases, the supply curve for loanable funds shifts to the left, thereby raising the real interest rate and reducing investment.10. a. Private saving is the amount of disposable income, Y – T, that is not consumed:S private= Y – T – C= 8,000 – 2,000 – [1,000 + (2/3)(8,000 – 2,000)]= 1,000.Public saving is the amount of taxes the government has left over after it makes its purchases:S public= T – G= 2,000 – 2,500= –500.National saving is the sum of private saving and public saving:S national= S private+ S public= 1,000 + (500)= 500.b. The equilibrium interest rate is the value of r that clears the market for loanable funds. We alreadyknow that national saving is 500, so we just need to set it equal to investment:S national= I500 = 1,200 – 100rSolving this equation for r, we find:r = 0.07 or 7%.c. When the government increases its spending, private saving remains the same as before (noticethat G does not appear in the S private equation above) while government saving decreases. Puttingthe new G into the equations above:S private= 1,000S public= T – G= 2,000 – 2,000= 0.Thus,S national= S private+ S public= 1,000 + (0)= 1,000.d. Once again the equilibrium interest rate clears the market for loanable funds:S national= I1,000 = 1,200 – 100rSolving this equation for r, we find:r = 0.02 or 2%.11. To determine the effect on investment of an equal increase in both taxes and government spending,consider the national income accounts identity for national saving:National Saving = [Private Saving] + [Public Saving]= [Y –T –C(Y –T)] + [T –G].We know that Y is fixed by the factors of production. We also know that the change in consumption equals the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) times the change in disposable income. This tells us thatΔNational Saving= {–ΔT – [MPC ⨯ (–ΔT)]} + [ΔT –ΔG]= [–ΔT + (MPC ⨯ΔT)] + 0= (MPC – 1) ΔT .The above expression tells us that the impact on national saving of an equal increase in T and G depends on the size of the marginal propensity to consume. The closer the MPC is to 1, the smaller is the fall in saving. For example, if the MPC equals 1, then the fall in consumption equals the rise in government purchases, so national saving [Y – C (Y – T ) – G ] is unchanged. The closer the MPC is to 0 (and therefore the larger is the amount saved rather than spent for a one-dollar change in disposable income), the greater is the impact on saving. Because we assume that the MPC is less than 1, we expect that national saving falls in response to an equal increase in taxes and government spending.The reduction in saving means that the supply of loanable funds curve will shift to the left in Figure 3-3. The real interest rate rises, and investment falls.12. a. The demand curve for business investment shifts out to the right because the subsidy increases thenumber of profitable investment opportunities for any given interest rate. The demand curve for residential investment remains unchanged.b. The total demand curve for investment in the economy shifts out to the right since it represents thesum of business investment, which shifts out to the right, and residential investment, which isunchanged. As a result the real interest rate rises as in Figure 3-4.c. The total quantity of investment does not change because it is constrained by the inelastic supply of savings. The investment tax credit leads to a rise in business investment, but an offsetting fall in residential investment. That is, the higher interest rate means that residential investment falls (a movement along the curve), whereas the rightward shift of the business investment curve leads business investment to rise by an equal amount. Figure 3-5 shows this change. Note that I 1B +I 1R +I 2B +I 2R =S .13. In this chapter, we concluded that an increase in government expenditures reduces national saving andraises the interest rate. The increase in government expenditure therefore crowds out investment by the full amount of the increase. Similarly, a tax cut increases disposable income and hence consumption.This increase in consumption translates into a fall in national saving, and the increase in consumption crowds out investment by the full amount of the increase.If consumption depends on the interest rate, then saving will also depend on it. The higher the interest rate, the greater the return to saving. Hence, it seems reasonable to think that an increase in the interest rate might increase saving and reduce consumption. Figure 3-6 shows saving as an increasing function of the interest rate.Consider what happens when government purchases increase. At any given level of the interest rate, national saving falls by the change in government purchases, as shown in Figure 3-7. The figure shows that if the saving function slopes upward, investment falls by less than the amount thatgovernment purchases rises by. This happens because consumption falls and saving increases inresponse to the higher interest rate. Hence, the more responsive consumption is to the interest rate, the less investment is crowded out by government purchases.14. a. Figure 3-8 shows the case where the demand for loanable funds is stable but the supply of funds(the saving schedule) fluctuates perhaps reflecting temporary shocks to income, changes ingovernment spending, or changes in consumer confidence. In this case, when interest rates fall,investment rises; when interest rates rise, investment falls. We would expect a negative correlation between investment and interest rates.b. Figure 3-9 shows the case where the supply of loanable funds (saving) is stable, whereas thedemand for loanable funds fluctuates, perhaps reflecting ch anges in firms’ expectations about the marginal product of capital. We would now find a positive correlation between investment and the interest rate—when demand for funds rises, it pushes up the interest rate, so we observe thatinvestment and the real interest rate increase at the same time.c. If both curves shift, we might generate a scatter plot as in Figure 3-10, where the economyfluctuates among points A, B, C, and D. Depending on how often the economy is at each of these points, we might find little clear relationship between investment and interest rates.d. Situation (c) seems fairly reasonable—as both the supply of and demand for loanable fundsfluctuate over time in response to changes in the economy.。
管理经济学九课件
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(英文)罗宾斯管理学考研笔记1-19章
Management(9td Edition)罗宾斯《管理学》英文笔记（1-13）Chapter 1 introduction to management and organization1.Managers1)Managers coordinate and oversee the work of other people to accomplish organizational goals.Non-managerial employees work directly on a job or task and have no one reporting to them.2)Classifying managers:Top managers are managers at or near the upper levels of the organization who are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization.Middle managers are those between the lowest and top levels of the organization who manage the work of first-line managers.First-line managers are those at the lowest level of management who manage the work of non-managerial employees and typically are directly or indirectly involved with producing the organization’s products or servicing the organization’s customers.2.ManagementManagement i nvolves coordinating and overseeing the work activities of others so that their activities are completed efficiently and effectively.Efficiency means doing things right or getting the most output from the least amount of inputs.Effectiveness means doing the right things, or completing activities so that organizational goals are attained.3.Management functionsPlanning involves defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving those goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities.Organizing involves arrange and structure work to accomplish organizational goals.Leading involves working with and through people to accomplish organizational goals.Controlling involves monitoring, comparing, and correcting work performance.4.Management roles(Henry Mintzberg’s managerial roles)1)Interpersonal roles involve people and other duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in nature.2)Information roles involve collecting, receiving, and disseminating information.5.Management skills(Robert L. Katz)Technical skills are the job-specific knowledge and techniques needed to proficiently perform work tasks.These skills are more important for first-line managers.Human skills refer to the ability to work well with other people both individually and in a group.These skills are equally important for all managers.Conceptual skills refer to the ability to think and to conceptualize about abstract and complex situations.These skills are more important for top managers.6.The changes in manager’s job:1)Changing technology (digitization)Impact: shifting organizational boundariesVirtual workplacesMore mobile workforceFlexible work arrangementEmpowered employees2)Changing security threatsImpact: risk arrangementWork life-personal life balanceRestructured workplaceDiscrimination concernsGlobalization concernsEmployee assistance3)Increased emphasis on organizational and managerial issuesImpact: redefined valuesRebuilding trustIncreased accountability4)Increased competitivenessImpact: customer service(Customer service is important because without them, most organizations would cease to exist. And employeeattitudes and behaviors play a big role in customer satisfaction.)Innovation(Innovation is important for organizations to be competitive.)GlobalizationEfficiency/productivityanizationCharacteristics of organization: a distinctive purpose, composed of people, and a deliberate structure.Today’s organizations are more open, flexible, and responsive to changes than organizations once were. Why study managementIt’s important to study management for three reasons: (1) the universality of management, (2) the reality of work, and (3) the rewards and challenges of being a manager.(1)The universality of management refers to the fact that managers are needed in all types and sizes oforganizations, at all organizational levels and work areas, and in all global locations.(2)The reality of work—that is you will either manage or be managed.(3)Rewards:Create a work environment in which organizational members can work to the best of their ability.Have opportunities to think creatively and use imagination.Help others find meaning and fulfillment in wok.Support, coach, and nurture others, etc.Challenges:Do hard workMay have more clerical than managerial dutiesHave to deal with a variety of personalitiesOften have to make do with limited resources, etc.Chapter 7 Foundations of Planning1.PlanningPlanning involves defining organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate work activities.In formal planning, specific goals covering a specific time period are written and shared with organizational members, and specific plans exist for achieving these goals.In informal planning,goals are never written down or seldom talked with other organizational members.Informal planning also lacks continuity.2.The purpose of planning1)Providing direction to managers and non-managers alike.2)Reducing uncertainty.3)Minimizing waste and redundancy.4)Establishing goals or standards used in controlling.3.The relationship between planning and performanceFirst, generally speaking, formal planning is associated with positive financial results.Second, it’s more important to do a good job of planning and implementing the plans than to do more extensive plans.Next, in studies where formal planning didn’t lead to higher performance, external environment often was the culprit.Finally, the planning-performance relationship seems to be influenced by the planning time frame.4.Goals: Goals are desired outcomes.The types of goals: financial goals are related to the financial performance of the organization, while strategic goals are related to all areas of an organization performance.Stated goals are official statement of what an organization says—and what it wants its various stakeholders to believe–its goals are. Real goals are the goals that an organization actually pursues, and defined by the actions of its members.5.Plans: Plans are documents that outline how goals are going to be met.Types of plans: (breadth) strategic or operational(Time frame) long term or short term(Specificity) directional or specific(Frequency of use) single use or standingStrategic plans apply to an entire organization, while operational plans encompass a particular functional area.Long term plans are those with a time frame beyond three years. Short term plans are those coving one year or less.Specific plans are clear defined and leave no room for interpretation. Directional plans are flexible and set out general guidelines.A single-use plan is a one-time plan and designed to meet the needs of a unique situation. Standing plansare ongoing plans that provide guidance for activities perform repeatedly.6.Two approaches to setting goalsTraditional goal settingIn traditional goal setting, goals set by top manager flow down through the organization and become subgoals for each organization area.Means-ends chain is an integrated network of goals in which goals achieved at lower levels serve as the means for achieving the goals at the next level.Management by objectives (MBO)Management by objectives is a process of setting mutually agreed upon goals and using those goals to evaluate employee performance.7.Six characteristics of well-written goals:(1)written in terms of outcomes,(2)measurable and quantifiable,(3)clear as to a time frame,(4)challengingbut attainable,(5)written down,(6)communicated to all organizational members who need to know them.8.Five steps of setting goals:1)Review the organization’s mission2)Evaluate available resources3)Determining the goals individually or with input from others4)Write down the goals and communicate them to all who need to know them5)Review results and whether goals are being met.9.Three contingency factors in planning:the manager’s level in the organization, degree of environmentuncertainty, and the length of future commitments.10.Two approaches to planningTraditional approachIn traditional approach, plans are developed by top managers and flow down through other organization levels; this approach may use a formal planning department.MBOMBO approach involves more organizational members in the planning process.11.Criticisms of planning:1)Planning may create rigidity.2)Plans can’t be developed for a dynamic environment.3)Formal plans can’t replace intuition and creativity.4)Planning may focus managers’ attention on today’s competition, not on tomorrow’s survival.5)Formal plans reinforce success, which may lead to failure.6)Just planning isn't enough.These criticisms are valid if planning is rigid and inflexible.12.Effective planning in today’s dynamic environmentManagers should develop plans that are specific but flexible.It’s also important to make the organizational hierarchy flatter and allow lower organizational levels to set goals and develop plans.Chapter 8 Strategic Management1.Define strategic management, strategy, and business model.Strategic management is what managers do to develop an organization’s strategies.Strategies are the plans for how the organization will do whatever it’s in business to do, how it will compete successfully, and how it will attract and satisfy its customers in order to achieve its goals.A business model is how a company is going to make money.2.Give four reasons why strategic management is important.1)It makes a difference in how an organization performs.2)It’s important for helping managers cope with continually changing situations.3)Organizations are complex and diverse. Strategic management helps to coordinate and focus employees’efforts on what is important.4)It’s related to many decisions made by managers.3.The six steps in the strategic management process.The six steps are (1)identify the current mission, goals, and strategies; (2)do an external analysis; (3)do an internal analysis; (4)formulate strategies; (5)implement strategies; and (6)evaluate strategies.4.Define SWOT.The SWOT analysis is an analysis of an organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Strengths are any activities the organization does well or unique resources it has.Weaknesses are the activities organization doesn’t do well or the resources it needs but doesn’t have. Opportunities are positive trends in the external environment.Threats are negative trends.5.Define resources, capabilities, and core competencies.Resources are an organization’s assets that used to develop, manufacture, and deliver products to its customers. Capabilities are an organization’s skills and abilities in doing the work activities needed in its business.Core competencies are the major value-creating capabilities.Both resources and core competencies determine the organization’s competitive weapons.6.The three types of organization’s strategiesA corporate strategy specifies what business a company is in or wants to be in and what it wants to do with those businesses.A business/competitive strategy is a strategy for how an organization will compete in its business.Functional strategies are the strategies used by an organization’s various functional departments to support the organization’s competitive strategy.7.Corporate strategies.(growth, stability, renew)The three types:With a growth strategy, an organization expands the number of markets served or products offered either through current or new businesses.The types of growth strategies include concentration, vertical integration (backward and forward), horizontal integration, and diversification (related and unrelated).With a stability strategy, an organization continues to do what it is currently doing.A renew strategy address organizational weaknesses that are leading to performance decline.The two types of renew strategies are retrenchment and turnaround strategies. A retrenchment strategy is a short-run renew strategy used for minor performance problems. While a turnaround strategy is used when an organization’s problems are more serious.BCG matrixBCG matrix is a strategy tool that guides resources allocation decisions on the basis of a business’s market share and its industry’s anticipated growth rate.The four categories of the BCG matrix are cash cows, stars, question marks, and dogs.8.Business/competitive strategiesThe role of competitive advantage:An organization’s competitive advantage is what sets it apart, its distinctive edge. A company’s competitive advantage becomes the basis of choosing an appropriate business or competitive strategy.Porter’s five forces modelPorter’s five forces model assesses the five competitive forces that dictate the rules of competition in an industry: (1) threat of new entrants, (2) threat of substitutes, (3) bargaining power of buyers, (4) bargaining power of suppliers, and (5) rivalry.Porter’s three competitive strategiesWith a cost leadership strategy, an organization competes on the basis of having the lowest cost in its industry. With a differentiation strategy, an organization competes on the basis of having unique products that are widely valued by customers.With a focus strategy, an organization competes in a narrow segment, with either a cost advantage or a differentiation advantage.9.Explain why strategic flexibility is important.Strategic flexibility is the ability to recognize major external changes, to quickly commit resources, and to recognize when a strategic decision isn’t working.It is important because managers often face highly uncertain environments.10.Explain e-business strategies.Managers can use e-business strategies to reduce costs, to differentiate their firm’s products and services, or to target (focus on) specific customer groups or to lower costs by standardizing certain office functions.Another important e-business strategy is the clicks-and-bricks strategy, which combines online and traditional stand-alone locations.11.How to become more customer oriented.Strategies managers can use to become more customer oriented include:1)Giving customers what they want2)Communicating effectively with customers3)Cultivating a culture that emphasizes customer service.12.How to become more innovativeStrategies managers can use to become more innovative include:1)Deciding their organization’s innovative emphasis(basic scientific research, product development, or processdevelopment)2)Deciding its innovation timing(first mover or follower)Chapter 10 organizational structure and design1.Six key elements in organizational design.1)Work specialization2)Departmentalization3)Chain of command4)Span of control5)Centralization and decentralization6)Formalization2.Work specializationTraditional view: work specialization is a way to divide work activities to separate job tasks.Contemporary view: work specialization is an important organizing mechanism, but it can lead to problems when carried to extremes.3.DepartmentalizationHow jobs are grouped together is called departmentalization.The five forms of departmentalization:1)Functional departmentalization—groups jobs according to function2)Product departmentalization—groups jobs by product line3)Geographical departmentalization—groups jobs by geographical region4)Process departmentalization—groups jobs on product or customer flow5)Customer departmentalization—groups jobs on specific and unique customers4.Chain of commandChain of command is the line of authority extending from upper organizational levels to the lowest levels, which clarifies who reports to whom.Authority refers to the rights inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect themto do it.Responsibility is the obligation or expectation to perform assigned duties.Unity of command is a managerial principle that each person should report to only one manager.Traditional view: the chain of command and its companion concepts—authority, responsibility, and unity of command—were viewed as important ways of maintaining control in organizations.Contemporary view: they’re less relevant in today’s organizations.5.Span of controlSpan of control is the number of employees a manager can effectively and efficiently manage.Traditional view: managers should directly supervise no more than five or six employees.Contemporary view: the span of control depends on the skills and abilities of the manager and the employees and on the characteristics of the work being done.6.Centralization and decentralizationCentralization is the degree to which decision making is concentrated at upper levels of the organization.Decentralization is the degree to which lower-level employees provide input or actually make decisions.(Centralization—decentralization is a structure decision about who make decision—upper-level managers or lower-level employees.)More centralization1)Environment is stable.2)Lower-level managers are not as capable or experienced at making decisions as upper-level managers.3)Lower-level managers do not want a say in decisions.4)Decisions are relatively minor.5)The organization is facing a crisis or the risk of company failure.6)Company is large.7)Effective implementation of company strategies depends on managers retaining say over what happens.More decentralization1)Environment is complex, uncertain.2)Lower-managers are capable and experienced at making decisions.3)Lower-managers want a voice in decisions.4)Decisions are significant.5)Corporate culture is open to allowing managers a say in what happens.6)Company is geographically dispersed.7)Effective implementation of company strategies depends on managers having involvement and flexibilityto make decisions.7.FormalizationFormalization refers to how standardized an organization’s jobs are and the extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures.Today’s view: although formalization is necessary for consistency and control, many organizations today rely less on it to guide and regulate employee behavior.8.Contrast mechanistic and organic organizations.A mechanistic organization is a rigid and tightly controlled structure. An organic organization is a highly adaptive and flexible structure.Mechanistic organicHigh specialization cross-functional teamsRigid departmentalization cross-hierarchical teamsClear chain of command free flow of informationNarrow spans of control wide spans of controlCentralization decentralizationHigh formalization low formalization9.The contingency factors that affect organizational design:1)StrategyAn organizational structure should support its strategy. If the strategy changes, the structure should also change.2)SizeAn organizational size can affect its structure up to a certain point.Once an organization reaches a certain size (usually around 2000 employees), it’s fairly mechanistic.3)Technology (Woodward’s findings)An organizational technology can also affect its structure.An organic structure is most effective with unit production and process production technology. A mechanistic structure is most effective with mass production technology.(Unit production refers to the production of items in units or small batches. Mass production refers to the production of items in large batches. Process production refers to the production of items in continual process.)4)Environmental uncertaintyIn stable and simple environments, mechanistic designs can be more effective.The greater the uncertainty, the more it needs the flexibility of an organic design.10.Contrast the three traditional organizational designs.A simple structure is one with low departmentalization, wide spans of control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization.Strengths: Fast; flexible; inexpensive to maintain; clear accountability.Weaknesses: Not appropriate as organization grows; reliance on one person is risky.A functional structure is an organizational design that groups similar or related occupational specialists together. Strengths: Cost-saving advantages from specialization (economies of scale, minimal duplication of people and equipment); employees are grouped with others who have similar tasks.Weaknesses: Pursuit of organizational goals can cause managers to lose sight of what’s best for the overall organization; functional specialists become insulated and have little understanding of what other units are doing.A divisional structure is made up of separate business units or divisions.Strengths: Focus on results—division managers are responsible for what happens to their products or service. Weaknesses: Duplication of activities and resources increase cost and reduce efficiency.11.Describe the contemporary organizational design.Team structureIn a team structure, the entire organization is made up of work teams.Advantages: Employees are more involvement and empowered. Reduced barriers among functional areas. Disadvantages: No clear chain of command. Pressure on teams to perform.Matrix and project structureMatrix is structure that assign specialists from different functional areas to work on projects but who return to their areas when project is completed.Project is a structure in which employees continuously work on projects. As one project is completed, employees move on to the next project.Advantages: Fluid and flexible design that can respond to environmental changes. Faster decision making.Disadvantages: Complexity of assigning people to projects. Task and personality conflicts.Boundaryless organizationBoundaryless organization is a structure that not defined by or limited to the horizontal, vertical, or external boundaries.Advantages: High flexible and responsive. Utilizes talent wherever it’s found.Disadvantages: Lack of control. Communication difficulties.Two types—virtual and networkA virtual organization consists of a small core of full-time employees and outside specialists temporarily hired as needed to work on projects.A network organization uses its own employees to do some work activities and uses networks of outside suppliers to provide other product components or work processes.12.Three organizational design challenges today.1)Keeping employees connected.2)Building a learning organization.A leaning organization is one that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and change.3)Managing global structure issues.Chapter 11 managers and communication1.Define communication,interpersonal communication, and organizational communication. Communication is the transfer and understanding of meaning.Interpersonal communication is communication between two or more people.Organizational communication is all the patterns, networks, and systems of communication within an organization.2.The functions of communication: (control, motivate, emotional expression, information)1)Controlling employee behavior.2)Motivating employees.3)Providing a release for emotional expression of feelings and fulfillment social needs.4)Providing information.munication processThere are seven elements in the communication process. (sender, message, encoding, channel, decoding ,receiver) First, there is a sender who has a message. A message is a purpose to be conveyed. Encoding is converting a message into symbols. A channel is the medium a message travels along. Decoding is when the receiver translates a sender’s message. Finally, there’s feedback.4.The criteria to evaluate various communication methods:Feedback, complexity capacity, breadth potential, confidentiality, encoding ease, decoding ease, time-space constraint, cost, interpersonal warmth, formality, scannability, time of consumption.5.List the communication methods.Communication methods include face-to-face communication, telephone communication, group meetings, formal presentation, memos, faxes, traditional mail, e-mail, voice mail, employee publications, bulletin boards, other company publications, audio-and videotapes, hotlines, computer conferences, teleconferences, andvideoconferences.Nonverbal communication is communication transmitted without words. The best-known types are body language and verbal intonation6.The barriers to effective interpersonal communication:Barriers:1)Filtering2)Emotions3)Information overload4)Defensiveness5)Language6)National cultureWays to overcome:1)Using feedback2)Simplifying language3)Listening actively4)Constraining emotions5)Watching for nonverbal clues7.Contrast formal and informal communicationFormal communication refers to communication that takes place within prescribed organizational work arrangements.Informal communication is not defined by an organization’s structure hierarchy.8.Direction of communication flow: downward, upward, lateral, diagonal.(Diagonal communication is communication that crosses both work areas and organizational levels.)9.Three types of communication networks:In a chain network, communication flows according to the chain of command, both downward and upward.In a wheel network, communication flows between a clear identifiable and strong leader and others in a work team.In an all-channel network, communication flows freely among all members in a work team.10.Discuss how managers should handle the grapevine.Managers should manage the grapevine as an important information network. They can minimize the negative consequences of rumors by communicating with employees more openly, fully, and honestly.11.How technology affects managerial communication.Technology has radically changed the way organizational members communicate.1)It has significantly improved a manager’s ability to monitor performance.2)It has allowed employees to have more complete information to make faster decisions.3)It has provided employees more opportunities to collaborate and share information.4)It has made it possible for people to be fully accessible, anytime, anywhere.12.How information technology affects organization.IT affects organizations by affecting the way that organizational members communicate, share information, and do their work.munication issues in today’s organizations.The two main challenges of managing communication in an internet world are (1) legal and security issues and (2) lack of personal interaction.Organization can manage knowledge by making it easier for employees to communicate and share theirknowledge so that they can learn from each other ways to do their work more effectively and efficiently. One way is building online information databases that employees can access. Another way is creating communities of practice.Communicating with customers is an important managerial issue because what communication takes place and how it takes place can significantly affect a customer’s satisfaction with the service and the likelihood of being a repeat customer.Political correctness affects communications in that it sometimes restricts communication clarity. But managers must be sensitive to how their choice of words might offend others.Chapter 12 managing human resources1.Why is HRM importantHRM is important for three reasons:1)It can be a significant source of competitive advantage.2)It is an important part of organizational strategies.3)The way organizations treat their employees has been found to significantly affect organizationalperformance.2.The HRM processEight steps: (1) human resource planning; (2) recruitment and decruitment; (3) selection; (4) orientation; (5) training; (6) performance management; (7) compensation and benefits; (8) career development.The environmental factors that most directly affect the HRM process: labor unions, governmental laws and regulations, and demographic trends.3.Define job analysis, job description, and job specification.Job analysis is an assessment that defines jobs and the behaviors necessary to perform them.Job description is a written statement that describes a job—typically content, environment, and conditions of employment.Job specification is a written statement that specifies the minimum qualification that a person must possess to successfully perform a given job.4.Recruiting sources:1)Internet2)Employee referrals3)Company web site4)College recruiting5)Professional recruiting organizations5.Decruitment options:1)Firing2)Layoffs3)Attrition4)Reduced workweeks5)Early retirement6)Job sharing6.Selection tools。
罗宾斯管理学笔记第九版考研笔记.docx
第一章管理与组织导论1.管理者：通过协调和监督他人的活动达到与别人一起或者通过别人实现组织目标的目的人。
他的工作可能意味着监督几个单独的个人，还可能包含一个团队的活动。
2.非管理雇员：指在组织中直接从事一项工作和任务，并且没有人向其报告的成员。
3.管理者的分类：1) 基层管理者：指最低层的管理人员。
他们管理着非管理雇员所从事的工作，即生产产品和提供服务。
这样的管理者通常称为主管、区域经理、部门经理、生产线线长或工长。
2) 中层管理者：包括所有处于基层和高层之间的各个管理层次的管理者，他们管理着基层管理者，可能具有地区经理、项目主管、工厂厂长或事业部经理的头衔。
3) 高层管理者：即处于或者接近组织顶层的管理者，他们承担着制定广泛的组织决策，为整个组织制定计划和目标的责任。
他们的典型代表头衔经常是执行副总裁、总裁、管理董事、首席运营官、首席执行官或董事会主席。
4.管理：通过协调和监督他人的活动，能够有效率和有效果地完成工作。
简述：管理的定义及含义？管理是在特定的组织内外环境下，通过对组织的资源进行有效地计划、组织、领导、控制而实现组织目标的过程。
包括以下几个方面的含义：①管理存在于组织之中，是为了实现组织目标而服务的。
管理依存于组织的集体活动，管理的目的是有效地实现组织的目标。
明确的设定目标是管理的起点。
②管理由计划、组织、领导和控制这样一系列相互关联，连续进行的活动所构成的，这些活动称为管理的职能。
③管理活动既强调目的又注重过程。
强调目的就是要选择“做正确的事”，关系到管理活动的效果问题；注重过程则重视“正确地做事”，关系到管理活动的效率问题，在效果与效率两者之中，效果是本，效率是标，有效地管理就是标本兼重，“正确地去做适当的事情”。
④管理工作要通过综合运用组织中的各种资源来实现组织的目的，管理工作是在一定的环境条件下展开的。
环境既提供了机会，也构成了威胁。
5.效率：指“正确地做事”，以尽可能少的投入获得尽可能多的产出，即不浪费资源。
管理经济学英文版·原书第9版-知识点总结
管理经济学精简版第1章管理者利润与市场1.1管理经济和经济学理论1.2经济利润的度量和最大化——使用资源的经济成本（1）机会成本：企业所有者由于使用资源生产产品和服务而放弃的收益。
机会成本包括显性机会成本和隐性机会成本。
（2）市场（供应）资源：资源为他人所有，企业通过雇佣、租借或者租赁形式获得。
（3）自有资源：企业自有并使用的资源。
最重要的是所有者投入企业的资金、时间和企业劳动者投入的劳动服务三种以及所有企业拥有和使用的土地、建筑物或者设备资产。
（4）总成本：市场提供的资源和自有资源的机会成本之和。
（5）显性成本：为获得市场提供的资源所支付的货币。
（6）隐性成本：使用自有资源的非货币成本。
三个重要的隐性成本：①所有者向企业提供现金的机会成本，即权益资本；②使用企业所有的土地或者资金的机会成本；③所有者管理企业或者为企业付出的其他投入的机会成本。
（7）权益成本：所有者向企业提供的现金的机会成本。
总结：使用资源的机会成本是企业使用这些资源所放弃的收益。
机会成本可以是显性成本或者隐性成本。
显性成本是使用市场提供的资源的成本，隐性成本是使用所也者提供的资源的成本，是在企业生产过程中，使用企业拥有的资源所放弃的最大收益。
总经济成本是显性成本和隐性成本之和。
——经济利润与会计利润 （1）经济利润 （2）会计利润总结：经济利润=总收益——总经济成本=总收益——显性成本——隐性成本会计利润=总收益——显性成本（会计利润没有从总收益中扣减使用所有者资源的隐性成本）由于企业所也这必须担负企业使用所有资源的成本，企业所有者的目标是获得最大的经济利润而不是会计利润。
——企业价值最大化（1）企业的价值：它所能卖出的价格，就是将来企业预期能够挣得的经济利润的现值。
企业的价值=()()()()∑=+=++⋯⋯++++TT1t ttT221r 1r 1r 1r 1πππππt 是t 预期的经济利润，t r 是风险调整贴现率，T 是企业存在的年数。
管理学(第九版)复习要点 斯蒂芬
管理学（第九版）斯蒂芬·P·罗宾斯&玛丽·库尔特著复习要点第一章1 管理者的定义及分类p6管理者：通过监督和协调他人的活动以实现组织目标的人分类：基层管理者、中层管理者、高层管理者2效率和效果的定义、关系以及其对管理的重要性p8效率：以尽可能少的投入获得尽可能多的产出效果：所从事的工作和活动有助于组织达成其目标关系：相辅相成重要性：低资源浪费、高目标达成3管理职能论（亨利·法约尔）p9计划：定义目标、制定目标、制定战略以及开发计划以协调活动组织：决定需要做什么、怎么做、由谁去做领导：指导和激励所有参与者以及解决冲突控制：对活动进行监控以确保其按计划完成4管理角色论（亨利·明茨伯格）p10定义：特定的管理行为范畴分类：人际关系角色：挂名首脑、领导者、联络者信息传递角色：监听者、传播者、发言人决策制定角色：企业家、混乱驾驭者、谈判者、资源分配者5 管理技能论（罗伯特·卡茨）p11技术技能：熟练完成特定工作所需的特定领域的知识和技术人际技能：包括与单独个人或群体中的其他成员和睦相处的能力概念技能：对抽象、复杂情况进行思考和概念化的技能6 组织的定义、特征p16组织是对人员的一种精心的安排，以实现某些特定的目的特征：明确的目的、精细的结构、人员第二章1 科学管理原则（泰罗——科学管理之父）p29（1）对工人工作的每一要素开发出一种科学方法，用以代替老的经验方法（2）科学的挑选工人，并对他们培养教育使之成长（3）与工人们衷心地合作，以保证一切工作都按已形成的科学原则去办（4）管理当局与工人在工作和职责的划分上几乎相等，管理当局把自己比工人更胜任的各种工作都承揽下来2 行政管理原则（亨利·法约尔——现代经营管理之父）p31工作分工、职权、纪律、统一指挥、统一方向、个人利益服从整体利益、报酬、集中、等级链、秩序、公平、人员的确定、首创精神、团结精神3官僚行政组织（韦伯）p31特征：依据劳动分工原则，具有清楚定义的层次，详细的规则和规章制度，以及非个人的关系4霍桑研究p34结论：“社会人”学说、非正式组织学说、士气学说5系统观点p35可以用来描述管理者做什么，因为组织是一个开放的系统，由相互关联和相互依赖的部分组成。
罗宾斯管理学第九版应试总结笔记整理
第一章管理与组织导论一、管理及其具体含义管理是在特定的组织内外环境下，通过协调和监督他人的活动，能够有效率和有效果地与别人一起或者通过别人实现组织目标的过程。
管理的定义包含三层含义：（1）过程代表了一系列进行中的有管理者参与的职能或目标。
这些职能划分为计划、组织、领导和控制；（2）协调他人的工作区分了管理岗位和非管理岗位。
（3）管理活动强调效率和效果。
效率是指正确地做事，不浪费资源，以最小投入获取最大产出；效果是指做正确的事，通过完成任务而使组织达到目标。
效率注重过程，效果注重结果。
因此，管理当局不能只是关注达到和实现组织目标，还要尽可能有效率地完成工作。
二、管理的职能1)计划是设立和明确组织目标，制定实现组织目标的途径和方案。
计划是管理的起点，确定目标和途径是计划职能的两大任务。
2)组织是为了实现计划活动所规定的目标，实施计划活动所制定的行动方案，管理者必须进行的工作安排。
3)领导是指和别人一起或通过别人完成目标，包括激励下属，影响工作中的个体或团队，选择有效的沟通方式等。
4)控制是指监控，比较，纠正。
比较包括衡量和评估工作绩效，并与预定的目标相比较。
三、管理角色（09简述）管理角色是指特定的管理行为类型。
明茨伯格发展出了10种管理行为，并将其进一步组合为三个方面：人际关系、信息传递和决策制定。
1)人际关系角色包含了人与人以及其他具有礼仪性和象征性的职责，包括挂名首脑、领导者和联络者。
挂名首脑：是象征性首脑，必须履行许多法律性或社会性的例行义务。
领导者：负责激励下属，人员配备、培训以及有关的职责。
联络者：维护自行发展起来的外部信息和消息来源，从中得到帮助和信息。
2)信息传递角色包括接受、收集和传播信息。
三种信息传递角色包括监听者、传播者和发言人。
监听者：寻求和获取各种内部和外部信息，以便透彻地理解组织与环境。
传播者：将从外部人员和下级那里获取的信息传递给组织的其他人员。
发言人：向外界发布组织的计划、政策、行动以及结果。
管理经济学-9
一、总需求与总供给 二、货币和财政政策对总需求的影响 三、通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡
取舍
前两讲，我们分析的是长期经济状态 中的货币、物价与经济增长等问题。这一 讲，主要分析短期经济波动问题及其宏观 经济政策调节问题。
一、总需求与总供给
（一）关于经济波动的三个关键事实
1、事实一：经济波动是无规律的和无法预测的
（三）总需求曲线
1、为什么总需求曲线向右下方倾斜
物价 水平
P1
P2
1.物价水平 下降……
０
Y1
Y2
2.……物品与劳务需求量增加。
图31-3 总需求曲线
总需求 产量
为什么这4个部分的每一个部分都对总需求作出了 贡献。假定政府支出是由政策固定的，则投资、 消费和净出口取决于物价水平。
尽管长期中有许多因素决定经济发展， 但实际上两个最重要的因素是技术和货币 政策。
2.……以及货币供给增 长使总需求移动……
物价 水平
长期总 供给
LRAS 1980 LRAS 1990 LRAS 2000
衰退和萧条可能引起通货紧缩。 经济周期的各个阶段都可能有发展的机遇和 矛盾。
2、事实二：大多数宏观经济变量同时变动
经济波动不是仅仅表现在个别部门上，而是 表现在国民经济各个部门上，表现为经济总量 （GDP）的波动。当GDP下降时，个人收入、公司 利润、消费支出、投资支出等等也都减少。因此， 经济波动是一种宏观经济现象。
物价水平与消费：财富效应。
物价水平下降使消费者感到富裕，增 加支出，从而增加总需求。因为在名义财 富（用货币数量表示的财产）既定时，物 价水平下降，实际财富增加，消费者信心 提高。
• 1714年，一个名叫伯纳德 ·曼德维尔的 英国医生写了一首题为《蜜蜂的寓言》的 讽喻诗，认为节约无助于整个经济的发展， 奢侈地消费才是致富之道。这部作品在当 时被法庭判为有碍公众视听的败类作品。 但200多年以后，凯恩斯从中受到启发， 建立了以总需求分析为中心的现代宏观经 济学。
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管理经济学 精简版第1章 管理者利润及市场1.1管理经济和经济学理论1.2经济利润的度量和最大化——使用资源的经济成本（1）机会成本：企业所有者由于使用资源生产产品和服务而放弃的收益。
机会成本包括显性机会成本和隐性机会成本。
（2）市场（供应）资源：资源为他人所有，企业通过雇佣、租借或者租赁形式获得。
（3）自有资源：企业自有并使用的资源。
最重要的是所有者投入企业的资金、时间和企业劳动者投入的劳动服务三种以及所有企业拥有和使用的土地、建筑物或者设备资产。
（4）总成本：市场提供的资源和自有资源的机会成本之和。
（5）显性成本：为获得市场提供的资源所支付的货币。
（6）隐性成本：使用自有资源的非货币成本。
三个重要的隐性成本：①所有者向企业提供现金的机会成本，即权益资本；②使用企业所有的土地或者资金的机会成本；③所有者管理企业或者为企业付出的其他投入的机会成本。
（7）权益成本：所有者向企业提供的现金的机会成本。
总结：使用资源的机会成本是企业使用这些资源所放弃的收益。
机会成本可以是显性成本或者隐性成本。
显性成本是使用市场提供的资源的成本，隐性成本是使用所也者提供的资源的成本，是在企业生产过程中，使用企业拥有的资源所放弃的最大收益。
总经济成本是显性成本和隐性成本之和。
——经济利润及会计利润（1）经济利润（2）会计利润总结：经济利润=总收益——总经济成本=总收益——显性成本——隐性成本会计利润=总收益——显性成本（会计利润没有从总收益中扣减使用所有者资源的隐性成本）由于企业所也这必须担负企业使用所有资源的成本，企业所有者的目标是获得最大的经济利润而不是会计利润。
——企业价值最大化（1）企业的价值：它所能卖出的价格，就是将来企业预期能够挣得的经济利润的现值。
企业的价值=()()()()∑=+=++⋯⋯++++T T 1t t t T 221r 1r 1r 1r 1πππππt 是t 预期的经济利润，t r 是风险调整贴现率，T 是企业存在的年数。
（2）风险升水：为补偿投资者对于将来利润的不确定性，所承担风险而增加的贴现率。
原理：一个企业的价值是它所能卖得的售价，这个价格等于企业将来预期利润的现值，及将来利润相关的风险越大（小），用来计算企业价值的风险调整贴现率就越高（低），企业的价值就越低（高）。
——价值最大化及利润最大化的等效应原理：如果任何期间的成本和收益状况都独立于其他期间的决策，经理就可以通过做出每一个单期利润最大化决策使企业的价值（企业的现值）最大化。
1.3所有权及控制权分离——委托—代理问题（1）委托—代理问题：当管理层（代理人）的目标及企业所有者目标不一致时产生的冲突。
（2）道德风险：当合同的一方有不遵守合同所有条款的动机，而使另一方不能在有效成本内实施监视时存在的风险。
——公司的控制机制激励经理追求利润最大化的机制：（1）把经理的报酬及满足股东的目标联系在一起，从而解决代理问题。
（2）指派外部人员（不就职于企业管理层的董事），或把董事的报酬及公司价值联系在一起，可以增加董事会监督服务的价值。
（3）使经理产生动机，从而做出价值最大化决策的方法及公司的债务融资政策有关。
（4）公司收购也是一种重要的解决股东及不能最大化企业价值的经理之间的矛盾的可能方法。
1.4市场结构及管理决策（1）价格接受者：由于价格严格受市场供给和需求决定，而不能设置它所出售产品价格的企业。
（2）价格设置型企业：能够在不全部损失销售量的情况下，提高价格的企业。
（3）市场力：企业在不全部损失销售量的情况下提高价格的能力。
——什么是市场（1）市场：买方和卖方可以实现任何有价值东西交换的场所。
（2）交易成本：使交易发生的成本，而不是商品或服务本身的价格。
——不同的市场结构（1）市场结构：决定一个企业经营所处经济环境的市场特征。
——市场的国际化（1）市场国际化：全世界范围内各国市场的经济一体化。
第2章 需求 供给及市场均衡2.1需求（1）需求量：在一定的时间段内，消费者所愿意并且有能力购买的商品数量。
——广义需求函数（1）广义需求函数：体现需求量和影响需求量的六个因素之间的关系的函数，），（N P M P Q R e d P g,,,,f（2）正常品：如果单纯的收入增加，会增大消费者对某种产品的需求量，此类产品为正常品。
（3）低档品：市场上有些产品或服务，当消费者的收入上升时，对它的市场需求量反而会下降，此类产品被成为低档品。
（4）替代品：其他条件不变，如果一种产品价值的上升（下降）会增加（减少）消费者对另一种产品的需求，那么这两种产品是替代品。
（5）互补品：其他条件不变，如果一种商品价格升高（降低）时，另一种商品的需求会下降（上升），那么这些商品就是互补品。
（6）斜率参数：线性方程中的参数表示，当一个独立变量），（N P M R e P g,,,变化，其他变量不变时，对因变量Q d 产生的影响。
（7）Q d =a+bP+cM+dP R +eg+fP e +gN关系：当广义需求函数用线性方程：Q d =a+bP+cM+dP R +eg+fP e +gN 表示时，斜率参数（b 、c 、d 、e 、f 、g ）表示当有且仅有一个变量（N P M P R ，e P g,,,,）产生变化时，对总需求量的影响，例如 P Q ∆∆=db ,代表着当N P M R ，e P g,,,保持不变时，单位价格的变化对总需求量的影响。
当斜率参数取正值时，需求量和变量之间是正相关的关系。
——直接需求函数：Q d =f （p ）（1）直接需求函数：在其他因素保持不变时，表示产品需求量及产品价格之间关系的表格、曲线或方程，Q d =f （p ）。
（2）需求表：给出一系列的商品价格以及及相关的商品需求量的表格。
（3）需求曲线：当除价格以外，所有经过需求量的因素都保持不变时，所得到的体现商品需求量及商品价格关系的曲线。
注：①在需求曲线上的每一个点可以解释为在一个既定的价格下，消费者所愿购买的最大产量；在一定购买量下，消费者所愿支付的最高价格。
②对于水平轴上的每一个需求量，任何一个对应的价格都可以称为需求价，于是需求反函数给出了任意特定数量产品或服务时的供给价格。
——逆需求函数：P=f （Q d ）（1）逆需求函数（需求反函数）：用需求量表示价格的函数，P=f （Q d ）。
（2）需求价格：在某一特定的交易量下，消费者可能承担的商品的最高价格。
——沿着需求曲线的移动（1）需求法则：在影响需求的其他因素不变时，商品价格的下降，将会引起商品需求量的上升，而商品价格的上升，则会引起商品需求量的下降。
（2）需求量的变化：当其他量保持不变，只有价格发生变化时，沿需求曲线的运动。
关系：对需求函数Q d =f （p ）来说，价格的变化将导致需求量的变化，其他五个影响广义需求量的因素（M 、P R 、g 、P e 、N.）在任意特定需求方程中都被取以某一定值。
在图示中，这种价格的变化，将表示为一点沿着需求曲线从某一价格运动至另一价格。
——需求曲线的移动（1）需求水平上升：需求函数的变化导致每一价格下的数量都增加，通过需求曲线的右移反映。
（2）需求函数下降：需求函数的变化导致每一价格下的数量都减少，通过需求曲线的左移反映。
（3）需求函数的决定因素：能够影响在每一价位下产品需求量，即需求曲线位置变化的因素，如：M、PR 、g、Pe、N.（4）需求的变化：当决定需求的五个因素发生变化时，需求曲线便会发生移动，需求改变。
关系：需求的增加意味着在任意价格下，需求量增大了，需求下降，意味着在任意的价格水平下，需求量下降了。
需求函数在影响需求的五个因素中一个或多个发生变化时，就会随之发生变化，这些影响需求函数的因素是收入水平、相关产品的价格、预期价格、消费者偏好、市场中的消费者数量。
2.2供给供给量：在一定时间内（一周、一年等）投入市场用于销售的产品或服务的总量叫做供给量，我们用符号Qs表示。
——广义供给函数：Qs =f（P、PI、Pr、T、Pe、F）（1）广义供给函数：体现供给量和影响供给量的六个因素之间的关系的函数，Qs =f（P、PI、Pr、T、Pe、F）。
（2）生产中的替代产品：两种产品中任意一种产品价格的上升，都会使厂商将另一种产品的资金投入到这种产品的生产中来，则称这种产品为生产中的替代品。
（3）生产中的互补品：如果一种产品相对于另一种产品的价格上升，会引起生产者增加这两种产品的产量，则这两种产品称为互补性产品。
（4）技术：有关组织资源生产产品或服务的知识状况。
（5）Qs=h+kP+lP I +mPr+nT+rPe+sF ——直接供给函数：()()P F P T P P P Q I f ,,,,f e r s ==，（1）直接供给函数：在保证其他五个影响供给的因素不变的情况下，某种商品的供给量及此种商品价格之间的函数关系，Qs=f （p ）。
（2）供给决定因素：能够使供给曲线产品移动的因素。
（3）供给量（由P 唯一确定）的变化：由于商品价格的变化所造成的，沿着供给需求曲线移动。
（ 当其他因素保持不变，只有商品价格发生变化时，沿着供给曲线的移动）。
（4）供给表：以表格的形式给出一系列可能的价格及之相对应的供给量。
（5）供给曲线：在保持其他影响供给曲线的因素不变的情况下，表示供给量及产品价格的曲线。
关系：直接供给函数将供给量表示为以价格为自变量的一元函数，Qs=f （p ），供给函数在保持其他条件不变的情况下，（投入要素价格不变，技术不变，生产中相关产品的价格不变，预期价格不变，行业内企业数不变），给出了对应于不同价格的供给量。
——逆供给函数：)(s Q f P =（1）逆供给函数（反供给函数）：价格用供给量表示的供给方程，)(s Q f P =。
（2）供给价格：厂商愿意生产一定数量产品所需的最低价格。
关系：对供给函数)(P g Q s =来说，价格的变化将引起供给数量的变化，在某一特定的供给函数中，广义供给函数中出现的其他五个因素（P I 、P r 、T 、Pe 、F ）取定值，在图中，价格的变化将引起沿供给曲线从某一价位向另一价位的移动。
注：在供给曲线上的每一个点表示①一定特定价格下，厂商愿意提供的最大的产量或服务量。
②为了使厂商愿意提供该数量的商品或服务所提供的最低价格。
③这个最低价格有时候被称为在此产量下的供给价格。
——供给曲线的移动（1）供给上升：由于供给函数的变化，在任意价格下供给量都上升，供给曲线向右移动。
（2）供给下降：由于供给函数的变化，在任意价格下供给量都下降，供给曲线向左移动。
关系：供给量上升，意味着以任意的价格厂商愿意提供更多的商品，供给量下降，意味着在任意价格下，厂商愿意提供商品的数目下降，决定供给函数的因素，包括原材料价格、相关产品价格、产品的预期价格、生产同类产品的厂商的数目。