语言学概论课后题答案
语言学概论习题答案
语言学概论习题答案导言一,名词解释(20分,每小题4分)1.语言学就是以语言为研究对象的科学,研究语言的本质,语言的结构和发展规律.2.指我国传统的语文学,包括文字学,音韵学,训诂学三方面的内容.3.专语语言学也叫具体语言学,个别语言学,以一种(或几种有联系的)语言为研究对象,研究某一种语言的结构.4.共时语言学以同时的,静态分析的方法,研究语言相对静止的状态,描写分析语言在某一个时期,某一个阶段的状况,是从横向的方面研究语言.5.历时语言学从历时的,动态的角度研究语言发展的历史,观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变,是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史.6.普通语言学以人类所有的语言为研究对象,探讨人类语言的共同规律,是在具体语言学基础上建立起来的,下面又分普通语音学,普通语法学,普通词汇学等分支学科.二,填空题(20分,每空1分)1.中国印度古希腊-罗马2.文字学音韵学训诂学3.语音词汇和语义语法4.编码发送传递接收5.历时共时历史描写6.历史比较7.《语言论》 8.索绪尔三,问答题(60分,每小题10分)1.古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有如下几个方面的区别:①研究对象不同:古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料,不重视口头语言的研究,而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究,如制定语言规范,确立共同语的各方面标准等,都要依据口语的研究成果;②研究目的不同:古代语言学研究语言,主要是给政治,哲学,宗教,历史,文学方面的经典著作作注解,比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典著作的需要来研究文言的,而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构,以此探讨语言发展的共同规律.正因为有这些差别,所以古代的语言学还不是独立的学科,处于附庸地位,而现代语言学已经发展成为一门独立的学科,随着现代科学的发展又产生了许多边沿性学科.2.语言交际过程分为哪几个阶段人类语言交际的过程,实际上就是信息的传递与接收问题,可分为编码,发送,传递,接收,解码五个阶段.编码就是发话人利用词语组织语句;发送就是把思维成果变成话语,通过发音器官表达出来;传递就是通过空气振动形成声波,把话语传达给受话人;接收是受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话;解码则经过大脑的思维把声波还原成语言,理解对方话语的含义,从而完成信息传递接收.如果受话人收到语言信息有所反馈,那么上述五个阶段则又重复一遍,只是发话人与受话人调换了.(举例说明略,可结合分析任举一个句子作说明.)3."语言学既是一门古老的学科,又是一门年轻的学科;既与社会科学有密切的联系,又与自然科学有密切的联系."怎样理解这句话的含义语言是伴随着人类一起出现的,是人类社会生活必不可少的,所以人类很早就注意到了语言的重要性,很早就注意研究语言,所以语言学是古老的,但语言学直到18世纪下半叶,产生了历史比较语言学,后来又建立了语言学的各个部门,语言研究才发展成为一门独立的学科,同其它学科相比,语言学的确是十分年轻的.语言是社会现象,与社会的政治,经济,文化,历史等密切相关,而语言的发生又与物理,生理,心理等学科密切相关,而现代社会语言与语言的信息处理(如机器翻译,语码转换等)又涉及到数学,计算机科学,所以语言学既与社会科学有密切的联系,又与自然科学有密切的联系.正因为如此,随着语言学与别的学科的交融,又产生了许多新的语言学分支学科,如社会语言学,心理语言学,统计语言学,话语语言学,数理语言学,宇宙语言学等等,这些也体现了语言学是一门年轻的学科.4.语言学有哪些作用语言学的作用主要表现在以下几个方面:①学习语言文字是掌握科学技术,提高文化水平的基础,而要学好用好语言,就必须利用语言学的研究成果;②制定语言文字的有关政策,制定语言规范,都要在对语言进行充分研究的基础上进行,而语言学的研究成果正好可以作指导;③新兴技术的出现扩大了语言学的应用范围.至于个人,同样可以利用语言学的成果,比如学习一种语言或方言,最好的办法是找到所学语言同自己母语的各方面的对应规律,这样可以收到事半功倍的效果,这就需要利用语言学的研究成果.(结合实际部分可以根据自己的学习,工作或生活经历举例)5.语言学的分类语言学首先可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学,一般所说的语言学,主要是指理论语言学.根据研究对象的不同,理论语言学又分普通语言学和专语语言学(具体语言学).普通语言学以人类所有的语言为研究对象,探讨人类语言的共同规律,是在具体语言学基础上建立起来的,下面又分普通语音学,普通语法学,普通词汇学等分支学科.专语语言学以个别的,具体的语言为研究对象.探讨研究某一种语言的规律.从是静态研究还是研究语言的历史看,又分历时语言学和共时语言学:历时语言学研究具体语言的发展历史,是纵向研究,比如汉语史研究,共时语言学研究具体语言在某一时代的状态(相对静止的状态),规律,对之进行客观的描述,是横向研究.如描写语言学,又分描写语音学,描写语汇学,描写语法学等分支学科,现代汉语就是共时语言学.6.为什么说历史比较语言学在语言学史上具有重要地位历史比较语言学在语言学史上具有十分重要的地位.在历史语言学产生以前,语言学还不是严格意义上的语言学,一般称之为语文学,和不是独立的学科,只是别的学科的附庸.语文学时期的学者,对语言的研究多是主观的规定和臆测,缺少客观的描述和检验,研究对象往往仅限于书面语,目的是校勘古书,解释传统经典中的微言大义,不准违背古人的说法,忽视语言本身的结构与发展,更不理解语言作为交际工具和思维工具的社会功能.历史语言学建立了比较的方法,既注意语言古今的对比,又注意现代不同语言的对比,重视当代活的语言的研究,运用达尔文的进化论观点,考察语言的历史来源和亲属关系,为语言建立了谱系,对各种语言作了谱系分类.所以,历史比较语言学是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志,是语言学史上的一个里程碑.历史比较语言学所采用的比较方法,给其它学科以很大的影响,像比较法学,比较宗教法,比较史学,比较文学等学科,都是仿效比较历史语言学的比较研究方法建立起来的,这可以说是语言学对社会科学的一大贡献.(关键是抓住历史比较语言学的建立是使语言学走上独立发展道路的标志,而此前的语言学,实际上都没有独立性,是经学的附庸.) 第一章一,名词解释(10分,每词2分)1.语言语言是人类最重要的交际工具,也是思维的工具.2.说话说话就是运用有声语言这个工具表达自己思想的一种行为.3.交际工具人与人交流时所使用的用来沟通思想的工具,例如语言就是交际工具.4.社会现象就是指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生,存在和发展密切联系的现象.5.思维是在表象,概念的基础上进行分析,综合,判断,推理等认识活动的过程,是人类社会特有的一种精神活动.二,填空题(20分,每空1分)1.语言2.规则3.交际工具工具4.肯定否定再见鼓掌愤怒兴奋5.左直观思维6.sister uncle7.量词8.语言9.全民性阶级性10.社会的具体三,判断题(20分,每小题1分)(只判断正误即可)1.√(语言最主要的社会功能就是作交际工具.)2.×(文字是辅助语言交际的工具,对语言交际起辅助作用.)3.×(语言没有阶级性,一视同仁地为社会全体成员服务,这里的共同语言,是指阶级观念,思想感情,不是作为交际工具的语言.)4.×(语言声音的发出和声波的传递具有自然属性的一面,但语言的音义结合却是社会赋予的,所以语言从本质上看是社会现象,而不是自然现象.)5.√(语言不同于一般的社会现象,因为社会现象都是属于一定是上层建筑和经济基础的,而语言既不属于上层建筑又不属于经济基础.)6.×(语言的确是通过个人的运用体现出来的,但语言并不是个人现象,因为语言是社会全体成员共同创造的,没有社会,个人不可能创造出语言来,所以语言是社会现象.)7.×(在现代社会,文字使用非常广泛,日益重要,但无论文字有多重要,都只是辅助语言进行交际的工具,记录语言的工具,离不开语言这个基础,所以不可能取代语言,没有语言,文字的存在就失去了意义.)8.×(现代社会沟通的方式很多,只是说明运用语言的方式多了,不像过去只能当面交际或通过文字交际,可以采用其它方式,但这种种沟通方式都是以语言为基础的,离不开语言,这只能说明语言是非常重要的.)9.√(人类社会须臾也不能离开语言,没有语言,人类无法沟通,社会就会崩溃,人类社会就不复存在了.)10.√(动物没有人类意义上的语言,人类语言具有社会性,是要通过与社会接触才能学会的,而动物的鸣叫等是先天遗传的,不是语言.)11.√(人类的思维可以分几种,而要进行抽象思维,就离不开语言这个工具,没有语言,人类就只能进行比较低级的思维活动.)12.×(人类要进行抽象思维,必须借助于语言中的词语句子进行分析综合推理.)13.√(语言和思维是相互依存,共同发展的.语言是思维的工具,又是思维的成果,思维离不开语言,同时语言也离不开思维.二者如影随形,谁也离不开谁.语言和思维是密了可分的,各以对方为存在条件,所以语言和思维的相辅相成的.思维必须在语言材料的基础上进行,哪里有思维活动,哪里就有语言活动.)14.√(二者如影随形,谁也离不开谁.没有语言,思维活动无法进行,思维成果无法表达,思维实际上就不可能存在;语言作为思维的工具,只有具有思维活动,只有在思维过程中运用才有存在的意义,如果没有思维活动,无所谓交际和思想,语言工具也就失去了存在的价值,没有必要存在了.)15.×(语言和思维不是同一个东西,二者没有同一性.语言既然是思维的工具,就不会是思维本身.)16.×(语言既然是人类的交际工具,所以无论它是在无阶级的社会还是有阶级的社会,都不可能具有阶级性,否则,语言就不会成为社会全体成员的交际工具了.)17.√(语言其实是一个抽象的概念,它反映的是人类语言所具有的共同特指,所谓"语言"是不存在的,都是通过个别的具体的语言体现出来,如英语,汉语,日语,俄语等等.语言是概括的,一般的,和具体的语言是一般和特殊的关系,通过特殊的语言表现出来.)18.√(马是一个抽象的概念,反映了世界上所有马匹的共同特征,我们在现实生活中所说的马,都是具体的,如白马,大马,母马等.)19.×(绘画和音乐不具有符号的一般特点,其解释可能因人而异,不是语言符号.)20.√(语言和思维是互相适应的,思维发展水平有多高,语言的发展水平就有多高.我们不能想象,一个民族的语言十分发达,而思维水平却很低;我们同样不能想象,一个民族的思维水平很高,而语言水平很低.这两种情况都是不可想象的,因为二者必须互相适应.一种语言,无论它的结构简单复杂与否,都是能满足一个社会集团交际的需要的,当然也能适应思维的要求.)四,问答题(50分,每小题5分)1.语言的作用是什么语言是人类社会的交际工具.每个社会,无论它是经济发达的社会,还是经济十分落后的社会,都必须有属于自己的语言,都离不开语言这个交际工具,语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素,是人类与动物相区别的重要特征之一.语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带,没有语言,人类无法交际,人与人之间的联系就会中断,社会就会崩溃,不复存在.同时语言又是人类的思维工具,没有语言,人类无法思维,也无法把思维成果表达出来.(根据语言的定义展开回答即可,注意包括交际工具和思维工具两个方面.)2.每个人说话都是自由的,但不能把"我看书"说成"书看我",不能把"huó(活)",这是为什么语言是社会现象而不是个人现象.虽然每个人说话是自由的,可以根据需要选择不同的词语表达自己的思想,但是有一点则是大家都必须遵守的,那就是运用词语组成句子,必须遵循全社会统一的规则,选择什么样的语音形式代表某个意义,也得全社会约定俗成,不能个人任意更改.否则,语言就不成其为交际工具了,别人也就无法听懂你的话,社会将乱成一锅粥.只要想象一下,一个不会外语的人到国外生活所遇到的窘迫尴尬,就知道遵循规则的重要性了.(紧扣语言的社会性回答,同时说明语言不是个人现象.)3.任何一种语言所包含的句子的数量都是有限的,那么人类为什么能在有限的时间内掌握语言呢.这主要是因为:①词语组合的规则是十分有限的,掌握一个规则,可以类推出无限多的句子,例如学会说"我吃饭",掌握了"主-动-宾"这个格式,就可以造出"我看报","他打球","你唱歌"之类的句子来.②语言中的词表达的意义具有概括性,数量是有限的,一个词语可以重复使用,可以用在这个句子中,也可以用在那个句子中,从而满足了人们交际的需要,所以语言系统中的句子是无穷的,但构成句子的材料却是有限的,这也有利于人们学习掌握语言.例如"人"这个词,并不指哪一个具体的人,可以指古今中外所有的人;"苹果"可以指色彩,味道,形状各方面都不同的苹果.4.人类语言能力是天生的还是后天学会的,为什么人类的语言能力是后天获得的.语言是社会现象,一个人只有生活在一定的社会环境中,才能获得语言,具备语言能力,离开了社会,哪怕他是一个天才,他也不会说话.如果一个人先天就具有语言能力,那么就应该是所有人都说相同的语言才是,而实际上是一个人出生在什么样的社会,就掌握什么样的语言;中国孩子从小生活在中国,就会说汉语,而不会说英语,如果从小在英国出生长大,则只会说英语,不会说汉语.由此可见,一个人的语言能力不是天生的,而是后天学会的,社会环境是最好的语言老师.(结合语言的社会性理论回答)5.用"棋,下,有,一,完,没,的,盘"这八个词组成句子,看能组合成多少句子一盘没有下完的棋.一盘下完的棋没有.一盘棋下完的没有.没有下完的一盘棋.没有一盘下完的棋.没下完的棋有一盘.下完的棋一盘没有.下完的棋没有一盘.下完的没有一盘棋.有一盘没下完的棋.有没下完的一盘棋.棋没下完的有一盘.棋有一盘没下完的.棋下完的没有一盘.棋下完的一盘没有.棋没有一盘下完的.……6.人们平时常说,"无产阶级和资产阶级没有共同语言","工人有工人的语言,农民有农民的语言".这是不是说,语言具有阶级性语言没有阶级性.①语言是社会全体成员共同的交际工具,全体成员,包括各阶级,阶层的人,不分男女,不分老幼,无论什么人,与别人交际都要使用语言.如果语言有阶级性,不同的阶级说不同的语言,那么不同阶级之间就无法进行交际(不同阶级之间的斗争,也是一种交际活动).②语言结构本身,没有阶级性可言,比如语音,语法规则,就谈不上有阶级性.③语言是伴随着人类同时出现的,而在人类从猿到人这个漫长的过程中,根本就没有阶级的区分,所以从语言的诞生过程看语言也是没有阶级性的.(结合语言是特殊的社会现象这一内涵挖掘分析) 7.为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具人们在进行社会交际的时候,除了运用语言传递信息外,也可以借助其它手段传递信息,表达思想.比如运动场上,篮球教练用手势表示谁犯规,谁发球等内容,不用语言;部队用长短不同的号声表示起床,集合,冲锋,撤退等信息;在海上,船与船之间用旗语传递信息,等等.但是,这些交际工具远远没有语言运用那样便捷,而且使用也受到限制,使用范围有限.更为重要的是,无论什么交际工具,它所传递的信息内容都是有限的,而且离不开语言基础,它们实际上是在一定范围代替语言,没有语言的存在,也不可能有这些信息手段的产生,可以说,语言是一切交际工具的基础.因此,说语言是人类最重要的交际工具,是毫不奇怪了.(突出两点:1.将语言和别的交际工具相互比较;2.说明别的交际工具实际上是语言的代用品,仍然以语言为基础.)8.为什么说文字是语言最重要的辅助**际工具辅助语言进行交际的工具很多,像旗语,手势,红绿灯,色彩,音响等,都可以在一定范围内传递信息,起到沟通作用,而在现代社会,像广播,电视,电话,网络等通讯工具,甚至还可以不改变语言的有声特质,传递信息既快又广,但这些工具,远不及文字那样方便,不及文字使用范围那样广,文字打破了有声语言的时空局限,在很大程度上扩展了语言的功能,这是其它语言辅助工具所不能比的,所以说文字是语言最重要的辅助**际工具.(通过比较分析,得出文字是最重要的辅助语言交际工具的结论.)9.两个人在争论语言和思维的关系,一个人说先有语言,因为语言是思维工具,没有这个工具就无法思维;一个人说先有思维,因为语句是思维的成果,没有思维,人们无法把散沙一样的词语组合成句.你认为谁的观点对两个人的话看似有理,由于割裂了语言与思维的关系,所以都是无理的,都是片面的.首先,语言和思维是相互依存的,各以对方为自己存在的条件:语言是思维的工具,语言离不开思维,思维也不能脱离语言;如果没有思维,没有思想,人际之间的交流无从谈起,语言的存在也失去了任何意义.其次,语言和思维的发展程度是相互适应的,是一致的;有什么样的思维水平,就有什么样的语言水平,有什么样的语言水平,就有什么样的思维水平,不可能一个社会发展到语言和思维脱节的地步,语言水平很高而思维水平很低,或思维水平很高而语言水平很低,这都是不可想象的,也是不可能的.(关键要认识到语言和思维二者相互依存,密不可分的关系.)10.语言实际上是一种社会现象,怎样理解这句话第一,语言是社会的产物,没有人类社会,也就没有语言;第二,语言是人类社会独有的,人类社会以外,没有语言,动物没有语言.(所谓社会,必然是和人类有关系的,就是人类结成的共同体,否则就不是社会了.语言既然是社会现象,不是自然现象,就否认了人类社会以外还有语言的说法.) 第二章一,名词解释(10分,每词2分)1.符号:就指代某种事物的标记,记号,它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号.2.语言符号的任意性指符号的形式和符号的内容的结合是偶然的,没有必然的关系.例如语言符号,语音形式和意义内容的结合就是任意的,没有本质的关系.3.二层性:语言是由一定的单位按照一定的层级组成的,可分为音位层和符号层,其音位层和符号层我们合称为语言的二层性.4.组合关系:两个同一性质的结构单位(如音位与音位,词与词等等)按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系.5.聚合关系:语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位(如音位,词)之间的关系.二,填空题(20分,每空1分)1.形式意义2.意义形式3.语音意义形式4.约定俗成5.任意性线条性6.音位序列语素词7.组合关系聚合关系8.组合关系聚合关系9.抽象思维发音三,判断题(20分,每小题1分)1.×2.√3.×4.×5.√6.√7.√8.√9.× 10.√11.× 12.× 13.× 14.√ 15.√ 16.√ 17.√ 18.× 19.√ 20.×四,问答题(50分,每小题5分)1.什么是符号它有哪些因素构成所谓符号,就指代某种事物的标记,记号,它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号.甲能代表乙或指称乙,甲就有条件成为乙的符号.符号由一定的形式和一定的意义构成,二者互相对待,密不可分.例如老师阅卷,用"√"表示正确,就是符号,其形式是线条√,意义是"正确".2.为什么说语言是一种符号系统语言就是一种符号系统.语言所以是一种符号,就是因为它能代表或指称现实现象.比如我们一听到"书"这个词,就知道它指的是"成本的著作"这个意义.符号的形成要具备一定的条件,其中最重要的就是在使用中要受到一定规则的支配,装拆自如,可以重复使用.而语言就具有这个自由拼装的特点.从结构成看,语言也是一种符号系统,具有所有符号的一般特点,也有形式和意义两个方面.与一般符号形式和内容的结合由社会决定一样,语音的形式和意义的结合也是由一定社会成员共同决定的,是约定俗成的.3.人类选择语音作为语言的形式,同其他形式相比,语音形式有什么优点人类创造语言为什么选择语音作为符号的形式呢这主要是因为:①语音这种形式使用起来比较方便,语音是人类发音器官发出来的声音,发音器官人人都有,随时可以使用,因此人们可以在任何地方使用语音形式表达意义内容,不需要任何附加设备,每个人随时都能发出来的,走到哪里就可以带到哪里,使用非常方便;②语音形式的容量大,几十个语音单位通过排列组合可以表达任何意义内容.③语音形式的表达效果也是最好的,它可以是大声疾呼,也可以是轻声细语,可以细致入微地表达人类的喜怒。
语言学概论课后习题1--8章
第一章第一节1.为什么说语言科学是以语言作为研究对象的科学？答：语言学是以语言作为研究对象的科学,自从有了人类,人们开始了对语言现象的关注.然而古代人类并没有把语言现象从人类其他文化现象中分离出来加以研究.此外对雨燕采用科学的方法加以研究,也是语言学建立的一个很重要的条件.它是教人理性的认识语言现象,有效把握语言规律,全面的分析语言事实,正确地揭示语言与人的关系,从而有效的指导人们运用语言的科学. 2．开设《语言学概论》这门课程有什么价值与意义？答：首先,它是属于普通语言学或一般语言学的X畴,它所研究和关注的是人类语言共有的现象和共同规律.人们通过这门课可以学习和了解有关语言的性质、功能和特点等方面的理性知识.其次,在人们有了基础认识之后,可以进一步研究语言的内部结构,从语音、语法和语义三个方面分析和认识语言现象,储备专门知识.再者,人们将学习和了解有关语言发展变化的情况.还可以通过语言学来了解与人类社会关系密切的其他学问.3.语学是从哪些角度研究人类语言现象的？答：语言学首先可以分为本体语言学〔理论语言学〕与边沿语言学〔应用语言学〕.应用语言学有许多分支,如：数理语言学、心理语言学……..所以语言学可以从人类、社会、心理等方面研究人类语言学现象.第二节1.中国古代人们有哪些关于语言的神话与传说,应该怎样认识这些神话传说？答、畲族神话《高辛与龙王》说,创世之神教会了人们说话.彝族神话《天神的哑水》里说,本来人和动物都能说话,天神骗他们去喝智能之水,结果,动物因喝水而失去了语言,而人类没有喝水保存了语言.壮族神话《布洛陀》也说人和鸟兽,本来共享语言,但是因为它们之间的纠纷,掌管世间事务的神布洛陀便使人语不同于兽语.纳西族《创世纪》里说,人们有三种不同的语言,藏语、白语、纳西语等等.其实这些神话传说与当时的人们的时间、生活密切关联,所以,这些神话传说反应了他们当时的认识和经验.2.古代印度人的语言研究是围绕什么来进行的？这种研究对现代人有什么样的启迪？答：〔1〕古代印度人的语言研究是围绕着对语言神话的研究和为了正确地传承##经典语言所作的详尽分析和研究这两方面来进行的,其中,第二个方面对后来的语言学研究产生了很大的影响.〔2〕《波尼尼语法》是古代印度人在前语言状态下语言研究的最大成果,就是公元前四世纪波尼尼对梵文所作的经典语法分析.他注重分析词的形态,特别是构词规则,很少涉与语法.对现代人而言,古印度语言学的一系列语音语法分析的概念和方法,波尼尼等古印度语法学家的分析方法、研究精神与其关注X围等对现代语言学研究都是有所启迪的.3.对古代西方人在##中流露出的对语言的认识,你有什么看法？答：古代西方人在##中流露出的对语言的认识反映出古代西方人对语言的认识和猜想是多方面的.主要是人是怎么学会说话的、谁给事物命名的、人类语言为什么由一种变多种、语言具有魔力吗以与最古老的语言是什么这五个方面,其中许多看法也是饶有趣味的.但在今天看来,他们的认识显而易见带有自己时代的认识特点和局限性.第三节1.历史比较语言学是如何产生的？其主要功绩是什么？答：历史比较语言学的形成与发展,是建立在古代印度语言研究基础之上的.古印度的语言研究早在公元前四世纪就已蓬勃发展了,首先是在约公元前四世纪波尼尼进行的梵语语法研究.其后,陆续有十多种语法派别,都或多或少地打上了波尼尼语法著作的烙印.后来到十八世纪末西方学者才开始大量接触到古印度学者的语法研究成果.主要功绩：历史比较语言学的最大研究成果是语言类型的建立和普系数的发现.其中最为著名的,影响最大的是施莱歇尔,代表作《印度日耳曼语言比较语法纲要》,他根据语言的共有特点而将其分为不同的语族,并用普系树形图来表示语言的历史渊源和体系.2.谈谈结构语言学的代表人物与其学术流派.答：结构代表人物是索绪尔.索绪尔是结构语言学的鼻祖,是现代语言学的奠基人,他在印欧比较语言学中做出来重大贡献.索绪尔主X把语言和言语、内部语言和外部语言、共时性研究和历史性研究、组合关系和聚合关系区别开来.其学术流派有：〔1〕结构主义语言学派,代表人物：索绪尔〔2〕布拉格学派：代表人物：马泰修斯〔3〕哥本哈根学派:代表人物：叶尔姆斯列夫〔4〕美国描写语言学,代表人物：布龙菲尔德3.转换生成语言学的创始人和他的主要学术观点是什么？答：创始人是乔姆斯基.主要学术观点是：20世纪中叶,乔姆斯基的转换–生成语言学兴起批判了结构主义,他认为人类有着共同的语言能力,世界语言的不同面貌是适应转换的结果,并力图用形式化的手段构建这种转换过程,其影响一直延伸到21世纪.1957年乔姆斯基《句法结构》的出版标志着转换–生成语法的诞生,这一理论是建立在理性基础之上的.转换–生成学派以语法研究为目的,各个分支学科的研究都服从这个目的,同时又对各个领域的研究产生了重大的影响.转换生成学派的影响不仅体现在语言学方面,在其他学科,如计算机学科、人工智能以与认知科学等方面都产生了一定的反响.乔姆斯基认为,转换生成语法将促进认知科学的发展,并把语言学的研究和神经科学、心理学以与生物学等学科的研究结合起来,共同为探索人脑的奥秘做出贡献.4.现代语言研究为什么会出现形式化倾向?答：〔1〕计算机文化的兴起和人工智能时代的到来,需要将语言数理化以顺利完成人机对话；<2〕乔姆斯基认为人类有着共同的语言能力,世界语言的不同面貌是适应的结果,故转换生成语法 ,采用现代数理逻辑的形式化方法,根据有限的公理化规则系统和原则系统,用演绎的方法生成无限的句子,以此来解释人类的语言能力.〔3〕索绪尔对语言是形式而非实体,是符号系统的认识,为语言研究的形式化提供了可能性.第四节一. 语言学在哪些方面影响到了哪些学科？答：通过语言学对周边学科的影响这节的学习,可以看出,语言学不是孤立的,它的影响是多方面的:1.语言学语文学、本体语言与文学理论文学批评中的文本、语言学中的音位与文学理论中的原型2.语言学与哲学:每一个语言学的发展潮流和动向的背后都有当时哲学思潮的影响.3.语言学与信息科学语言学是人类最基本的信息载体4.语言学与人工智能:目前计算机所做的工作之一就是依照人的语言设计适合计算机的智能语言.二. 从自己生活中发现语言作用与社会现实的事例.答：生活中的计算机的使用,用自然语进行人机对话,同时人工智能就是让计算机模拟人的智能,思想,行为,识别与理解,完成只有人才能完成的工作,从而减轻或代替人的体力或脑力劳动.还有利用语言还可以帮助失语症患者,也可以帮助警察破案等等. 第五节一．谈谈语义研究的重要性答：打破了传统语言学研究只在语法和词汇学中有限的研究语义现象,在较大X围里展开对语义的本质结构,形式化问题的研究,小到义素分析,词义分析大到,话语意义的研究,句子分析,都为语言学家所重视,同时对于古代文献书中的词语的诠释和注疏有重要意义.二．当代语言研究的对象为什么有扩大的趋势?谈谈你对这个事实的理解答：因为语言远比过去人们想象的复杂,像过去那样单学科作战的局面,一去不复返了.因为只有将语言放在自身存在活动的框架下研究时才是有意义的,也才能获得价值和成果.三．语言研究的目的为什会由描写发展到构建?答：当世界进入计算机时代以后,在本体语言的长足发展之后,人们不再满足于对自然语言的描写,而是发展到在大规模占有语言事实的基础上用人们了解的语言规律来构建自然语言. 四．众多与语言相关的学科加入到语言研究中来的原因是什么? 答：由于语言的学科性质与哲学,历史学,文学,社会学人类学生理学心理学脑科学认知科学以与符号学信息学计算机科学等有先天的联系,因而语言学问题的最终解决有待于与这些学科协同作战.五．试举例说明语言学研究成果在现实生活中运用的事例. 答：语言政策的制定,人类信息处理识别,传输与存储都离不开语言研究与语言学研究成果,小到文字的输入大到资料的编目,产品的编号,人名的排序,都运用并等待着语言研究的新成果.第二章第一节一．在语言起源问题上人类有哪些认识?答：有声语言是在距今四五万年前的旧石器时期开始的,人类语言是长期进化的结果,在晚期智人之前猿人已经有了比黑猩猩复杂的声音来交流信息,随着发音器官的不断进化和思维的发展,这些声音也逐渐的清晰起来,并可以分解为更小的单位或依照一定规则组成语流,于是形成了真正的语言.二.推向一下,巴黎语言学会为什么一度拒绝接受有关语言起源问题的提案?答：因为语言的起源问题一直是一个有争议的问题.<可以根据自己的理解作答>三.对于人类语言起源这个千古之谜,你有什么想法?关于语言的起源问题出现过各种各样的假说主要有:摹声说,感叹说,劳动叫喊说,社会契约说,手势说等在这些学说中我比较能接受劳动叫喊说<具体答案可以根据自己的理解作答>.第二节1.什么是语言？什么是言语？答：语言这个概念在语言学上有两种意义：①是指人们嘴里说出来的话中所包含的语言的材料,词汇以与这些材料之间所形成的关系,这种语言概念,被称之为狭义的语言概念.②是指人们形成话语的全部过程和所说的话语,称之为言语.2.人类预言过程都包括哪些因素？答:人类的语言交际通常分为两个过程：说些过程和听读过程言语交际的整个交际过程是：人——听写者〔言语主体〕——言语动机——言语内容——内容筛选——说写角度——说写行为——话语——听读行为——听读内容——听读角度——内容筛选——听读动机——听读人〔言语对象〕——人说写者,听读者和言语环境制约着人类言语交际.3.怎样理解言语的心理,物理,生理和社会性质？试举例说明. 答：言语是指人们形成话语的全部过程和所说的话语,它包括内容和形式,即所指和能指,人们语音形式就是言语的载体,所以,言语的心理,物理,生理和社会性质,就是语音的生理,物理,心理和社会性质.首先,它的心理性质,就是语音在人脑中首先产生的音响效果,语音是从人脑中的心理音响开始的,如在发出‘人’这个音时,首先在发出者脑海里形成‘ren’这个音响效果在发出者发出,听话人听到语音后首先在大脑中反映出这个‘ren’的印象.这就是言语的心理属性.其次,言语的物理属性是指发音器官,包括肺,共鸣腔〔口腔,鼻腔,和咽腔〕以与喉头和声带.当大脑发出命令‘ren’的时候,喉头和声带振动发声,肺部提供动力,然后通过口腔发声.第三是物理属性,包括：音高,音强,音长和音色.音高是声音的高低,音强是声音的大小和强弱,音长是声音的长短,音色也叫音质.比如发‘ren’这个音和发‘fen’这个音需要的音高,音强,音长和音色都不一样,语言的社会性质,就是语言的民族性和地域性的一种延伸,比如‘may’这个音,用英语说是‘mei’,用汉语说是‘mai’,这也是一种民族的习性,这就是言语的社会性质的体现.第三节1.传统语言的研究对象在哪里？答：传统语言的研究对象并不存在于人的说话说话过程中〔也就是言语行为中〕,而是存在于通过特定的言语行为所产生和形成的话语作品之中.随便录下一个人说的一段话,或写的文章,就会发现其中有不少句子,有许多音义结合的词语,这些就构成了传统语言学的研究对象.2.传统语言研究的价值与意义是什么？答：a将人们从纷繁的语言与言语事实中解放出来,从而只研究人感兴趣并对人有用的问题.b.将精力集中在当时人们对语言感兴趣的X围内,正确的把握重点和热点,避免在特定的历史时期内做无谓的研究.C.从具体瞬时的言语现象中寻找一个确定稳定的可以把握的对象,为特定的语言研究目的服务.D.在千变万化的言语形式背后,发出现为数不多的构成材料和结构规律,借此指导人们运用与语言研究.第四节1.为什么说"语言是一种特殊的社会现象〞？它特殊在哪里？答：语言是一种特殊的社会现象,因为它既不属于经济基础也不属于上层建筑.它的特殊性在于：①上层建筑如##、哲学、艺术都是有一定的经济基础产生的,而语言则是千百年来社会历史全部进程的产物,它不是由某一特定的经济基础所产生的.②一定社会的上层建筑总是为特定的阶级和集团服务的,而语言则不然,它是为整个人类社会和全体社会成员服务的.③上层建筑是某一经济基础存在与活动的时代的产物,因而上层建筑的生命是不长久的,它随着这个基础的产生而新产生出来.④最后,上层建筑与人的生产活动没有直接关系,而语言则不然,它几乎与人类社会生活的一切领域都有直接联系,人类社会生活发展到今天,不与语言发生关系的领域几乎是没有的.2.你是怎样理解语言是没有阶级性这个结论的？答：狭义的语言没有阶级性,第一,从语言的服务对象看,狭义的语言不是为特定的阶级和阶层服务的,而是人类社会统一使用的交际工具,一视##地为社会全体成员服务,在这种意义上的语言面前人人平等.它是人人可以得而用之的一种工具,本身不具备阶级性质和色彩,这是狭义语言的本质特征.第二,狭义的语言本身具有抽象的性质.它是从人类社会不同阶级、阶层和集团大量言语活动中抽象和概括出来的,因而无论从其构成的语音材料、词汇材料还是从其语法结构规律来看,都没有阶级性可言.所以说,语言的语音没有阶级性、词汇没有阶级性、语法系统也没有阶级性.第三,人类的产生已经有上百万年的历史,狭义的语言在人类还没有形成阶级的社会中就存在了,而有阶级的历史不过几千年,在那漫长的原始社会,人类社会都没有阶级性,作为交际的工具,语言当然也没有阶级性.随着社会的进步,当人类再次进入无阶级社会时,语言同样不会消灭,它将会继续为人类服务. 2.关于动物的"语言〞,你有些什么想法?在你看来人的语言与动物间的交际手段有什么区别与联系？答：动物也有着自己的"语言〞,用"语言〞来传递信息,它们不光有声音语言,还有许多无声的语言.例如,超声语言、运动语言、色彩语言、气味语言等,是它们的一种交际手段.人的语言和动物的交际手段的区别：①动物用于交际的声音或体势不具有可切分或可组合性,因此无法像人类的语言那样用有限的声音来表达无限的意义；②动物界的声音或体势,只是对现场情景刺激的反应,不能表述过去的或未来的事件,不能叙述异地所发生的事情,因此,不具备语言的基本属性."动物语言〞只是一种形象的说法,语言是人类所独有的.__人的语言与动物的交际手段都是用来交流信息的介质.第五节1.分析一下自己所熟悉的语言的构成材料.答：语的语言构成材料有语音材料和语汇材料.首先,从语音角度来说,通常就几十个单位,大约在三十或五十之间.从语汇角度讲,使用频率最高的也就四五千个词.由此看来,汉语的语言构成材料是有限的.2.人类为什么能用有限的材料和有限的结构规则表达无限增长着的精神意识内容？答：因为语言的生成能力是无限的,有如下几方面的原因：〔1〕狭义语言的层次性结构；〔2〕材料和规则的反复运用；〔3〕语境的增生和调制作用.另外,语境对语言也有制约作用. 第六节1.语言都有哪些功能？答：语言有交际功能、认知功能、思维功能和信息功能.2.怎样认识语言的交际功能？它包括哪些方面？答：语言的交际功能是语言最为常见的一种功能,是最基本的功能.它包括语言祈使、语言沟通、语言表现和语言发泄四个方面.3.什么是语言的信息功能？试举例说明语言的信息功能.答：利用语言千百次交际过程中沉淀下来的在共时环境下为人所不知道的信息.语言的这种功能,我们称其为信息功能.例如：##相当一部分地区,除了将自己父亲称为"爸〞或"大〞之外,父辈的兄弟、晚辈则按年龄分别称为"大爸〞、"二爸〞、"三爸〞、"四爸〞.4.语言为什么会具有认知功能？试举例说明.答：语言是人们了解掌握外部世界和人内部世界的各种知识的重要途径,人类社会越进步,通过语言手段获得的关于外部世界的知识越多,语言的重要性质显现的越是明显.例如：学生通过学习书本上的知识,来间接获得对外部世界的认识.5.举例说明人是如何运用语言进行思维的.答：语言可以帮助人们思想、思维.例如：当我们有什么有什么心事向别人倾吐的时候,我们都是用言语来表达的；当我们有什么问题要考虑的时候,我们都是用言语来想的,特别是当我们考虑十分繁难的问题时,我们甚至会同时大声地说出话来.第七节1.思维是一个什么样的过程？思维是人类特有的吗？答：思维是一个由低级到高级的发展过程.思维是人类独有的高级心智活动,是思维行为的结果.2.在语言与思维的关系问题上,都有些什么样的观点？答：在语言与思维的关系上,有一个传统的观点,这就是人类的语言与思维是密不可分的.既不存在没有思维的语言,也不存在没有语言的思维.实践证明这种观点是不全面的.目前,大量科学实验证明,既存在着没有思维的语言,也存在着没有语言的思维.3.你认为语言与思维应该是一种什么样的关系？答：语言与思维是相互促进、相互依存的关系.具体表现在三个方面：〔1〕语言是人类思维发展的结果；〔2〕语言是人类进行思维的工具：〔3〕思维发展对语言发展具有推进作用.第三章第一节1.举例说明什么是符号答：凡是一个表达形式与其所表达的内容之间,本来不存在某种联系,如果人为将它们结合起来,成为一个由表达形式和表达内容所构成结合体,我们都可以将这个结合体的表达形式称之为符号.比如,马路上的红灯亮了,于是行人和车辆都停止了通行,一会绿灯亮了,路上的行人和车辆又开始了通行,于是红灯和绿灯都称为符号.符号的表达形式和表达内容之间本没有关系,是人为加的.而指号,征兆和它所代表的事物有自然的联系,不是一种假定或设定关系.2.符号与指号,症侯,征兆有什么区别？答：符号的表达形式和表达内容之间本没有关系,是人为加的.而指号,征兆和它所代表的事物有自然的联系,不是一种假定或设定关系.3.谈谈能指与所指在表达中的价值和意义,并说明什么是能指,什么是所指.答：索绪尔在其名著《普通语言学教程》中,将符号中的表达形式称为能指,即可以表达某种内容的形式；符号所表达的内容称为所指,即由能指所表达的内容.符号就是由能指和所指构成,而能指与所指之间没有必然联系,它们之间的关系是假定的和任意的.4.尽可能多地列一些不同类型的符号的例子,然后试着给这些符号分类.答：比如,马路上的红灯亮了行人和车辆就停止通行,绿灯亮了又开始通行.红灯和绿灯就成为符号,在这个特定的环境中红灯代表停止,绿灯表达通行的意思.5.谈谈符号学分析的价值与意义.答：自从发现了语言的音义之间有一种符号关系以后,有关符号学理论层出不穷,各个专业和学科都试图从符号学的角度分析研究自己的学科对象,从而得出有益的结论.符号学为人们提供了一种学习方法.符号学为人们提供了一条认识信息:人们认识事物时,不能只停留在事物的表面,而必须以事物显示出来的表面特征为表征,从而探究这种表征之下的内容,由此与彼,层层深入,一步步达到对事物内部的认识.符号学就为我们提供了这样一个由此与彼的桥梁.第二节1.为什么语言符号具有假定的性质？答：符号是可以指代事物的标记,这个标记可以用来代替其标记的事物,然而这个标记却与其所标记的事物之间没有任何本质上的联系,不可能从这种标记中找到其所代替的事物的属性.语言符号的能指和所指之间没有必然的联系,完全是使用者之间的主观决择而共同规定的,具有人为的约定的特征.因此说语言符号具有假定的性质.2.语言符号的假定性和任意性有什么关系？试加以说明.答：符号中的能指与所指之间的关系是假定的,可以通过设定的方式与人类一切想要表达的精神与意识内容发生关系,从而使人类所要表达的内容都能通过符号得到表达.而正因为这一假定性所以也导致其关系是任意的.3. 语言符号为什么采用线性表达方式?答：因为语言受其表达条件限制,只能在时间上依次展开.而不能像图画那样一下子在一个平面上展开.就像雕塑那样在一个三维空间展开.这就形成了语言的线性特点.4.语言符号为什么具有社团性？答：由于语言符号能指与所指之间是一种设定关系,所以语言符号活动X围是有限的,通常只能在一个语言共同体中发挥作用,并且有时效的限制,即语言符号不能横跨种族、跨语言进行. 5.语言符号可以跨越时代表达而其能指与所指的关系与价值不发生变化吗？答：会发生变化.因为语言符号中的能指与所指关联,具有设定的性质,这一方面决定了它们在初始环境下结合的偶然性,另一方面,也决定了语言符号一个非常重要的性质,这就是已经具有关联的能指与所指之间也会产生一种分离和漂移的倾向,这种分离和倾向就使得能指与所指的关系与价值发生了变化.第三节1.什么是人內语言的分层装置？人內语言为什么采用这种分层。
语言学概论课后习题
语言学概论课后习题总分105分，其中选择和填空一共85分，最后自动出现的分数只有选择和填空的分数一、选择题1.我国传统的语文学是（） [单选题] *A. 文字学、音韵学、训诂学(正确答案)B. 词汇学、音韵学、语法学B. 音韵学、语法学、词汇学D. 文字学、词汇学、语法学2. 语言学家吸收和使用比较方法来研究梵语和希腊语、拉丁语、日耳曼语等的关系，创造了（），用来研究和揭示语言的发展规律。
（） [单选题] *A. 结构主义语言学B. 功能主义语言学C. 认知语言学D.历史比较法(正确答案)3.（）是“现代语言学之父”也是结构主义的鼻祖。
（） [单选题] *A. 梅耶B.索绪尔(正确答案)C. 利奇D.赵元任4.一个中国孩子从小在英国长大，结果他只会讲英语而不会说汉语，这说明( )。
[单选题] *A．语言具有阶级性B．语言是个人现象C．语言是社会现象(正确答案)D．语言是自然现象5.同样表示“书”这一事物，汉语中用shū这个音来指代，英语中则用book[buk]这一语音形式来指代。
这是因为语音和它所指代的意义之间的关系是( )。
[单选题] * A．国家规定的B．有本质的联系C．社会成员约定俗成的(正确答案)D．有必然的联系6.下列说法正确的是（） [单选题] *A．语言可以表达不同阶级的思想意识，所以是有阶级性的。
B．语言既不属于上层建筑也不属于经济基础(正确答案)C．语言可以离开社会而独立存在D．语言在无阶级社会是没有阶级性的，在有阶级社会是有阶级性的7.语言成分按线性次序组合起来所形成的关系是( )。
[单选题] *A.层级关系B.组合关系(正确答案)C.聚合关系D.没有关系8.下列说法只有不正确的是（） [单选题] *A．语言符号不可以拆卸拼装，不具有生成能力。
(正确答案)B．文字和旗语都是在语言的基础上形成的。
C．语言是其它所有交际工具的基础。
D．从音位到语素，这是语言分层装置里最关键的接合部。
自考语言学概论课后题及答案
自考语言学概论课后题及答案
1、关于语言的定义，下列说法中不正确的一项是（）
A、语言是一种社会现象
B、语言就是人们说出来的话
C、语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言
D、语言是一个符号系统
【答案】B
【解析】区分语言和言语，言语是人们说出来的话，语言是音义结合的符号系统。
2、提出“语言是形成思维的工具，思维和语言活动是不可分割的统一体”的论断的人是（）
A、亚里士多德
B、笛卡尔
C、洪堡特
【答案】C
3、系统功能语言学中的_____过程是表示做某件事的过程。
这个过程本身一般由动态动词、动作者和动作的目标来表示。
【答案】物质
4、对语言进行一个横断面的研究而不是从历史的角度，叫_____语言学。
【答案】共时
5、直接涉及语素研究的语言学分支叫做_____，研究词的内部结
构以及词的构造规则。
【答案】形态学
6、现代汉语属于_____语言学，汉语史属于_____语言学。
【答案】共时、历时
7、语言交际的过程借用信息论的术语来说，大体上可以分为_____等五个阶段。
【答案】编码、发送、传递、接收、解码。
《语言学概论》课后习题答案.docx
课后习题思考题1.答：人们在各个领域的活动中都离不开语言，语言活动深入到人类生活的一切领域，这种情况必然使语言学和其他学科发生密切的联系，因此说，语言学在现代科学体系中处于领先和关键的重要地位。
⑴语言学的特定研究对象，即人类的语言几乎牵涉到现代科学的每个学科。
现代许多学科的发展最后都与语言问题、思维问题等有关，语言学的突破必将为这些学科的发展起到促进作用。
⑵语言学与社会科学、自然科学有着密切的联系，围绕着语言学，已经形成了众多的边缘学科。
2.答：语言的应用研究统称为应用语言学，它着重解决现实中与语言有关的各种实际问题，把语言学的基础研究成果转化为社会效益。
根据研究范围的不同，应用语言学有狭义和广义之分。
狭义应用语言学主要以语言教学问题为研究对象, 基本可以看作是语言教学的理论与方法的科学。
语言教学包括第一语言教学即本族语的教学和第二语言教学即外族语的教学。
第一语言的学习非常重要，因为它是学习各门知识的基础和手段，也是进行各种交际活动的工具。
第二语言教学包括本族人学习外族语及教外族人学习本族语。
广义应用语言学是把语言学的研究成果同有关学科的某些实用研究结合起来，着重解决有关学科及语言学本身所涉及的应用方面的问题。
它主要包括语言统计、信息传递、自动控制、情报检索、机器翻译、人机对话、人工智能、自然语言理解、语言文字信息处理等。
此外，还涉及到语言规划、语言的使用等问题。
3.答：转换生成语言学的创始人是美国语言学家诺姆-乔姆斯基。
转换生成语言学的研究对象是语言能力而不是语言行为。
1957年，乔姆斯基出版《句法结构》一书，标志着转换生成语言学的诞生。
转换生成语法理论是欧美语言学理论中最有影响的一种，因此，它的诞生被称为“乔姆斯基革命”。
乔姆斯基的生成语法学理论使我们在一定程度上摆脫了行为主义言语获得理论的束缚，认识到婴儿言语获得过程中神经系统的重要作用，同时也向我们提出了研究言语过程的心理机制的问题，这是很有理论意义和借鉴价值的。
叶蜚声《语言学纲要》学习指导书课后习题答案
《语言学概论》学习辅导书参考答案(导言）一、名词解释（20分，每小题4分）1.语言学：就是以语言为研究对象的科学，研究语言的本质、语言的结构和发展规律。
2。
小学:指我国传统的语文学，包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学三方面的内容。
3.专语语言学：也叫具体语言学、个别语言学，以一种(或几种有联系的）语言为研究对象，研究某一种语言的结构.4。
共时语言学：以同时的、静态分析的方法，研究语言相对静止的状态,描写分析语言在某一个时期、某一个阶段的状况,是从横向的方面研究语言。
5。
历时语言学：从历时的、动态的角度研究语言发展的历史,观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变,是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。
二、填空题（20分,每空1分)1.中国印度古希腊—罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言的三大发源地。
2。
文字学音韵学训诂学是我国传统的语文学。
3.研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音词汇和语义语法三个部分。
4.运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为编码发送传递接收解码五个过程5。
专语语言学可以从纵向和横向研究语言，由于研究角度不同，所以又分为历时语言学和共时语言学6.历史比较语言学的建立,标志着语言学开始走上独立发展的道路。
7。
布隆菲尔德的代表著作《语言论》,是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性著作。
8。
索绪尔被称为现代语言之父，其代表作有《普通语言学教程》三、问答题(60分，每小题10分)1.古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同？①研究对象不同:古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料，不重视口头语言的研究，而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究，如制定语言规范,确立共同语的各方面标准等，都要依据口语的研究成果；②研究目的不同：古代语言学研究语言，主要是给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典著作作注解，比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典著作的需要来研究文言的，而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构，以此探讨语言发展的共同规律. 2．语言交际过程分哪几个阶段？请举例具体说明可分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。
语言学概论课后题答案 杨信彰版(英语专业大三期末备考)
Charpter11.1.11. a. This sentence may have three interpretations: 1) He rolledfrom side to side in his grave. 2) He returned his grave. 3) He handedin his grave.b. There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1) They gave preference to both young men and young women. 2) They gave preference to women and young men.2. Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.Units that indicate structure: when, to.3. a. This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.b. This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.c. This is a good sentence.d. This is a good sentence.1.1.21. a. This sign is a symbol. It means we will have good luck. I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character "福" means "luck" and the color red symbolizes "goodness". The Chinese meaning of "upside down" is "倒", which has the similarpronunciation of "到(arrive)". Thus, when thecharacter "福" is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.b. This sign is an icon. It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.c. This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon. It means that "parking" is only allowed for disabled people.2. I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.3. To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.4. I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.1.1.31. according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son. However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor. Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.2. No. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. In people's mind, "pig" stands for foolishness and laziness. If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.3. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power tochange a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.1.1.41. I prefer to use the spoken language. In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other. People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.2. I think listening and speaking should come first. The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal. What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.1.1.51. No, I don't agree with this point of view. Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.2. A parrot only can say what it is taught. It can not form aninfinite set of utterances from a finite use of units. So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.3. That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.4. Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human languagethan in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.1.1.61. The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent. People can communicate with others in remote places freely.2. There may exist several causes:1) The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.2) The receiver can not understand what the sender said.3) The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.4) There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.3. We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the waysof thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.1.2.11. a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. Informative function2. People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry. And mostcreative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.3. I may not say anything, but move the desk away.1.2.21. General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.2. No. According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3. Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.1.3.11. I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language. This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists. With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionarytheory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.2. 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3. Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basicvocabulary.1.3.21. Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic (or genealogical) and the typological. The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages. On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship.2. Currently, we cannot say that all languages in the world derived from one common ancestor. It might be true that some languages have diverged from one common ancestor, for example, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance languages were clearly descended from Latin, but no evidence show that all languages in the world have the same origin. Asresearch shows, there are at least 29 language families in the world. However, this problem will be solved when we have enough evidence to show that human beings have one common ancestor.3. The major causes for the language diversity in the world include grammatical structure, historical factors, social factors, intercultural contact, etc.1.4.11. The two sentences perform the same function of requesting. However, The two sentences have different choices of words and syntax structures. Sentence (a) is structurally an imperative sentence, while Sentence (b) takes the form of a question and the word 'please' is added. So, the effects of the two utterances are different. Sentence (b) would sound more polite. When we are decoding them, we would take into account such factors as choice of words and syntactic structures, the principle of politeness and the context.2. As a science, linguistics demands a scientific outlook upon language. To conduct a study of language scientifically, we must take an objective view of language and all linguistic phenomena and study language and reflect on it in a detached and unbiased way. Even a local variety with few native speakers may also fall within our investigations. Moreover, we should adopt the general principles of empirical research procedures to observe and analyze data found in natural languages.3. The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into thecommon features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.1.4.21. It is very important to study speech in linguistics, because language is primarily vocal. As we know, no community has a written form only, though many have a spoken language only. Children learn spoken language first and most easily. Earlier in the 20th century certain linguists began to doubt the priority of writing. Bloomfield argued that writing was not language but merely a way of recording language. The contemporary linguistics maintains that the spoken language is primary and that writing is essentially a means of representing speech in another medium. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the "natural," or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.2. There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Different groups of people may use different varieties of language. The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically.3. In reality, it is impossible to have a standard language. The reason is that linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. There is no absolute standard of correctness. What's more, as we know, with thepassage of time, all languages are subject to change. All living languages are there to serve the different social needs of the communities that use them. As these needs change, languages will tend to change to meet the new situations. Thus, a standard language is not possible.1.5.11. There are many external factors related to language. Cultural factors influence the full meaning of the language conveys. Social factors include the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the addressee (i.e. their age, sex, social class, ethnic background, degree of integration into their neighborhood, etc.), the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction. Psychological factors have effects on people's behaviors.2. Though there are many translation softwares in the market, translations done by machines are full of errors and require much post-editing. The key problem is the lack of a good linguistic theory to provide a frame of reference for machine translation. It is unlikelythat machines will replace human translators.3. Foreign language learning and teaching involves several interrelated factors. These are: linguistic theories, situational factors, input and interaction, learner differences, learner processes, linguistic output,curriculum and syllabus design, teaching methodology, learner and teacher roles, textbook writing, language planning, and so on.1.5.21. Linguistic studies have gone through many changes. Since the1930s down to the present, the expansion of knowledge in so many directions have led to several attempts to make synthesis and to develop a unified theory of language. Several schools of thought have emerged round a few prominent linguists such as Firth, Halliday, Hjelmslev and Chomsky, major centers of linguistic study like Prague School, Geneva School, Copenhagen School, and leading concepts such as structuralism, functionalism, tagmemics, systemic functional grammar, transformational generative grammar, speech act theory.2. I think discourse analysis is a proper way to study language. Traditional linguistic analysis has concentrated on the internalstructure of sentences, but discourse analysis is interested in the analysis of units larger than sentences. Thus, the term discourse ortext refers to all linguistic units with a definable communicative function, spoken or written. It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social, and interactive phenomenon.3. A corpus is always needed in linguistics. Over the past few years, the study of language in actual use has required a corpus-based research. Scholars need a corpus to analyze patterns of use in natural texts. The importance of corpus to language study is aligned to the importance of empirical data because empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those based upon the individual's ownsubjective perception of language. So, corpus linguistics should be seen as a subset of the activity within an empirical approach to linguistics.Charpter 22.1.11. Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds. It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced. Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves. It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.2. The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message. According to Ball and Rahilly, there are a series of activities in the speech chain. First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker. Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs. The result is a range of muscle contractionsand physical movement of structures such as the rib cage, the larynx,the tongue and so on. In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract. This airflow interacts with continued movement ofstructures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech. This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.3. Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English. For example, in pronunciation, the "h" in the word "hour" is silent. "ph" in the word "elephant" is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling. Another example might be a pair of words like "meet" and "meat", who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.2.1.21. In the production of speech, the vocal tract sets a column of air into motion, and then modifies this moving air-stream in a number of ways to produce the sounds of speech.2. When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps. When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, post-alveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds.3. Bilabial, dental and labiodental sounds are different from one another in terms of place of articulation. Bilabials are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together. In bilabial stops they form anair-tight seal producing the plosives [p, b] or, if the velum is lowered, the nasal [m]. Dentals are produced by the front of the tonguetouching the back of the upper front teeth. Dental sounds are generally apical. Dental fricatives occur in English as pronunciations of the 'th' spellings. The voiceless dental fricative is the soundof 'th' in 'thin', whereas its voiced counterpart is the sound of'th' in 'then'. Labiodentals are articulationsproduced with the lower lip approximating to the underside of the upper front teeth. For example, in English the [f] in fat and the [v] in vat are labiodental fricatives.2.1.33. First of all, vowels and consonants appear in different places in English words. Secondly, vowels and consonants are produced differently. Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.2.1.41. Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound. It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording. On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription. It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.2. Omitted.2.2.11. Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.2. Omitted.3. [p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds. In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning.2.2.21. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, "deed" and "seed" are minimal pairs, but "deed" and "dog" are notbecause the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different.2. a) /p/-/b/: pig-big; gap-gab;b) /k/-/g/: coat-goat; back-bag;c) /f/-/v/: life-live; fife-five;d) /m/-/n/: meat-neat; time-tine;e) /r/-/l/: right- light; sear-seal3.2.2.31. Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.2. The distinctive features for each group of sounds are:a) [p, t, b, d]: [-high, -back]b) [j, w, i, u]: [+voiced, +high]3. a) life, lives: similarities: [-high, -back], differences: life[f]: [-voiced]; lives[v]: [+voiced]b) choice, choose: similarities: [-high, -back]; differences:choice[s]: [-voiced], choose [z]: [+voiced]c) deduce, deduction: similarities: [+back]; differences: deduce: [-high, -round], deduction: [+high, +round]2.3.11. Edinburgh, Wednesday, Thames are words in which pronunciation does not match the spelling.2. These words are not permissible in English. All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes. *tpray, *btry,*tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. When three consonants occur, the first must be [s].2.3.21. When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementarydistribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the othersound(s) never occur(s).2. For the speaker, the Chinese consonants [sh] and [x] are the same. So, to him, there is no need to distinguish these two sounds, and he pronounces the two consonants in the same way..2.4.11. Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, and the coda. The onset of a syllable consists of all the segments that precede the peak and are tautosyllabic with it. The peak is realized by a vowel. The coda consists of all the tautosyllabic segments that follow the peak. A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable; one with a coda is called a checked orclosed syllable.2. The word "yesterday" has three syllables. ye-ster-day."extra" has two syllables. ex-tra"secretarial" has four syllables. se-cre-ta-rial"camera" has three syllables. ca-me-ra"appreciation" has five syllables. a-pre-ci-a-tion3. English has syllables that begin with vowels and onsets of from one to three consonants. In English, three-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition. The first consonants in such onsetsmust be an s, the second a voiceless stop, and the third a liquid. Moreover, if the second consonant is t, the third must be r.2.4.21.2. Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.2.4.31. Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceivedfrequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound.2. Pitch is very important in Chinese. Different pitches on Chinese characters can lead to meaning differences. For example, "fei", when given different pitches, may mean "飞(fly)", "肥(fat)", "匪(bandit)" or "沸(boil)".2.4.41. The intonation patterns of the following English questions are:a) It begins with a mid pitch, rises to a higher pitch and thenfalls.b) Falling.c) Rising.d) It begins with a mid pitch, falls to a lower pitch and then rises.2. Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend overphonetic units larger than the syllable. Intonation serves several functions in verbal communication such as grouping words, emphasizing words and differentiating meanings.3. Intonation plays a very important role in daily conversations. In some languages, such as English and Chinese, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches.Charpter 33.1.11. A word is characterized with the following four features: (1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs. (2) A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings orideas. (3) A word is part of the large communication system we call language. (4) Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.2. The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary. There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for anentity (including a thing, a happening or an idea) and the entity itself. On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages. On theother hand, the same meaning can be represented by different soundof combination of sounds.3. Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has variousassociated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As for its various associated meanings, however,we have to relate the word with its context, including thelinguistic context as well as the context of situation and the contextofculture.3.1.21. In (prep.) practice (n.), writers (n.) on (prep.) style (n.) have (primary v.) differed (full v.) a (det.) great (adj.) deal (n.) in(prep.) their (pron.) understanding (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) subject (n.), and (conj.) one (num.) source (n.) of (prep.) disagreement (n.) has (primary v.) been (full v.) the (det.)question (n.) "To (prep.) what (pron.) or whom (pron.) do (primary v.) we (pron.) attribute (full v.) style (n.)? In (prep.) the (det.) broadest (adj.) sense (n.), STYLE (n.) can (modal v.) be (primary v.) applied (full v.) to (prep.) both (adv.) spoken (adj.) and (conj.) written (adj.), both (adv.) literary (adj.) and (conj.) non-literary (adj.) varieties (n.) of (prep.) language (n.); but (conj.) by (prep.) tradition (n.), it (pron.) is (full v.) particularly (adv.) associated(full v.) with (prep.) written (adj.) literary (adj.) texts (n.), and (conj.) this (pron.) is (full v.) the (det.) sense (n.) of (prep.) the(det.) term (n.) which (pron.) will (modal v.) concern (full v.) us (pron.).2. No. These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing. Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text. Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another. In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words. Moreover, the more formal thestyle is, the more lexical words there are.3. Open-class words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words. In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category. Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called "content words". Closed-class words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added. In English, closed-class words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb "to be". Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called "grammatical words".3.2.11. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + exception + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship2. 1) 3: geo- + -graph + -y 2) 4: inter- +nation + -al + -ly 3) 2: forget + -(t)en4) 1: Washington 5) 2: inform + -ation 6) 4: industry (i) + -al +-iz(e) + -ation7) 3: pre- + dominat(e) + -ant 8) 2: pre- + conscious3. The plural s has 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en: as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth"; and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".。
语言学概论课后参考标准答案杨信彰
Charpter11.1.11. a. This sentence may have three interpretations: 1) He rolled from side to side in his grave. 2) He returned his grave. 3) He handed in his grave.b. There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1) They gave preference to both young men and young women. 2) They gave preference to women and young men.2. Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.Units that indicate structure: when, to.3. a. This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.b. This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.c. This is a good sentence.d. This is a good sentence.1.1.21. a. This sign is a symbol. It means we will have good luck. I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character "福" means "luck" and the color red symbolizes "goodness". The Chinese meaning of "upside down" is "倒", which has the similar pronunciation of "到(arrive)". Thus, when the character "福" is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.b. This sign is an icon. It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.c. This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon. It means that "parking" is only allowed for disabled people.2. I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.3. To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.4. I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.1.1.31. according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son. However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor. Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.2. No. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. In people's mind, "pig" stands for foolishness and laziness. If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.3. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.1.1.41. I prefer to use the spoken language. In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other. People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.2. I think listening and speaking should come first. The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal. What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.1.1.51. No, I don't agree with this point of view. Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.2. A parrot only can say what it is taught. It can not form an infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units. So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.3. That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.4. Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.1.1.61. The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent. People can communicate with others in remote places freely.2. There may exist several causes:1) The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.2) The receiver can not understand what the sender said.3) The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.4) There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.3. We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.1.2.11. a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. Informative function2. People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry. And most creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.3. I may not say anything, but move the desk away.1.2.21. General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.2. No. According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3. Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.1.3.11. I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language. This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists. With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.2. 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3. Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.1.3.21. Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic (or genealogical) and the typological. The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages. On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages.It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship.2. Currently, we cannot say that all languages in the world derived from one common ancestor. It might be true that some languages have diverged from one common ancestor, for example, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance languages were clearly descended from Latin, but no evidence show that all languages in the world have the same origin. As research shows, there are at least 29 language families in the world. However, this problem will be solved when we have enough evidence to show that human beings have one common ancestor.3. The major causes for the language diversity in the world include grammatical structure, historical factors, social factors, intercultural contact, etc.1.4.11. The two sentences perform the same function of requesting. However, The two sentences have different choices of words and syntax structures. Sentence (a) is structurally an imperative sentence, while Sentence (b) takes the form of a question and the word 'please' is added. So, the effects of the two utterances are different. Sentence (b) would sound more polite. When we are decoding them, we would take into account such factors as choice of words and syntactic structures, the principle of politeness and the context.2. As a science, linguistics demands a scientific outlook upon language. To conduct a study of language scientifically, we must take an objective view of language and all linguistic phenomena and study language and reflect on it in a detached and unbiased way. Even a local variety with few native speakers may also fall within our investigations. Moreover, we should adopt the general principles of empirical research procedures to observe and analyze data found in natural languages.3. The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.1.4.21. It is very important to study speech in linguistics, because language is primarily vocal. As we know, no community has a written form only, though many have a spoken language only. Children learn spoken language first and most easily. Earlier in the 20th century certain linguists began to doubt the priority of writing. Bloomfield argued that writing was not language but merely a way of recording language. The contemporary linguistics maintains that the spoken language is primary and that writing is essentially a means of representing speech in another medium. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the "natural," or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.2. There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Different groups of people may use different varieties of language. The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically.3. In reality, it is impossible to have a standard language. The reason is that linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. There is no absolute standard of correctness. What's more, as we know, with the passage of time, all languages are subject to change. All living languages are there to serve the different social needs of the communities that use them. As these needs change, languages will tend to change to meet the new situations. Thus, a standard language is not possible.1.5.11. There are many external factors related to language. Cultural factors influence the full meaning of the language conveys. Social factors include the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the addressee (i.e. their age, sex, social class, ethnic background, degree of integration into their neighborhood, etc.), the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction. Psychological factors have effects on people's behaviors.2. Though there are many translation softwares in the market, translations done by machines are full of errors and require much post-editing. The key problem is the lack of a good linguistic theory to provide a frame of reference for machine translation. It is unlikely that machines will replace human translators.3. Foreign language learning and teaching involves several interrelated factors. These are: linguistic theories, situational factors, input and interaction, learner differences, learner processes, linguistic output, curriculum andsyllabus design, teaching methodology, learner and teacher roles, textbook writing, language planning, and so on.1.5.21. Linguistic studies have gone through many changes. Since the 1930s down to the present, the expansion of knowledge in so many directions have led to several attempts to make synthesis and to develop a unified theory of language. Several schools of thought have emerged round a few prominent linguists such as Firth, Halliday, Hjelmslev and Chomsky, major centers of linguistic study like Prague School, Geneva School, Copenhagen School, and leading concepts such as structuralism, functionalism, tagmemics, systemic functional grammar, transformational generative grammar, speech act theory.2. I think discourse analysis is a proper way to study language. Traditional linguistic analysis has concentrated on the internal structure of sentences, but discourse analysis is interested in the analysis of units larger than sentences. Thus, the term discourse or text refers to all linguistic units with a definable communicative function, spoken or written. It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social, and interactive phenomenon.3. A corpus is always needed in linguistics. Over the past few years, the study of language in actual use has required a corpus-based research. Scholars need a corpus to analyze patterns of use in natural texts. The importance of corpus to language study is aligned to the importance of empirical data because empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those based upon the individual's own subjective perception of language. So, corpus linguistics should be seen as a subset of the activity within an empirical approach to linguistics.Charpter 22.1.11. Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds. It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced. Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves. It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.2. The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message. According to Ball and Rahilly, there are a series of activities in the speech chain. First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker. Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs. The result is a range of muscle contractions and physical movement of structures such as the rib cage, the larynx, the tongue and so on. In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract. This airflow interacts with continued movement of structures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech. This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.3. Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English. For example, in pronunciation, the "h" in the word "hour" is silent. "ph" in the word "elephant" is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling. Another example might be a pair of words like "meet" and "meat", who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.2.1.21. In the production of speech, the vocal tract sets a column of air into motion, and then modifies this moving air-stream in a number of ways to produce the sounds of speech.2. When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps. When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, post-alveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds.3. Bilabial, dental and labiodental sounds are different from one another in terms of place of articulation. Bilabials are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together. In bilabial stops they form an air-tight seal producing the plosives [p, b] or, if the velum is lowered, the nasal [m]. Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper front teeth. Dental sounds are generally apical. Dental fricatives occur in English as pronunciations of the 'th' spellings. The voiceless dental fricativeis the sound of 'th' in 'thin', whereas its voiced counterpartis the sound of 'th' in 'then'. Labiodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to the underside of the upper front teeth. For example, in English the[f] in fat and the [v] in vat are labiodental fricatives.2.1.33. First of all, vowels and consonants appear in different places in English words. Secondly, vowels and consonants are produced differently. Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.2.1.41. Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound. It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording. On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription. It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.2. Omitted.2.2.11. Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.2. Omitted.3. [p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds. In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning.2.2.21. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, "deed" and "seed" are minimal pairs, but "deed" and "dog" are not because the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different.2. a) /p/-/b/: pig-big; gap-gab;b) /k/-/g/: coat-goat; back-bag;c) /f/-/v/: life-live; fife-five;d) /m/-/n/: meat-neat; time-tine;e) /r/-/l/: right- light; sear-seal3.2.2.31. Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.2. The distinctive features for each group of sounds are:a) [p, t, b, d]: [-high, -back]b) [j, w, i, u]: [+voiced, +high]3. a) life, lives: similarities: [-high, -back], differences: life [f]: [-voiced]; lives[v]: [+voiced]b) choice, choose: similarities: [-high, -back]; differences: choice[s]: [-voiced], choose [z]: [+voiced]c) deduce, deduction: similarities: [+back]; differences: deduce: [-high, -round], deduction: [+high, +round]2.3.11. Edinburgh, Wednesday, Thames are words in which pronunciation does not match the spelling.2. These words are not permissible in English. All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes. *tpray, *btry, *tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. When three consonants occur, the first must be [s].2.3.21. When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s).2. For the speaker, the Chinese consonants [sh] and [x] are the same. So, to him, there is no need to distinguish these two sounds, and he pronounces the two consonants in the same way..2.4.11. Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, and the coda. The onset of a syllable consists of all the segments that precede the peak and are tautosyllabic with it. The peak is realized by a vowel. The coda consists of all the tautosyllabic segments that follow the peak. A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable; one with a coda is called a checked or closed syllable.2. The word "yesterday" has three syllables. ye-ster-day."extra" has two syllables. ex-tra"secretarial" has four syllables. se-cre-ta-rial"camera" has three syllables. ca-me-ra"appreciation" has five syllables. a-pre-ci-a-tion3. English has syllables that begin with vowels and onsets of from one to three consonants. In English, three-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition. The first consonants in such onsets must be an s, the second a voiceless stop, and the third a liquid. Moreover, if the second consonant is t, the third must be r.2.4.21.2. Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.2.4.31. Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound.2. Pitch is very important in Chinese. Different pitches on Chinese characters can lead to meaning differences. For example, "fei", when given different pitches, may mean "飞(fly)", "肥(fat)", "匪(bandit)" or "沸(boil)".2.4.41. The intonation patterns of the following English questions are:a) It begins with a mid pitch, rises to a higher pitch and then falls.b) Falling.c) Rising.d) It begins with a mid pitch, falls to a lower pitch and then rises.2. Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable. Intonation serves several functions in verbal communication such as grouping words, emphasizing words and differentiating meanings.3. Intonation plays a very important role in daily conversations. In some languages, such as English and Chinese, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches.Keys to Linguistics of Xiamen UniversityCharpter 33.1.11. A word is characterized with the following four features: (1) A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we make voluntarily with our vocal organs. (2) A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings or ideas.(3) A word is part of the large communication system we call language. (4) Words help human beings to interact culturally with one another.2. The relation between the sound or sound combination of a word and its meaning is almost always arbitrary. There is no logical relationship between the sound or the combination of sounds which stands for an entity (including a thing, a happening or an idea) and the entity itself. On the one hand, the same sound may stand for different entities in different languages. On the other hand, the same meaning can be represented by different sound of combination of sounds.3. Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including the connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, and collocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As for its various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context, including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context of culture.3.1.21. In (prep.) practice (n.), writers (n.) on (prep.) style (n.) have (primary v.) differed (full v.) a (det.) great (adj.) deal (n.) in (prep.) their (pron.) understanding (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) subject (n.), and (conj.) one (num.) source (n.) of (prep.) disagreement (n.) has (primary v.) been (full v.) the (det.) question (n.) "To (prep.) what (pron.) or whom (pron.) do (primary v.) we (pron.) attribute (full v.) style (n.)? In (prep.) the (det.) broadest (adj.) sense (n.), STYLE (n.) can (modal v.) be (primary v.) applied (full v.) to (prep.) both (adv.) spoken (adj.) and (conj.) written (adj.), both (adv.) literary (adj.) and (conj.) non-literary (adj.) varieties (n.) of (prep.) language (n.); but (conj.) by (prep.) tradition (n.), it (pron.) is (full v.) particularly (adv.) associated (full v.) with (prep.) written (adj.) literary (adj.) texts (n.), and (conj.) this (pron.) is (full v.) the (det.) sense (n.) of (prep.) the (det.) term (n.) which (pron.) will (modal v.) concern (full v.) us (pron.).2. No. These two categories of words have different distribution in speech and writing. Lexical words denote objects, happenings, ideas and their attributes, features, and/or manners, thus relating the words with entities existing outside the text. Grammatical words, instead, denote certain grammatical meanings, thus relating one element within the text with another. In speech there are more grammatical words, while in writing there are more lexical words. Moreover, the more formal the style is, the more lexical words there are.3. Open-class words refer to those classes of words to which we can add new words. In English, nouns, notional verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to this category. Such words normally convey certain semantic contents and thus are also called "content words". Closed-class words refer to those classes to which new words can hardly be added. In English, closed-class words include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, relatives, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and the linking verb "to be". Their roles in the linguistic system are partly or wholly grammatical and thus are also called "grammatical words".3.2.11. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + exception + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing 7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship2. 1) 3: geo- + -graph + -y 2) 4: inter- +nation + -al + -ly 3) 2: forget + -(t)en 4) 1: Washington 5) 2: inform + -ation 6) 4: industry (i) + -al +-iz(e) + -ation 7) 3: pre- + dominat(e) + -ant 8) 2: pre- + conscious3. The plural s has 5 morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en: as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth"; and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".3.2.21. 1) inspire: into 2) intransigent: not 3) insufficient: not 4) insert: into5) insoluble: not 6) intact: not 7) impenetrable: not 8) immutable: not9) illicit: not 10) irretrievable: not2. 1) prince - princess 2) emperor - empress 3) waiter - waitress 4) Paul – Paula 5) fiancé - fiancée 6) hero -。
语言学概论_湖南师范大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年
语言学概论_湖南师范大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年1.使语言学成为一门独立的科学的是( )。
参考答案:历史比较语言学。
2.描写语言学、规范语言学、比较语言学的分类角度是( )。
参考答案:研究语言的操作方法不同。
3.下面关于语言学发展路线不正确的一个是( )。
参考答案:从重视口语到重视书面语4.语言的基本单位是( )。
参考答案:词;5.广义的语音学既有社会科学性质,又有自然科学性质。
参考答案:正确6.在汉语普通话里,不出现在相同语音环境的一组音素是( )。
参考答案:[ɕ][x]。
7.在[p][b][v][h][ɡ][k][d][t][s][f]中,擦音有 ( )。
参考答案:4 个;8.部件和字的不同在于( )。
参考答案:是否自由运用9.[d]和[t]两个音素( )。
参考答案:在英语里是不同的音位,在汉语里是同一个音位;10.传统语言学重视功能,不太重视结构。
参考答案:正确11.气流同时从口腔和鼻腔呼出产生的声音叫做( )。
参考答案:鼻化元音;12.从语言学发展路线来看,先重视口语的研究再重视书面语的研究。
参考答案:错误13.都属于汉藏语系语言的是( )。
参考答案:壮语,彝语,瑶语,傣语;14.决定音高的是声音的 ( )。
参考答案:频率;15.在人们不能区分[i]和[y]的汉语方言中,它们是( )。
参考答案:同一音位的自由变体;16.汉语普通话声母ɡ k h 出现的语音环境与 j q x 出现的语音环境( )。
参考答案:互补;17.在现代汉语普通话里,没有音位性区别特征的一组音素是( )。
参考答案:[p][b]18.在[p][f][s][x][h]这组音素中,和其他音素比较最特殊的音素是( )。
参考答案:[p]19.国际音标[d]与[t]的区别在于( )。
参考答案:声带振动和不振动。
20.母语就是母亲说的语言。
参考答案:错误21.一个人的年龄越大,学习语言的能力越强。
参考答案:错误22.要求既自由又最小的单位是( )。
语言学概论习题答案
导言一,名词解释(20分,每小题4分)1.语言学就是以语言为研究对象的科学,研究语言的本质,语言的结构和发展规律.2.指我国传统的语文学,包括文字学,音韵学,训诂学三方面的内容.3.专语语言学也叫具体语言学,个别语言学,以一种(或几种有联系的)语言为研究对象,研究某一种语言的结构.4.共时语言学以同时的,静态分析的方法,研究语言相对静止的状态,描写分析语言在某一个时期,某一个阶段的状况,是从横向的方面研究语言.5.历时语言学从历时的,动态的角度研究语言发展的历史,观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变,是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史.6.普通语言学以人类所有的语言为研究对象,探讨人类语言的共同规律,是在具体语言学基础上建立起来的,下面又分普通语音学,普通语法学,普通词汇学等分支学科.二,填空题(20分,每空1分)1.中国印度古希腊-罗马2.文字学音韵学训诂学3.语音词汇和语义语法4.编码发送传递接收5.历时共时历史描写6.历史比较7.《语言论》 8.索绪尔三,问答题(60分,每小题10分)1.古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有如下几个方面的区别:①研究对象不同:古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料,不重视口头语言的研究,而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究,如制定语言规范,确立共同语的各方面标准等,都要依据口语的研究成果;②研究目的不同:古代语言学研究语言,主要是给政治,哲学,宗教,历史,文学方面的经典著作作注解,比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典著作的需要来研究文言的,而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构,以此探讨语言发展的共同规律.正因为有这些差别,所以古代的语言学还不是独立的学科,处于附庸地位,而现代语言学已经发展成为一门独立的学科,随着现代科学的发展又产生了许多边沿性学科.2.语言交际过程分为哪几个阶段人类语言交际的过程,实际上就是信息的传递与接收问题,可分为编码,发送,传递,接收,解码五个阶段.编码就是发话人利用词语组织语句;发送就是把思维成果变成话语,通过发音器官表达出来;传递就是通过空气振动形成声波,把话语传达给受话人;接收是受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话;解码则经过大脑的思维把声波还原成语言,理解对方话语的含义,从而完成信息传递接收.如果受话人收到语言信息有所反馈,那么上述五个阶段则又重复一遍,只是发话人与受话人调换了.(举例说明略,可结合分析任举一个句子作说明.)3."语言学既是一门古老的学科,又是一门年轻的学科;既与社会科学有密切的联系,又与自然科学有密切的联系."怎样理解这句话的含义语言是伴随着人类一起出现的,是人类社会生活必不可少的,所以人类很早就注意到了语言的重要性,很早就注意研究语言,所以语言学是古老的,但语言学直到18世纪下半叶,产生了历史比较语言学,后来又建立了语言学的各个部门,语言研究才发展成为一门独立的学科,同其它学科相比,语言学的确是十分年轻的.语言是社会现象,与社会的政治,经济,文化,历史等密切相关,而语言的发生又与物理,生理,心理等学科密切相关,而现代社会语言与语言的信息处理(如机器翻译,语码转换等)又涉及到数学,计算机科学,所以语言学既与社会科学有密切的联系,又与自然科学有密切的联系.正因为如此,随着语言学与别的学科的交融,又产生了许多新的语言学分支学科,如社会语言学,心理语言学,统计语言学,话语语言学,数理语言学,宇宙语言学等等,这些也体现了语言学是一门年轻的学科.4.语言学有哪些作用语言学的作用主要表现在以下几个方面:①学习语言文字是掌握科学技术,提高文化水平的基础,而要学好用好语言,就必须利用语言学的研究成果;②制定语言文字的有关政策,制定语言规范,都要在对语言进行充分研究的基础上进行,而语言学的研究成果正好可以作指导;③新兴技术的出现扩大了语言学的应用范围.至于个人,同样可以利用语言学的成果,比如学习一种语言或方言,最好的办法是找到所学语言同自己母语的各方面的对应规律,这样可以收到事半功倍的效果,这就需要利用语言学的研究成果.(结合实际部分可以根据自己的学习,工作或生活经历举例)5.语言学的分类语言学首先可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学,一般所说的语言学,主要是指理论语言学.根据研究对象的不同,理论语言学又分普通语言学和专语语言学(具体语言学).普通语言学以人类所有的语言为研究对象,探讨人类语言的共同规律,是在具体语言学基础上建立起来的,下面又分普通语音学,普通语法学,普通词汇学等分支学科.专语语言学以个别的,具体的语言为研究对象.探讨研究某一种语言的规律.从是静态研究还是研究语言的历史看,又分历时语言学和共时语言学:历时语言学研究具体语言的发展历史,是纵向研究,比如汉语史研究,共时语言学研究具体语言在某一时代的状态(相对静止的状态),规律,对之进行客观的描述,是横向研究.如描写语言学,又分描写语音学,描写语汇学,描写语法学等分支学科,现代汉语就是共时语言学.6.为什么说历史比较语言学在语言学史上具有重要地位历史比较语言学在语言学史上具有十分重要的地位.在历史语言学产生以前,语言学还不是严格意义上的语言学,一般称之为语文学,和不是独立的学科,只是别的学科的附庸.语文学时期的学者,对语言的研究多是主观的规定和臆测,缺少客观的描述和检验,研究对象往往仅限于书面语,目的是校勘古书,解释传统经典中的微言大义,不准违背古人的说法,忽视语言本身的结构与发展,更不理解语言作为交际工具和思维工具的社会功能.历史语言学建立了比较的方法,既注意语言古今的对比,又注意现代不同语言的对比,重视当代活的语言的研究,运用达尔文的进化论观点,考察语言的历史来源和亲属关系,为语言建立了谱系,对各种语言作了谱系分类.所以,历史比较语言学是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志,是语言学史上的一个里程碑.历史比较语言学所采用的比较方法,给其它学科以很大的影响,像比较法学,比较宗教法,比较史学,比较文学等学科,都是仿效比较历史语言学的比较研究方法建立起来的,这可以说是语言学对社会科学的一大贡献.(关键是抓住历史比较语言学的建立是使语言学走上独立发展道路的标志,而此前的语言学,实际上都没有独立性,是经学的附庸.)第一章一,名词解释(10分,每词2分)1.语言语言是人类最重要的交际工具,也是思维的工具.2.说话说话就是运用有声语言这个工具表达自己思想的一种行为.3.交际工具人与人交流时所使用的用来沟通思想的工具,例如语言就是交际工具.4.社会现象就是指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生,存在和发展密切联系的现象.5.思维是在表象,概念的基础上进行分析,综合,判断,推理等认识活动的过程,是人类社会特有的一种精神活动.二,填空题(20分,每空1分)1.语言2.规则3.交际工具工具4.肯定否定再见鼓掌愤怒兴奋5.左直观思维6.sister uncle7.量词8.语言9.全民性阶级性10.社会的具体三,判断题(20分,每小题1分)(只判断正误即可)1.√(语言最主要的社会功能就是作交际工具.)2.×(文字是辅助语言交际的工具,对语言交际起辅助作用.)3.×(语言没有阶级性,一视同仁地为社会全体成员服务,这里的共同语言,是指阶级观念,思想感情,不是作为交际工具的语言.)4.×(语言声音的发出和声波的传递具有自然属性的一面,但语言的音义结合却是社会赋予的,所以语言从本质上看是社会现象,而不是自然现象.)5.√(语言不同于一般的社会现象,因为社会现象都是属于一定是上层建筑和经济基础的,而语言既不属于上层建筑又不属于经济基础.)6.×(语言的确是通过个人的运用体现出来的,但语言并不是个人现象,因为语言是社会全体成员共同创造的,没有社会,个人不可能创造出语言来,所以语言是社会现象.)7.×(在现代社会,文字使用非常广泛,日益重要,但无论文字有多重要,都只是辅助语言进行交际的工具,记录语言的工具,离不开语言这个基础,所以不可能取代语言,没有语言,文字的存在就失去了意义.)8.×(现代社会沟通的方式很多,只是说明运用语言的方式多了,不像过去只能当面交际或通过文字交际,可以采用其它方式,但这种种沟通方式都是以语言为基础的,离不开语言,这只能说明语言是非常重要的.)9.√(人类社会须臾也不能离开语言,没有语言,人类无法沟通,社会就会崩溃,人类社会就不复存在了.)10.√(动物没有人类意义上的语言,人类语言具有社会性,是要通过与社会接触才能学会的,而动物的鸣叫等是先天遗传的,不是语言.)11.√(人类的思维可以分几种,而要进行抽象思维,就离不开语言这个工具,没有语言,人类就只能进行比较低级的思维活动.)12.×(人类要进行抽象思维,必须借助于语言中的词语句子进行分析综合推理.)13.√(语言和思维是相互依存,共同发展的.语言是思维的工具,又是思维的成果,思维离不开语言,同时语言也离不开思维.二者如影随形,谁也离不开谁.语言和思维是密了可分的,各以对方为存在条件,所以语言和思维的相辅相成的.思维必须在语言材料的基础上进行,哪里有思维活动,哪里就有语言活动.)14.√(二者如影随形,谁也离不开谁.没有语言,思维活动无法进行,思维成果无法表达,思维实际上就不可能存在;语言作为思维的工具,只有具有思维活动,只有在思维过程中运用才有存在的意义,如果没有思维活动,无所谓交际和思想,语言工具也就失去了存在的价值,没有必要存在了.)15.×(语言和思维不是同一个东西,二者没有同一性.语言既然是思维的工具,就不会是思维本身.)16.×(语言既然是人类的交际工具,所以无论它是在无阶级的社会还是有阶级的社会,都不可能具有阶级性,否则,语言就不会成为社会全体成员的交际工具了.)17.√(语言其实是一个抽象的概念,它反映的是人类语言所具有的共同特指,所谓"语言"是不存在的,都是通过个别的具体的语言体现出来,如英语,汉语,日语,俄语等等.语言是概括的,一般的,和具体的语言是一般和特殊的关系,通过特殊的语言表现出来.)18.√(马是一个抽象的概念,反映了世界上所有马匹的共同特征,我们在现实生活中所说的马,都是具体的,如白马,大马,母马等.)19.×(绘画和音乐不具有符号的一般特点,其解释可能因人而异,不是语言符号.)20.√(语言和思维是互相适应的,思维发展水平有多高,语言的发展水平就有多高.我们不能想象,一个民族的语言十分发达,而思维水平却很低;我们同样不能想象,一个民族的思维水平很高,而语言水平很低.这两种情况都是不可想象的,因为二者必须互相适应.一种语言,无论它的结构简单复杂与否,都是能满足一个社会集团交际的需要的,当然也能适应思维的要求.)四,问答题(50分,每小题5分)1.语言的作用是什么语言是人类社会的交际工具.每个社会,无论它是经济发达的社会,还是经济十分落后的社会,都必须有属于自己的语言,都离不开语言这个交际工具,语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素,是人类与动物相区别的重要特征之一.语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带,没有语言,人类无法交际,人与人之间的联系就会中断,社会就会崩溃,不复存在.同时语言又是人类的思维工具,没有语言,人类无法思维,也无法把思维成果表达出来.(根据语言的定义展开回答即可,注意包括交际工具和思维工具两个方面.)2.每个人说话都是自由的,但不能把"我看书"说成"书看我",不能把"huó(活)",这是为什么语言是社会现象而不是个人现象.虽然每个人说话是自由的,可以根据需要选择不同的词语表达自己的思想,但是有一点则是大家都必须遵守的,那就是运用词语组成句子,必须遵循全社会统一的规则,选择什么样的语音形式代表某个意义,也得全社会约定俗成,不能个人任意更改.否则,语言就不成其为交际工具了,别人也就无法听懂你的话,社会将乱成一锅粥.只要想象一下,一个不会外语的人到国外生活所遇到的窘迫尴尬,就知道遵循规则的重要性了.(紧扣语言的社会性回答,同时说明语言不是个人现象.)3.任何一种语言所包含的句子的数量都是有限的,那么人类为什么能在有限的时间内掌握语言呢.这主要是因为:①词语组合的规则是十分有限的,掌握一个规则,可以类推出无限多的句子,例如学会说"我吃饭",掌握了"主-动-宾"这个格式,就可以造出"我看报","他打球","你唱歌"之类的句子来.②语言中的词表达的意义具有概括性,数量是有限的,一个词语可以重复使用,可以用在这个句子中,也可以用在那个句子中,从而满足了人们交际的需要,所以语言系统中的句子是无穷的,但构成句子的材料却是有限的,这也有利于人们学习掌握语言.例如"人"这个词,并不指哪一个具体的人,可以指古今中外所有的人;"苹果"可以指色彩,味道,形状各方面都不同的苹果.4.人类语言能力是天生的还是后天学会的,为什么人类的语言能力是后天获得的.语言是社会现象,一个人只有生活在一定的社会环境中,才能获得语言,具备语言能力,离开了社会,哪怕他是一个天才,他也不会说话.如果一个人先天就具有语言能力,那么就应该是所有人都说相同的语言才是,而实际上是一个人出生在什么样的社会,就掌握什么样的语言;中国孩子从小生活在中国,就会说汉语,而不会说英语,如果从小在英国出生长大,则只会说英语,不会说汉语.由此可见,一个人的语言能力不是天生的,而是后天学会的,社会环境是最好的语言老师.(结合语言的社会性理论回答)5.用"棋,下,有,一,完,没,的,盘"这八个词组成句子,看能组合成多少句子一盘没有下完的棋.一盘下完的棋没有.一盘棋下完的没有.没有下完的一盘棋.没有一盘下完的棋.没下完的棋有一盘.下完的棋一盘没有.下完的棋没有一盘.下完的没有一盘棋.有一盘没下完的棋.有没下完的一盘棋.棋没下完的有一盘.棋有一盘没下完的.棋下完的没有一盘.棋下完的一盘没有.棋没有一盘下完的.……6.人们平时常说,"无产阶级和资产阶级没有共同语言","工人有工人的语言,农民有农民的语言".这是不是说,语言具有阶级性语言没有阶级性.①语言是社会全体成员共同的交际工具,全体成员,包括各阶级,阶层的人,不分男女,不分老幼,无论什么人,与别人交际都要使用语言.如果语言有阶级性,不同的阶级说不同的语言,那么不同阶级之间就无法进行交际(不同阶级之间的斗争,也是一种交际活动).②语言结构本身,没有阶级性可言,比如语音,语法规则,就谈不上有阶级性.③语言是伴随着人类同时出现的,而在人类从猿到人这个漫长的过程中,根本就没有阶级的区分,所以从语言的诞生过程看语言也是没有阶级性的.(结合语言是特殊的社会现象这一内涵挖掘分析) 7.为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具人们在进行社会交际的时候,除了运用语言传递信息外,也可以借助其它手段传递信息,表达思想.比如运动场上,篮球教练用手势表示谁犯规,谁发球等内容,不用语言;部队用长短不同的号声表示起床,集合,冲锋,撤退等信息;在海上,船与船之间用旗语传递信息,等等.但是,这些交际工具远远没有语言运用那样便捷,而且使用也受到限制,使用范围有限.更为重要的是,无论什么交际工具,它所传递的信息内容都是有限的,而且离不开语言基础,它们实际上是在一定范围代替语言,没有语言的存在,也不可能有这些信息手段的产生,可以说,语言是一切交际工具的基础.因此,说语言是人类最重要的交际工具,是毫不奇怪了.(突出两点:1.将语言和别的交际工具相互比较;2.说明别的交际工具实际上是语言的代用品,仍然以语言为基础.)8.为什么说文字是语言最重要的辅助**际工具辅助语言进行交际的工具很多,像旗语,手势,红绿灯,色彩,音响等,都可以在一定范围内传递信息,起到沟通作用,而在现代社会,像广播,电视,电话,网络等通讯工具,甚至还可以不改变语言的有声特质,传递信息既快又广,但这些工具,远不及文字那样方便,不及文字使用范围那样广,文字打破了有声语言的时空局限,在很大程度上扩展了语言的功能,这是其它语言辅助工具所不能比的,所以说文字是语言最重要的辅助**际工具.(通过比较分析,得出文字是最重要的辅助语言交际工具的结论.)9.两个人在争论语言和思维的关系,一个人说先有语言,因为语言是思维工具,没有这个工具就无法思维;一个人说先有思维,因为语句是思维的成果,没有思维,人们无法把散沙一样的词语组合成句.你认为谁的观点对两个人的话看似有理,由于割裂了语言与思维的关系,所以都是无理的,都是片面的.首先,语言和思维是相互依存的,各以对方为自己存在的条件:语言是思维的工具,语言离不开思维,思维也不能脱离语言;如果没有思维,没有思想,人际之间的交流无从谈起,语言的存在也失去了任何意义.其次,语言和思维的发展程度是相互适应的,是一致的;有什么样的思维水平,就有什么样的语言水平,有什么样的语言水平,就有什么样的思维水平,不可能一个社会发展到语言和思维脱节的地步,语言水平很高而思维水平很低,或思维水平很高而语言水平很低,这都是不可想象的,也是不可能的.(关键要认识到语言和思维二者相互依存,密不可分的关系.)10.语言实际上是一种社会现象,怎样理解这句话第一,语言是社会的产物,没有人类社会,也就没有语言;第二,语言是人类社会独有的,人类社会以外,没有语言,动物没有语言.(所谓社会,必然是和人类有关系的,就是人类结成的共同体,否则就不是社会了.语言既然是社会现象,不是自然现象,就否认了人类社会以外还有语言的说法.)第二章一,名词解释(10分,每词2分)1.符号:就指代某种事物的标记,记号,它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号.2.语言符号的任意性指符号的形式和符号的内容的结合是偶然的,没有必然的关系.例如语言符号,语音形式和意义内容的结合就是任意的,没有本质的关系.3.二层性:语言是由一定的单位按照一定的层级组成的,可分为音位层和符号层,其音位层和符号层我们合称为语言的二层性.4.组合关系:两个同一性质的结构单位(如音位与音位,词与词等等)按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系.5.聚合关系:语言结构某一位置上能够互相替换的具有某种相同作用的单位(如音位,词)之间的关系.二,填空题(20分,每空1分)1.形式意义2.意义形式3.语音意义形式4.约定俗成5.任意性线条性6.音位序列语素词7.组合关系聚合关系8.组合关系聚合关系9.抽象思维发音三,判断题(20分,每小题1分)1.×2.√3.×4.×5.√6.√7.√8.√9.× 10.√11.× 12.× 13.× 14.√ 15.√ 16.√ 17.√ 18.× 19.√ 20.×四,问答题(50分,每小题5分)1.什么是符号它有哪些因素构成所谓符号,就指代某种事物的标记,记号,它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号.甲能代表乙或指称乙,甲就有条件成为乙的符号.符号由一定的形式和一定的意义构成,二者互相对待,密不可分.例如老师阅卷,用"√"表示正确,就是符号,其形式是线条√,意义是"正确".2.为什么说语言是一种符号系统语言就是一种符号系统.语言所以是一种符号,就是因为它能代表或指称现实现象.比如我们一听到"书"这个词,就知道它指的是"成本的著作"这个意义.符号的形成要具备一定的条件,其中最重要的就是在使用中要受到一定规则的支配,装拆自如,可以重复使用.而语言就具有这个自由拼装的特点.从结构成看,语言也是一种符号系统,具有所有符号的一般特点,也有形式和意义两个方面.与一般符号形式和内容的结合由社会决定一样,语音的形式和意义的结合也是由一定社会成员共同决定的,是约定俗成的.3.人类选择语音作为语言的形式,同其他形式相比,语音形式有什么优点人类创造语言为什么选择语音作为符号的形式呢这主要是因为:①语音这种形式使用起来比较方便,语音是人类发音器官发出来的声音,发音器官人人都有,随时可以使用,因此人们可以在任何地方使用语音形式表达意义内容,不需要任何附加设备,每个人随时都能发出来的,走到哪里就可以带到哪里,使用非常方便;②语音形式的容量大,几十个语音单位通过排列组合可以表达任何意义内容.③语音形式的表达效果也是最好的,它可以是大声疾呼,也可以是轻声细语,可以细致入微地表达人类的喜怒哀乐等各种各样的情感;而且,有嘴说话还不影响手脚的活动,在劳动的过程中,有声的语言不会因为距离和光线而影响交际沟通.所以人类语言一开始就是有声语言,而不是无声语言的手势之类.4.就语言符号而言,什么是形式什么是意义它们相互的关系有什么特点语言符号的形式就是语音,它是语言的物质外壳,意义就是通过一定的语音形式代表的内容.比如中国人说"灯",这个语音形式代表的意义就是"照明用具".形式和意义之间具有任意性特点.5.为什么说语言符号的形式和意义之间没有本质的联系语言符号的形式和意义之间的关系具有任意性,用什么样的形式表示什么样的意义,什么样的意义用什么样的形式去表示,这之间是没有天然的联系,完全是任意的,不符合逻辑的,因为符号形式和符号内容的结合是由一定社会的全体成员共同规定的.我们可以结合人类语言来进一步认识这一点,同样的意义,不同的语言选择的语音形式各不相同的;同样的语音形式,在不同的语言中往往代表不同的意义.例如表示"成本著作"这样的意义,汉语用"shū"表示,英语用[buk]表示,这正是语言任意性的表现.6.同样表示"父亲","母亲",汉语用"bàba","māma"表示,英语用"father","mother"表示.为什么会有这样的差别呢汉语和英语表示同样意义的词语,语音形式完全不同,这种差别是由语言符号的任意性特点决定的,正因为语言符号的形式和意义之间没有必然的本质的联系,所以不同民族的人在确立语言符号的形式时作了不同的选择,从而造成了语言的差异.7.人类为什么会有如此多样的语言人类之所以有多种多样的语言,是因为不同民族在创造语言时,选择了不同形式的符号表示意义,形成了差异,形成了各种各样的语言.人类社会有这样多的语言,正好说明了语言符号的任意性特点.8.为什么说语言符号在所有语言中是最重要的,最复杂一种①语言符号具有以少驭多的生成机制,具有生成新的结构的能力,具有生成性和开放性.一般符号表达的意义是固定的,因而不能生成新的意义,使用者不可能在使用过程中灵机一动,来个新的创造.而语言符号则可以表达无穷无尽的意义内容,可以由较少的单位组合成较多以。
语言学概论 语言学课后习题答案
P7 3. Discuss the relation of arbitrariness and rules?Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.P12 3.Please explain the primacy of human language over animalcommunication.Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may beimpossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances,but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animalcommunication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animalcommunication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages areopen-ended.P18 1. Identify the functions of the following sentences.a)I like your house very much. b)I now declare the meeting closed.c)Nice to meet you d)I met Mary in the library this morning.a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. InformativefunctionP24 2.Please list five Chinese onomatopoetic words轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3.What are the functions of onomatopoetic words?Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.P28 3.What is the real object of linguistics?The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.P58 1. What is a phoneme? And what is an allophone?Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block thatcannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.P62 1. What does the word 'distinctive' mean in the term 'distinctive features'?Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.P65 1. What does complementary distribution mean?When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say,complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more soundsoccur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which theother sound(s) never occur(s).P69 2. What is the importance of stress in English?Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.P75 3. How can you identify the meaning of a word?Apart from the conceptual meaning (also called "denotative", "logical" or "cognitive" meaning), a word normally has various associated meanings, including theconnotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, andcollocative meaning. We can turn to the dictionary for its conceptual meaning. As forits various associated meanings, however, we have to relate the word with its context,including the linguistic context as well as the context of situation and the context ofculture.P821. Divide the following words into morphemes by placing a "+" between each morpheme and the next.1) unbearable 2) watchful 3) personification 4) unexceptionally5) uneducated 6) inspiring 7) soft-hearted 8) horsemanship1. 1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation4) un- + except+tion + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship3. How many allomorphs does the plural form s have?The plural s has 3 phonologically-conditioned allomorphs... and 5morphologically-conditioned allomorphs: (1) -(e)s, as in "cats", "matches"; (2) -(r)en:as in "oxen", "children"; (3) -e-: as in "men", "women"; (4) -ee-, as in "feet", "teeth";and (5) zero, as in "sheep", "deer".P93 2. What is the difference between lexeme and word?A lexeme refers to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that canbe distinguished from other smaller units whereas a word refers to the smallest formof a language that can occur by itself. A lexeme may be or may not be identical with aword. For example, the definite article "the" is both a lexeme and a word. However,the lexeme "put up with" has three different words.P100 1. Is immediate constituent analysis effective to explain discontinuousconstituents?No. Immediate constituent analysis is solely concerned with the surface structures of language, which only shows the physical manifestation of the language, for example, linear order of a sentence. One approach to explain sentences with discontinuous constituents is to represent them by two phrase markers, which will be structurally related.One phrase marker is derived from another. By transformational grammar, the discontinuous constituents can be accounted for effectively. Transformational rules are responsible for the generation of infinitely many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrase-structure rules.2. Diagram the constituent structure of each of the following.(a) a very old wooden house down the lane(b) His old friend arrived yesterday.P103 2. Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a tree diagram of constituent structure for each of the following sentences:(a) A smart boy fooled the class.(b) The pavilion on the hill collapsed in the wind.(c) Everybody knew that the president would win the election.P110 1. Draw the tree diagrams for the following sentences:(1) She found a book on Madison Street.(2) Jack advised Henry to see the dentist.(3) Jack promised Henry to see the doctor.P115Exercises:What is the relationship between surface structure and deep structure?Surface structure can be derived from deep structure. A surface structure may be represented by more than one phrase marker, which in sense is the same to a single phrase marker. This one single phrase marker is said to be the deep structure. In the operation from deep structure to surface structure, phrase structure rules and modifications are needed to add, delete, or permute constituents. The relations between deep and surface structures are to be revealed through transformational rules. In this process, the order or hierarchic relationship of the constituents is to be changed. The actual pronunciation is based on the surface structureP120 1. The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntactic movement. Show the deep structures for each of following sentences.(a) The boss of the bus company was severely criticized by the public.(b) The woman threw the rake away in the yard.(c) Will the new school master hire her?(a) The relevant parts for the passive transformational rule of the above sentence are thesubject NP (here the public), the object NP (here the boss, which will change positions with the public), the V (criticize) and AUX, and then a be + en auxiliary will be inserted. The deep structure should be its corresponding active variant, which is The public criticized the boss of the bus company severely.(b) In the derivation of The woman threw the rake away in the yard., the underlying structure,The woman threw away the rake in the yard. is also the deep structure. It is generated by the phrase-structure rules, including the rule which states that a V (verb) consists of a Vprt (verbsthat can combine with verbal particles) and a Prt (verbal particles). In the surface structure, a new phrase marker is produced in which the particle is moved to the right of the NP.(c) The question rule formulates that in order to form a yes-no question from the declarativesentence, move the first auxiliary verb of the main sentence (in this case, will) immediately before the first NP of that sentence (here, the new school master). So, the deep structure of the question should be its declarative variant, which is The new school master will hire her.2. Please display the transformational rules involved in the followingsentences.(a) What can the computer program do for us?A wh interrogative sentence is derived by a movement rule from a deep structure similarto that of the declarative counterpart. So, the sentence like What can the computer program do for us? would derive from a deep structure in the form of The computer program can do "what" for us?. The wh-element occurs initially and is followed by tense and an auxiliary. In this sentence, the object is fronted. First, the interrogative transformation which switches round the auxiliary verb can and the subject the computer program - known as 'I' (inflexion) movement, and in the second step, a 'wh' transformation - known as 'wh' movement - that moves the noun phrase what- "the content", to the front of the sentence, see the following diagram.(b) The window was broken by Jack.This sentence is traditionally called the "passive" sentence, and its variant is "active".This pair is broadly speaking the same in meaning. The formulations of the passive rules must capture the fact that the active sentence and the passive sentence have their NP's (here the window and Jack) in reverse order, and that both a be + en auxiliary and the preposition by occur in the passive sentences and not in the active ones. AUX refers to past tense in this sentence.(c) They gave the door a gentle push.A corresponding sentence to the sentence is They gave a gentle push to the door. Both ofwhich have the same basic meaning, and differ in the order of NP's in the VP. In the corresponding sentence we find NP1 + to + NP2, in the above given sentence. Yet, in the sentence They gave the door a gentle push., we have reversed NP's. Transformational rules capture these facts by viewing the sentence, They gave the door a gentle push. as derived from the sentence, They gave a gentle push to the door., by deleting to and reverses the order of (i.e., permutes) the two NP's. A phrase marker is changed into a new one.P133 Exercise 2:2. What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?Sentence meaning refers to the conventional content or literal meaning of a sentence. It is the context-independent meaning. Utterance meaning refers to the meaning of an utterance in the context. In other words, it is the meaning dependent on the context. In some cases, the sentence meaning coincides with the utterance meaning. But in many situations, the utterance meaning differs from the sentence meaning.P140 Exercise 1&3：1、Please explain why there are not true synonyms.True synonyms are rare. The so-called "synonyms" are always different either in their origin, in the shade of meaning, in the affective or stylistic meaning, or in collocation and distribution.3、What category of antonym does each of the following pair of wordsbelong to?a. black, whiteb. buy, sellc. big, smalld. parent, childe. upstairs,downstairs f. polite, rudea)black, white: complementary antonyms; b)buy, sell: relational antonyms;c）big, small: gradable antonyms; d)parent,child:relational antonyms;f)polite,rude: complementary antonyms.P142 Exercise 2:2. What is the semantic relation between the words in the following pairs.1) hand, foot 2) rose, narcissus 3) tree, willow 4) bottle, cork1) hand, foot: These two words are hyponyms (or "subordinates"), each denoting apart of the human body.2) rose, narcissus: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy;they are both the subordinates of the word flower.3) tree, willow: These two words are in the semantic relation of hyponymy: tree isthe hypernym (or "superordinate") and willow is the hyponym (or "subordinate).In other words, a willow is a kind of tree.4) bottle, cork: These two words are in the semantic relation of myronymy. "cork"is part of a bottle.P146 Exercise 3:3. What is the difference between polysemy and homonymy?When a lexeme has a multiplicity of meanings, it is polysemic. Polysemy is the result from the change of meaning and therefore semantic relations of one kind or another can be identified between the various meanings of the lexeme. In contrast, although homonyms share the same phonological form, they have no common semantic features and in many cases have different written forms. They are normally of different etymological origin and are treated in dictionaries as different entries.P150 Exercise 1&2：1. Try to identify the presuppositions that lie behind each of the followingutterances:a) John has stopped smoking. b) She regretted having told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. d) The paper turned red when itwas dipped into the liquid.a) John has stopped smoking. →John had been smoking.b) She regretted having told him the secret.→She had told him the secret.c) The boy opened the door himself. →The door had been closed.d) The paper turned red when it was dipped into the liquid. →The paperwas dipped into the liquid2. What does each of the following utterances entail?a) He lost his bike yesterday. b) They went to the Great Wall.c) Mary's computer is terrific. d) We met two of our friends at the party.a) He lost his bike yesterday. →His bike is missing now.b) They went to the Great Wall. →They are not here at present.c) Mary's computer is terrific.→Mary's computer is good.d) We met two of our friends at the party. →Two of our friends were at theparty.P154 Exercise 2:2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?Componential analysis has a number of advantages over traditional approaches to lexical meanings. Firstly, it throws new light on semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and metaphor. Secondly, componential analysis can better explain the validity of syntagmatic combination of words and phrases than the purely syntactic approach. Thirdly, componential analysis gives a better account for the formation of the meaning of a phrase or a sentence. The componential analysis has three disadvantages. Firstly, it is often difficult to determine what semantic features are essential to define a word, and how many are sufficient for the specification. Secondly, when faced with two equally plausible features, it is often difficult to determine which one we should specify.Thirdly, componential analysis seems to be difficult to be apply to function words, such as the, of, and, and ah, for they seem to have no semantic features.P156 Exercise 1:1. Please identify the types of predicate in each of the verbs in the followingsentences.a) He gave me the book. b) It was snowing hard.c) The computer is working properly. d) Someone invented the story.a) This sentence has a three-place predicate gave, which governs threearguments, the subject He, the indirect object me and the direct object (the)book.b) This sentence has a no-place predicate (was) snowing, which governs noargument. Note that the subject It here is an empty word and so does notplay the role of an argument in the sentence.c) This sentence has a one-place predicate (is) working, which governs oneargument (the) computer.d) This sentence has a two-place predicate invented, which governs twoarguments, the subject Someone and the object (the) story.P159 Exercise 2:2. Please comment on the role of tautology in the following:看看人家，冰箱是冰箱，彩电是彩电。
《语言学概论》课后习题参考答案
《语言学概论》练习（一）参考答案一、填空1、中国、印度、希腊—罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐渐发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
4、一个符号，如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有形式，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。
5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。
6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。
7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子。
8、语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这种关系是组合关系和聚合关系。
9、组合关系是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合关系是指符号在性质上的归类。
二、判断正误1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）2、地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
（错）3、在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（错）4、现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。
（错）5、语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。
（对）6、语言和思维互相依存，共同发展。
（对）7、任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。
（错）8、从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。
（对）9、人类选择语音而不是色彩、手势作为语言符号的形式，是因为语音比较好听。
（错）10、语言符号的约定俗成是指语音形式和意义内容的结合是社会成员共同约定认同的。
（对）三、问答题：1、语言的作用是什么，举例说明。
为什么说语言是最重要的交际工具？答：它是人类社会的交际工具。
每个社会，无论它是经济发达的社会，还是经济十分落后的社会，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离不开语言这个交际工具，语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物区别的重要特征之一。
语言学概论课后习题答案(胡晓研)
术语解释1.语言学：语言学就是专门以语言为研究对象的一门独立的科学。
语言学的任务就是研究语言的性质、功能、结构及其运用等问题，揭示语言存在和发展的规律，使人们理解并掌握语言的理性知识。
2.语文学：语文学是从文献角度研究语言文字学科的总称。
它以文献评审为主，目的在于解释、注疏和考订。
3.语言：语言是一种特殊的社会现象，它作为人类最重要的交际工具为全社会服务，它同人的思维有密切的联系，是人区别于其他动物的本质特征之一，语言是音义结合的符号系统。
4.言语：言语是人们为了某种目的，在特定条件下发生的说话行为和说出来的话。
这里的“说话行为”是指说话的动作和过程；“说出来的话”是指一连串有意义的声音。
5.索绪尔：现代语言学的历史，是从瑞士语言学家费尔迪南·德·索绪尔开始的。
索绪尔的代表作是《普通语言学教程》。
索绪尔被誉为“现代语言学之父”，《普通语言学教程》是现代语言学的奠基之作。
索绪尔的语言学思想和19世纪以前的语文学最根本的区别在于：把语言看成是由各个符号之间的关系组成的有价值的结构系统。
6.布龙菲尔德：是美国描写语言学派的核心人物。
他们注重语言行为的描写，而不注重语言能力的解释；着眼于语言间的差异，而不重视语言的普遍性。
其著作有《语言论》7.乔姆斯基：1957年美国语言学家诺姆·乔姆斯基《句法结构》的出版，标志着“转换生成语法”的诞生。
这一理论是建立在理性主义的哲学基础之上的，它完全不同于建立在经验主义基础之上的美国结构主义，因此，它的出现是对当时居于主流地位的美国结构主义语言学的一大挑战，被人称作“乔姆斯基革命”。
8.菲尔墨：是格语法的代表，其代表作是1968年发表的《格辩》。
他认为标准理论无法说明类似下列两个句子中名词短语与动词短语之间的关系究竟有何区别：Thechildopensthedoor./Thekeyopensthedoor.这种名词短语与动词短语之间的功能关系只有用更深一层的语义区别才能解释清楚。
《语言学概论》课后习题参考答案
《语言学概论》练习（一）参考答案一、填空1、中国、印度、希腊—罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐渐发展和完善的，它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
3、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
4、一个符号，如果没有意义，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有形式，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。
5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义，完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。
6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。
7、语言的底层是一套音位，上层是符号和符号的序列，可以分为若干级，第一级是语素，第二级是词，第三级是句子。
8、语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这种关系是组合关系和聚合关系。
9、组合关系是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系，聚合关系是指符号在性质上的归类。
二、判断正误1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）2、地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
（错）3、在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（错）4、现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。
（错）5、语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。
（对）6、语言和思维互相依存，共同发展。
（对）7、任何一种符号，都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。
（错）8、从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。
（对）9、人类选择语音而不是色彩、手势作为语言符号的形式，是因为语音比较好听。
（错）10、语言符号的约定俗成是指语音形式和意义内容的结合是社会成员共同约定认同的。
（对）三、问答题：1、语言的作用是什么，举例说明。
为什么说语言是最重要的交际工具？答：它是人类社会的交际工具。
每个社会，无论它是经济发达的社会，还是经济十分落后的社会，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离不开语言这个交际工具，语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物区别的重要特征之一。
语言学概论课后答案
《语言学概论》习题答案(自考,新版教材) 选择题第一章总论1 言语是×. 言论与语言×. 音义结合的符号系统√. 说话和所说的话2 语言是一种×. 形式和内容相统一的视觉符号√. 音义结合的听觉符号系统×. 用来交际的触觉符号系统3 抽象思维的一般特性是×. 概括性、民族性×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造√. 概括性、社会性4 语言是思维的工具指的是×. 一切思维必须由语言完成√. 主要指抽象思维和直观动作思维、形象思维的高级阶段离不开语言×. 指直观动作思维和表象思维离不开语言5 思维的三种类型是√. 直观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造6 语言符号的任意性是×. 语言符号的创造和使用总是任意的×. 我们可以任意理解语言的符号√. 语言符号音义之间没有本质的联系7 语言符号的线条性×. 语言符号的排列没有阶级性，象一根线条排列在一起×. 语言符号一个跟一个依次出现，随时间推移不分层次逐渐延伸√. 语言符号在时间的线条上逐个出现，同时不排除层次性8 "他肯定不会来了！" 这句话强调了说者的×. 说话行为√. 施事行为×. 取效行为×. 言语行为9汉语声调从中古到现代的"平分阴阳，入派三声"的规律是√. 个别语言的发展规律×. 一般语言的发展规律×. 汉民族各种方言的发展规律□一个民族内部共同使用的语言称为√. 民族共同语×. 民族交际语×. 国际交际语10 克里奥尔语是语言的√. 混合×. 融合×. 分化×. 整化11 语言融合的"底层"现象是×. 语言装置的最下面一层，即语音部分√. 被融合的语言的某些遗留下来的因素×. 被压迫的阶层第二章语音□声调决定于√. 音高×. 音强×. 音长×. 音质□[p、t?、b、k]在发音方法上的共同特点是×. 清音×. 不送气√. 塞音×. 擦音□舌尖后浊擦音是×. [x] ×. [b] √. [?] ×. [z]□[tA]（大）是√. 开音节×. 闭音节×. 元音首音节√. 辅音首音节□[]（血）中的[?]是×. 起音√. 领音×. 收音□[kai51]（盖）中的[i]是×. 起音×. 领音√. 收音×. 辅音□普通话[?in55k?u214]（辛苦）快读是[?i? 55k?u214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化×. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□普通话[f?n214pi214]快读是[f?m35pi214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化√. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□普通话[tou51fu214]（豆腐）快读是[tou51f]这种现象是×. 同化×. 异化×. 弱化√. 脱落×. 增音第三章语义□________是指语言单位的意义在一定的语境的作用下，内部变得具体、丰富或增加一些附加意义。
《语言学概论》课后练习题(附答案)
语言学概论一、单项选择题1. 由单纯字符组合而成的字符，被叫做（）。
A. 声符B. 单纯字符C. 复合字符D. 意符【正确答案】 C2. 语言是个层级体系，底层是语音单位层，凡是跟底层语言单位联系的文字就叫（）。
A. 楔形文字B. 象形文字C. 表意文字D. 表音文字【正确答案】 D3. 语言是个层级体系，上层是音义结合的符号层，凡是跟上层语言单位联系的文字就叫（）。
A. 楔形文字B. 象形文字C. 表意文字D. 表音文字【正确答案】 C4. “楔形文字” 也叫（）。
A. 丁头字B. 大头字C. 丁形字D. 图文字【正确答案】 A5. 刻在雕像座、庙宇和金字塔墓室石头和祭器上的（），是一种象形程度很高的符号。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 模形体【正确答案】 A6. 跟碑铭体并行的有一种僧侶阶层平时使用的已经线条化的近乎草书的字体，称为（）。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 圣书字【正确答案】 B7. 公元前7世纪还出现了一种在僧侣体基础上加以简化供老百姓使用的字体，称为（）。
A. 碑铭体B. 僧侣体C. 平民体D. 圣书字【正确答案】 C8. 腓尼基文字被称做（）。
A. 元音音素文字B. 表意文字C. 辅音音素文字D. 意音文字【正确答案】 C9.希腊人在借用腓尼基文字来书写希腊语时增添了（）。
A. 元音字母B. 辅音字母C. 多音节语素D. 单音节语素【正确答案】 A10. 把两个或两个以上象形字或指事字拼合在一起且把它们的意义结合成一个新的意义的造字方法叫做（）。
A. 象形B. 形声C. 会意D. 指事【正确答案】 C11. 炼字的基本功是（）。
A. 精心挑选关键词语B. 恰当使用修饰词语C. 合理使用修辞手法D. 注意词语的巧妙配合【正确答案】 A12. 一般来说，（）的特点是信息量大、逻辑严谨、细致准确。
A. 长句B. 短句C. 陈述句D. 反问句【正确答案】 A13. 我国古典诗文中常用的修辞方式是（）。
语言学概论 课后参考答案 XMUCharpter7-9
Key to Linguistics of Xiamen UniversityCharpter 77.1.11. Regional dialect is the kind of dialect that is spoken and used by the people in a geographical region. Every local group of people spoke the language a little differently from other groups. For instance, these differences may be found in pronunciation, spelling, and the use of words and grammatical structures. With the passage of time, a regional dialect may become the standard dialect of a nation. This is largely due to a number of socio-economic and political reasons.2. Sociolinguistic studies have revealed that women speakers of English speak more or less differently than their male counterparts. Female speech lacks the assertive tone of male speech. Women tend to use more rising intonations. They may seek permission by doing this. Women use more tag questions and reverse accents than men. They make a heavier use of the inconclusive intensifiers so and such. Women are more careful to follow prescriptive rules of grammar. Moreover, women's speech shows a more refined perception in certain areas. Women are said to have a color vocabulary that contains items such as azure and turquoise.3. Yes. Young people are likely to borrow some words originally used in the technical field, like the young may have used the word cool, formerly a word from the Internet. Young people are likely to invent new use of vocabulary and slang words. Aged speakers may be more conscious of their social class by using language to fashion themselves as different from young people. Most of the aged speakers may keep many of their old dialects with them, and some may stick to the prescriptive use of language in order to preserve the tradition, or simply to gain respect. Many old speakers resist the innovation expressions and language change.7.1.21. Dialect is a variety of language which differs grammatically, phonologically and lexically from other varieties, and which is associated with a particular geographical area and/or with a particular social class or status group. A language is typically composed of a number of dialects. Register is defined according to the use of language. It is a technical term used to describe a language variety that is associated with a particular topic, the interpersonal relationship between the speaker and the hearer, and the speech channel. Registers can identify speakers as being members of a particular group, and are for that reason often labeled jargon.2. Yes, there should be some differences. When scientists are talking about IT among themselves, technical terms may be used. Yet, when they talk to little children, they may try to use vocabulary easy for the children to understand. They may avoid technical terms.7.1.31. a) He is nice. b) They are mine. c) I'm going to do it.d) John will be happy. e) John is happy. f) He will be late.g) He is late. h) Are you tired? i) Are you tired?2. In Black English, one prominent syntactic feature is the frequent absence of various forms of the verb "be". Another syntactic feature of Black English is the systematic use of the expression "it is" where Standard English uses "there is".7.2.11. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a hypothesis associated with the American scholars Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf. The hypothesis assumes that people's habitual thought patterns and ways of perceiving the world are conditioned to a certain extent by the categories and distinctions that are available to them in their native language. Speakers of different languages may therefore have rather different world-views, depending on how different the languages are from one another semantically and grammatically.2. When language is used in contexts of communication, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways. Members of a community or social group do not only express experience; they also create experience through language. Through all its verbal and non-verbal aspects, language embodies and symbolizes cultural reality. The theory of linguistic relativity claims that linguistic structure tends to influence what they routinely do think. It is recognized that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think. Culture is semantically encoded in the language itself, and at the same expressed through the actual use of the language.3. To most Chinese speakers, the associative meaning of 'dog' is negative in effect. To most English speakers, the associative meaning of 'dog' is positive in effect.7.2.21. This is the result of ever-increasing political, economic, academic and cultural contacts and exchanges among speakers of different languages.2. The Chinese kinship system is not exactly the same as the English kinship system. At the word level, most English kinship terms does not make further distinctions in terms of relatives on mother's or father's side. For example, the term 'uncle' can refer to the brother of both one's mother or father. However, some Chinese kinship terms does make fine distinctions. For example, 伯is used to refer to one's father's elder brother and 叔 to one's father's younger brother.3. Linguistically, politeness can be expressed in a number of ways in both languages. For instance, in English-speaking countries, words and phrases like "please", "would you…" can be used for politeness' sake. In Chinese, words like "请"，"您"are used. To show politeness, people often great each other when they meet. English may use "morning", "hello", "hi", "how are you doing" or other similar expressions. Chinese may use "你好", "上哪儿？", "吃了吗？" and other similar expressions.7.3.11. a) i-mode is the name used in Japan for NTT DoCoMo's mobile internet service. b) FOMA (Freedom Of Mobile multimedia Access) is the name used in Japan for NTT DoCoMo W-CDMA services. c) E-book is electronic book. The "book" is an advanced computer with a large capacity and book-like interface. It can memorize characters and download information from the Internet. d) WAP is the abbreviation of Wireless Application Protocol.e) W-CDMA is the abbreviation of Wideband Code Division Multiple Access, which is a standard of 3G, the Third Generation mobile communication.2. An individual can not change language. Although language is changing with the lapse of time, the change is beyond the will of an individual. Language change is a constant and unavoidable fact of life. It must obtain the agreement and acceptance from speakers of the language community. Moreover, the change of a language often has political, social and economic reasons.3. It is true that more and more technical terms are used in every life. The distinction between technical terms and common daily vocabulary is getting blurt. For example, "catalyst" is a chemical term, but is now used in daily communication, as in "Nixon's visit to China acted as a catalyst for normalization of the relations between the two countries." So it the case with the Chinese "催化剂".7.3.21. a) E-mail: This word comes from the Internet technology. It means mail sent by way of the Internet. b) GSM: this is the abbreviated form for Global System for Mobile Telecommunications. c) Cyberspace: This word comes from the network technology, referring to the universe of environments, such as the Internet, in which persons interact by means of connected computers.2. boon, damsel, eventide.3. omitted7.3.37.3.4a. It nothing pleased his master.Mod. Eng.: It pleased his master nothing.Change: Principal rule changes in the structure of English sentences occurred in their word orders. Today, the negative element has to follow the finite element.b. He hath said that we would lift them whom that him please.Mod. Eng.: He has said that we would lift them who please him.Change: Word order SOV has changed to SVO construction,c. I have a brother is condemned to die.Mod. Eng.: I have a brother who is condemned to die.Change: Old English lost relative pronoun, which is now added to the English language.d. I bade them take away you.Mod. Eng.: I bade them to take you away.Change: In Modern English, pronouns can be inserted between the verb and the adverb.e. I wish you was still more a Tartar.Mod. Eng.: I wish you were still a Tartar.Change: The English speaker today rarely uses "still more". He also pays attention to the use of "were" after "you".f. Me was told.Mod. Eng.: I was told.Change: The placement of pronouns like 'me' and 'I' has particularly changed. English now uses "I" as grammatical subject.7.4.11. A standard language is the language norm of a nation. It may be artificially created on the basis of a multiplicity of dialects of a language. It may also be chosen from one variety of a language, because it is regarded as a prestigious norm. Once it is established, it is used nationwide. Standard language is always a written form of the language and is preserved through a distinct print culture serving a variety of political, economic, educational, and ideological interests.2. Generally speaking, standard language embodies a symbolic value beyond its pragmatic use and becomes a totem of a cultural group. Thus, standard language can help unify a nation, express national identity, facilitate the exchanges among speakers of different dialects,7.4.21. National language refers to the full set of all regional, social, and functional, spoken and written variants of a historically and politically defined linguistic community. It is the symbol of a nation and can also be one of the official languages. Generally speaking, official language is used in the government.2. The most decisive factor in the choice of a foreign language is the purpose of learning a foreign language. Some people learn a foreign language because they need to communicate with the foreigners. Some learn a foreign language because they want to pursue further studies in a university or college in another country. Others learn a foreign language just for pleasure. We should also consider current economic, technological, and academic situation of the world. For example, English has a tendency of becoming a global language.Charpter 88.1.11. In a general sense, 'acquisition' is synonymous with 'learning'. Yet, in a specific sense, acquisition involves the spontaneous development of rule internalization that relies on natural language use. It is often 'natural', without focus on form. Foreign language 'learning' is conscious, and metalinguistic through formal school-like settings in the process. The output of acquisition is in the learner's mind and s/he has access to it for automatic processing and uninhibited performance. On the contrary, foreign language learning requires time for processing, with focus on linguistic form in addition to knowledge of rules of use.2. Mother tongue acquisition does not require a child to memorize words and sentences. Speakers learn their mother tongue words or sentences by inference - the items are not simply memorized, but slightly or largely sub-consciously internalized into the memory bank. Native speakers are exposed to the language environment and can somehow abstract unconsciousknowledge of the grammar of the mother tongue on the basis of the phrases and sentences they hear.3. Omitted.4. Formal instruction may contain such elements as social factors, input and interaction that have effect on second language acquisition. It enables the learner to have a systematic mastery of the linguistic system and the rules of use of the second language. However, learners differ greatly in how quickly they learn an L2, in the type of proficiency they acquire and the ultimate level of proficiency they reach.8.1.21. Generally speaking, the child experiences four stages in his first language acquisition: the babbling stage, the holophrastic stage, the two-word stage, and the telegraph to infinity stage. In the first few months, the infant begins to babble. The sounds produced in this period (apart from the continuing stimulus-controlled cries and gurgles) seem to include the sounds of human languages. The holophrastic stage occurs after one year (it varies from child to child). The child starts to use the same string of sounds repeatedly to "mean" the same thing. At this point the child has learned that sounds are related to meanings. When the child is two years old or so, she starts to produce two-word utterances. During the two-word utterance stage there are no syntactic or morphological markers and pronouns are rare. During the stage of telegraph to infinity, child begins to produce utterances longer than two words. However, small "function" words such as to, the, can, is, are often missing; only the content words occur. Halliday's (1975: 244) functional account of early language development recognizes three phases.2. To some degree, parents serve as the reinforcement in the child's first language acquisition. The study by Carroll (2000: 316) shows that there is a direct link between parental speech and child language development, but they are limited in several respects. Although parental speech may influence child speech, it is still a question whether such speech modifications are necessary for normal language acquisition. Throughout the early years, the interaction between parent and child is vital important to language development. Not only does the parent, particularly the mother, provide a model of language for a child to copy, but she also plays a supportive role in encouraging a child to communicate.3. The words consistently appear in the child's sentences are the content words, mainly the nouns, verbs and adjectives. The words the child occasionally leaves out are function words which include articles (a, the); prepositions (in, on, with, etc.); the verb to be and auxiliary verbs. The parent can understand her so easily simply because the words which the child used normally occur in the same order as they would in the parental sentences in the context.8.2.11. In the language classroom, the learning can takes places through the teacher's classroom management and through classroom such as debates, story-telling, group discussions and role-playing. Thus, language learners can be motivated. Language classroom can provide the comprehensible input with the teacher's presentation and the interactive activities among the students. It can give the learner feedback and the learners may respond to the feedback one way or another. Although most language classroom lays stress on the explicit teaching of linguistic forms, it assists L2 learners, especially beginners, by giving opportunities for them to receive modified comprehensible input that are particularly suited to their current stage of L2 development. In addition, both teaching materials and methods can be tuned to meet the needs of the learner.2. Neither of them are correct English expressions. In (a), the relative pronoun at the beginning of the attributive clause is missing, and in (b), the agreement between subject and the predicate is violated. Besides, the definite article the is missing in the prepositional phrase "in evening". All this shows that the learner may be influenced by the grammatical patterns of his mother tongue. The Chinese learner of English speaking a language with a syntax dissimilar to that of English tends to have more difficulty with articles and relative clauses. For example, in Chinese, we don't have to have articles before a noun.3. Cross-linguistic similarities can produce positive transfer in several ways. Similarities in vocabulary can reduce the time needed to develop good reading comprehension. Similarities between vowel systems can make the identification of vowel sounds easier. Similarities between writing systems can give learners a head start in reading and writing in the target language; and similarities in syntactic structures can facilitate the acquisition of grammar.8.2.21. The learner's ethnic background, gender, and social status can be said to be the major social factors which can influence the process of L2 learning. They can act as the determinant of the input that learners receive, and what variety of the target language the learner will be exposed to and also the amount of exposure.2. Omitted.3. There may be various internal factors that might have an impact on the success in L2 learning. These causes can be termed as a set of variables, such as learner attitudes, the learning opportunities, the learners' socio-economic class and ethnic background, age, sex, the setting, ethnic identity, 'cultural distance', attitudes, and motivation. The relationship between these variables and L2 learning is extremely complex. It should be recognized that it is not age, sex, social class, or ethnic identity that determine L2 proficiency, but rather the social conditions and attitudes associated with these variables. Also, the factors interact among themselves, and their effect on learning depends to a large extent on the setting. Thus, we can see that different learners achieve different levels of success in L2 learning.8.3.11. The gist of Jackendoff's account of the relation between language and thought is that there is no absolute connection between language and thought. Language is by no means the thought, and vice versa. To Jackendoff (1994: 180), thought is a mental function completely separate from language, and it can go on in the absence of language. Language provides a scaffolding that makes possible certain varieties of reasoning more complex than are available to nonlinguistic organisms. Yet, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis claims that the structure of the language one habitually uses influences the manner in which one thinks and behaves. Thought is shaped by language. Formulation of ideas is not an independent process, but part of a particular grammar, and differs more or less between different grammars.2. No. The way people perceive the world is not totally determined by their language. We can find some evidence from our daily life. For instance, infants can think before they can voice an utterance. We contemplate in images as well as in words beside abstract logical propositions.3. Yes, more or less. This belief involves linguistic relativity, which refers to the idea that people's language is different since their thought may be different, and there exist varieties of expressions that areavailable for particular communities to express specific thought. However, language is not itself the form of thought. Thought is given a conscious manifestation through the phonetic forms that it corresponds to. Thought and concepts are independent of language, and language is basically for the communication of thought, but it is also possible for language to enhance human cognitive powers. Complex thought can exist without linguistic expressions but by painting or music. Thought itself is a separate brain phenomenon, though language expresses thought.8.3.21. They are localized in Broca's area and Wernicke's area. Broca's area is in charge of speech planning and output. Wernicke's area is in responsible for speech comprehension. The angular gyrus area is also playing a role seeing to transform a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa. It is vital important area for the coordination of a speech sound with a perceived entity, for the labeling of objects, and for the understanding of written language.2. Yes. When we read, we perceive what we read from several levels. By our visual perception, we organize visual stimuli and auditory perception to the organization of sounds or auditory stimuli. The processing of written language exists at three main levels: the feature, letter, and word. Reading speed is determined by three factors, that is, the duration of our fixations, the span of material that is fixated, and the proportion of regressive eye movements.3. Linguistic information is largely processed at multiple levels in an interactive manner. Language processing takes place simultaneously with the speech perception and visual word perception. Speech may be processed at the auditory, phonetic, or phonological levels of processing. The auditory levels is characteristic of the way all sounds are perceived, whereas the phonetic level is assumed to be specific to speech, and the phonological level specific to a particular language. We perceived speech sounds by identifying the intended phonetic gestures that may produce the sounds.4.The top-down process is more facilitative than the bottom-up process, because contextual information powerfully influences the perception of individual speech segments. For instance, perception of isolated or unrelated letters is inferior to the perception of letters in a word context.Charpter 99.1.11. The structural approach to language teaching takes a structural basis. As the structural linguistics is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution, and that the structure of each language should be the focus of description. The psychological basis for this approach is behaviorist psychology. Language learning is regarded as habit formation. Accordingly, the structural approach to language teaching emphasizes the observable aspects of human behavior and lays special stress on the creation of a linguistic environment in which utterances are systemically repeated with appropriate reinforcements by the parents and/or teachers.2. Since the 19th century, with Great Britain's rise as a colonial power, and particularly with the increasing influence of America after the two world wars, English has not only been spread to many parts of the world first as a colonial language and then as the official language or second language but also acquired the role of lingual franca in most international political, commercial, technical and academic settings. Consequently, the teaching of English is becoming more and more important in the world.3. Psychologically, the structural approach is based on behaviorist psychology. Language learning is accounted for as one of human behaviors, in which repeated stimuli, imitation and appropriate reinforcement play a crucial role. The mentalistic approach assumes that an average child has a human-specific innate language acquisition device (LAD) which enables a language learner to make subconscious hypotheses about the structure of language in general and the structure of the language being learned in particular, and to develop a rule system through systemicchanges towards the adult rule system. In teaching practice, the structural approach puts emphasis on the development of linguistic habits via repeated stimuli (sentence-pattern drills), imitation, and appropriate reinforcements. For the mentalistic approach, emphasis is laid on the exploitation of the universality of LAD and the learner's creativity in language acquisition.Roughly speaking, the first extract follows the grammar-translation approach. Priority is put on the reading and translation of written language. Accordingly, lessons are organized around systemically-listed grammar points. Sample sentences are given to illustrate the grammatical system of the language. The second extract puts priority on both speech and writing. The lesson takes the functional approach as its basis as it is organized around the functions of language, like "getting people to do things: requesting", "attracting attention", "agreeing and refusing". This approach is aimed at cultivating the learner's communicative competence. The classroom activities and exercises are organized around language functions and communication.9.2.11. In grammatical syllabus, grammar is viewed as the core for language teaching. Learning units are determined by the grammatical categories. The items to be learned are labeled in grammatical terms. The grammatical rules and vocabulary are carefully ordered according to such factors as frequency, complexity and use. Textbooks written in the grammatical syllabus are normally ordered like this: (a) the phonetic study, (b) a systemic study of grammar, (c) reading texts. The texts are normally taken from original (and often ancient) literary works, and presented as the materials to illustrate and explain the grammatical rules. The texts are always carefully analyzed and translated. They are then read repeatedly until the learner has a thorough knowledge of the grammatical rules.2. Do you think grammar can be ignored in learning English as a foreign language? Why?No. Any language is rule governed. The combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences are governed by grammatical rules. Different languages may have different grammatical patterns. Sentences are not strings of words put together in a random order. They permit certain sequences of words but not others. Change in the sequence affects the meaning of the sentence. Therefore, grammar cannot be ignored in learning English as a foreign language.From the extract, we can identify the following differences between the situational syllabus and the grammatical syllabus:(a) In the situational syllabus, the instruction of language teaching is planned around the situations in which the linguistic forms to be taught are normally used. Instead, in grammatical syllabus, grammar is viewed as the basis for language teaching. Learning units are determined by the grammatical categories.(b) The theoretical basis for the situational syllabus is sociolinguistics, which focuses on the relationship between the variation of language in use and the social context. The major situational factors influencing the use of language include (a) the setting, (b) the topic, and (c) the role relationship between the participants. By contrast, the grammatical syllabus is based on the traditional grammar, which emphasizes the grammatical rules governing the sentence structure.(c) In the situational syllabus, teaching materials are organized on the basis of the situations in which the social interaction in question may occur, whereas in the grammatical syllabus, teaching materials are organized around grammatical units.9.2.31. First of all, the communicative syllabus is based on the assumption that language is used for communication, and that learning a language is learning to communicate. It focuses on the cultivation of the learner's communicative competence. Second, the communicative syllabus is learner-based. It emphasizes the use of genuine teaching materials. The linguistic items to be studied are dependent on the learner's purposes of communication. Third, the communicative syllabus views language acquisition as a process in which the learner's communicative competence is developed through practice in the target language. In the language teaching process, the learner is granted with many chances to practise the linguistic knowledge and communicative skills he or she has studied. Fourth, the communicative syllabus stresses balanced practice in listening, speaking, reading and writing. As for the accuracy-fluency tension, in oral practice, the communicative syllabus advocates an ultimate balance between the accuracy and fluency. But at the early stage, fluency is emphasized over accuracy. Fifth but not the last, the communicative syllabus regards the learner's cosmopolitan knowledge and previous language-learning experience as precious aid to the development of the learner's communicative competence.。
语言学概论 课后参考答案 杨 厦门大学
The keys to Linguistics of Xiamen UniversityCharpter11.1.11. a. This sentence may have three interpretations: 1) He rolled from side to side in his grave. 2) He returned his grave. 3) He handed in his grave.b. There are two interpretations to this sentence: 1) They gave preference to both young men and young women. 2) They gave preference to women and young men.2. Units that have reference: I, saw, Mary, went, the library.Units that indicate structure: when, to.3. a. This sentence is grammatical, but is nonsensical.b. This sentence is ungrammatical and nonsensical.c. This is a good sentence.d. This is a good sentence.1.1.21. a. This sign is a symbol. It means we will have good luck. I know it from my cultural background, because the Chinese character "福" means "luck" and the color red symbolizes "goodness". The Chinese meaning of "upside down" is "倒", which has the similar pronunciation of "到(arrive)". Thus, when the character "福" is put upside down, it means that luck arrives.b. This sign is an icon. It means no smoking, and I know it from the picture.c. This sign is a mixture of a symbol and a icon. It means that "parking" is only allowed for disabled people.2. I think the house is on fire because smoke is a index of fire.3. To the physician, it means that the man has got a fever.4. I think so, but not exactly, because the difference of the consonants does not mean the bird in different places cries differently.1.1.31. according to the arbitrariness theory, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention. Thus, the name Xiao Long is just a label for the son. However, in Chinese culture dragon was the symbol for the emperor. Thus, the name may have certain associative meanings.2. No. The speaker of a language, based upon the convention established in the speech community, associates linguistic signs with things and concepts. In people's mind, "pig" stands for foolishness and laziness. If I name it Pig Hair Shampoo, no one will buy it.3. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use. Although the link between form and meaning is arbitrary, there existed certain relationship between them, which can be called rules. The individual does not have the power to change a sign in any way once it has become established in the linguistic community.1.1.41. I prefer to use the spoken language. In a supermarket, the spoken language is much more convenient for people to communicate with each other. People do not have the time and necessity to use written language in communication.2. I think listening and speaking should come first. The primary medium of language is sound, and language is primarily vocal. What's more, children can learn to listen and speak a foreign language more quickly than they read and write.1.1.51. No, I don't agree with this point of view. Language is human specific, so humans and dogs can not communicate with each other.2. A parrot only can say what it is taught. It can not form an infinite set of utterances from a finite use of units. So, a parrot talking can not be equated with human language.3. That is only the result of the stimulus-response training.4. Human language is primary over animal communication in the following aspects:1) Human has the ability to refer to things far remote in time and space. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey such ability.2) Human has the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any animal communication system.5) Animal communication systems are closed-ended, whereas human languages are open-ended.1.1.61. The advanced technology such as telephones and the Internet makes human communication become much more convenient and frequent. People can communicate with others in remote places freely.2. There may exist several causes:1) The sender can not express himself or herself clearly.2) The receiver can not understand what the sender said.3) The receiver is unwilling to communicate with the sender.4) There exists misunderstanding because of the different cultural background of the sender and the receiver.3. We must pay key attention to learning the knowledge of the ways of thinking, acting and speaking of a language, for differences in this kind of knowledge may cause trouble in intercultural communication.1.2.11. a. Physiological functionb. Performative functionc. Phatic functiond. Informative function2. People like poetry because people can enjoy the rhythm and the melody of certain combinations of sounds in the poetry. And most creative uses of language in the poetry can provide people considerable pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes, ambiguities and metaphors.3. I may not say anything, but move the desk away.1.2.21. General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language whilst metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use.2. No. According to Halliday, every sentence in a text is multifunctional and has three metafunctions simultaneously: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.3. Halliday's functional theory emphasizes the relationship between language structure and the language functions in social life, while the traditional grammar emphasizes the forms of the sentence.1.3.11. I agree to the evolutionary theory which tends to believe that man evolved from lower forms of life, and so did language. This is a scientific approach to the origin of language as it is based on a wide range of studies over years by biologists, anthropologists, psychologists, neurologists, primatologists and linguists. With many significant changes since its early introduction, the evolutionary theory shows us the origin of language from various aspects, such as the organic evolution, environmental factors.2. 轰隆、乒乓、叽叽嘎嘎、叽里咕噜、汪汪3. Onomatopoetic words are imitations of the sounds of nature, and emotional ejaculations of pain, fear, surprise, pleasure, anger, etc. According to the invention theory, onomatopoetic words form the basis of language, or at least the core of the basic vocabulary.1.3.21. Usually, there are two main ways of classifying languages: the genetic (or genealogical) and the typological. The historical classification is based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. This criteria is to research into the history and relatedness of languages. On the other hand, the typological classification is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages. It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship.2. Currently, we cannot say that all languages in the world derived from one common ancestor. It might be true that some languages have diverged from one common ancestor, for example, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance languages were clearly descended from Latin, but no evidence show that all languages in the world have the same origin. As research shows, there are at least 29 language families in the world. However, this problem will be solved when we have enough evidence to show that human beings have one common ancestor.3. The major causes for the language diversity in the world include grammatical structure, historical factors, social factors, intercultural contact, etc.1.4.11. The two sentences perform the same function of requesting. However, The two sentences have different choices of words and syntax structures. Sentence (a) is structurally an imperative sentence, while Sentence (b) takes the form of a question and the word 'please' is added. So, the effects of the two utterances are different. Sentence (b) would sound more polite. When we are decoding them, we would take into account such factors as choice of words and syntactic structures, the principle of politeness and the context.2. As a science, linguistics demands a scientific outlook upon language. To conduct a study of language scientifically, we must take an objective view of language and all linguistic phenomena and study language and reflect on it in a detached and unbiased way. Even a local variety with few native speakers may also fall within our investigations. Moreover, we should adopt the general principles of empirical research procedures to observe and analyze data found in natural languages.3. The real object of linguistics is to find out fundamental rules that underlie all the languages in the world. We need to look into the common features of all languages, the range of variations among languages, the difference of human languages from animal communication, the change and evolution of language, the relation of language to mind and society, and so on.1.4.21. It is very important to study speech in linguistics, because language is primarily vocal. As we know, no community has a written form only, though many have a spoken language only. Children learn spoken language first and most easily. Earlier in the 20th century certain linguists began to doubt the priority of writing. Bloomfield argued that writing was not language but merely a way of recording language. The contemporary linguistics maintains that the spoken language is primary and that writing is essentially a means of representing speech in another medium. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech because it is the "natural," or primary, medium in which language is manifest, and written language derives from the transference of speech to a secondary, visual medium.2. There is no absolute standard of correctness because linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Different groups of people may use different varieties of language. The correctness in language use should not be prescribed grammatically.3. In reality, it is impossible to have a standard language. The reason is that linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. There is no absolute standard of correctness. What's more, as we know, with the passage of time, all languages are subject to change. All living languages are there to serve the different social needs of the communities that use them. As these needs change, languages will tend to change to meet the new situations. Thus, a standard language is not possible.1.5.11. There are many external factors related to language. Cultural factors influence the full meaning of the language conveys. Social factors include the social backgrounds of both the speaker and the addressee (i.e. their age, sex, social class, ethnic background, degree of integration into their neighborhood, etc.), the relationship between speaker and addressee and the context and manner of the interaction. Psychological factors have effects on people's behaviors.2. Though there are many translation softwares in the market, translations done by machines are full of errors and require much post-editing. The key problem is the lack of a good linguistic theory to provide a frame of reference for machine translation. It is unlikely that machines will replace human translators.3. Foreign language learning and teaching involves several interrelated factors. These are: linguistic theories, situational factors, input and interaction, learner differences, learner processes, linguistic output, curriculum and syllabus design, teaching methodology, learner and teacher roles, textbook writing, language planning, and so on.1.5.21. Linguistic studies have gone through many changes. Since the 1930s down to the present, the expansion of knowledge in so many directions have led to several attempts to make synthesis and to develop a unified theory of language. Several schools of thought have emerged round a few prominent linguists such as Firth, Halliday, Hjelmslev and Chomsky, major centers of linguistic study like Prague School, Geneva School, Copenhagen School, and leading concepts such as structuralism, functionalism, tagmemics, systemic functional grammar, transformational generative grammar, speech act theory.2. I think discourse analysis is a proper way to study language. Traditional linguistic analysis has concentrated on the internal structure of sentences, but discourse analysis is interested in the analysis of units larger than sentences. Thus, the term discourse or text refers to all linguistic units with a definable communicative function, spoken or written. It stresses the need to see language as a dynamic, social, and interactive phenomenon.3. A corpus is always needed in linguistics. Over the past few years, the study of language in actual use has required a corpus-based research. Scholars need a corpus to analyze patterns of use in natural texts. The importance of corpus to language study is aligned to the importance of empirical data because empirical data enable the linguist to make objective statements, rather than those based upon the individual's own subjective perception of language. So, corpus linguistics should be seen as a subset of the activity within an empirical approach to linguistics.Charpter 22.1.11. Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds. It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced. Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves. It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.2. The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message. According to Ball and Rahilly, there are a series of activities in the speech chain. First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker. Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs. The result is a range of muscle contractions and physical movement of structures such as the rib cage, the larynx, the tongue and so on. In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract. This airflow interacts with continued movement of structures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech. This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.3. Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English. For example, in pronunciation, the "h" in the word "hour" is silent. "ph" in the word "elephant" is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling. Another example might be a pair of words like "meet" and "meat", who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.2.1.21. In the production of speech, the vocal tract sets a column of air into motion, and then modifies this moving air-stream in a number of ways to produce the sounds of speech.2. When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians and linguists often employ two parameters to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner, sounds are classified into plosives, nasals, fricatives, affricates, approximants, trills and taps. When examined from view of place of articulation, sounds are divided into groups like bilabials, dentals, post-alveolar, retroflex, uvular, glottal, labiodentals, alveolar, palatal, velar and pharyngeal sounds.3. Bilabial, dental and labiodental sounds are different from one another in terms of place of articulation. Bilabials are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together. In bilabial stops they form an air-tight seal producing the plosives [p, b] or, if the velum is lowered, the nasal [m]. Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper front teeth. Dental sounds are generally apical. Dental fricatives occur in English as pronunciations of the 'th' spellings. The voicelessdental fricative is the sound of 'th' in 'thin', whereas its voiced counterpart isthe sound of 'th' in 'then'. Labiodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to the underside of the upper front teeth. For example, in English the [f] in fat and the [v] in vat are labiodental fricatives.2.1.33. First of all, vowels and consonants appear in different places in English words. Secondly, vowels and consonants are produced differently. Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.2.1.41. Narrow transcription captures the exact articulatory details of each sound. It records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording. On the contrary, broad transcription is a less subtle transcription. It omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation and is perfectly suitable for many users.2. Omitted.2.2.11. Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further ana lyzable into smaller units susceptible of concomitant occurrence. In other words, a phoneme is a block that cannot be broken down into smaller parts; it is the smallest element relevant to phonemic analysis. Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme.2. Omitted.3. [p] and [b] are different phonemes because they represent distinctive sounds. In addition, if we substitute one sound for the other, it results in a change of meaning.2.2.21. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, "deed" and "seed" are minimal pairs, but "deed" and "dog" are not because the vowel and final consonant in these two sounds are different.2. a) /p/-/b/: pig-big; gap-gab;b) /k/-/g/: coat-goat; back-bag;c) /f/-/v/: life-live; fife-five;d) /m/-/n/: meat-neat; time-tine;e) /r/-/l/: right- light; sear-seal3.2.2.31. Distinctive features can be used to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Thus, "distinctive" means serving to identify, distinguishing.2. The distinctive features for each group of sounds are:a) [p, t, b, d]: [-high, -back]b) [j, w, i, u]: [+voiced, +high]3. a) life, lives: similarities: [-high, -back], differences: life [f]: [-voiced]; lives[v]: [+voiced]b) choice, choose: similarities: [-high, -back]; differences: choice[s]: [-voiced], choose [z]: [+voiced]c) deduce, deduction: similarities: [+back]; differences: deduce: [-high, -round], deduction: [+high, +round]2.3.11. Edinburgh, Wednesday, Thames are words in which pronunciation does not match the spelling.2. These words are not permissible in English. All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes. *tpray, *btry, *tgharg do not sound like an English word because it does not conform to the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes. When three consonants occur, the first must be [s].2.3.21. When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. That is to say, complementary distribution refers to the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s).2. For the speaker, the Chinese consonants [sh] and [x] are the same. So, to him, there is no need to distinguish these two sounds, and he pronounces the two consonants in the same way..2.4.11. Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, and the coda. The onset of a syllable consists of all the segments that precede the peak and are tautosyllabic with it. The peak is realized by a vowel. The coda consists of all the tautosyllabic segments that follow the peak. A syllable that has no coda is called an unchecked or open syllable; one with a coda is called a checked or closed syllable.2. The word "yesterday" has three syllables. ye-ster-day."extra" has two syllables. ex-tra"secretarial" has four syllables. se-cre-ta-rial"camera" has three syllables. ca-me-ra"appreciation" has five syllables. a-pre-ci-a-tion3. English has syllables that begin with vowels and onsets of from one to three consonants. In English, three-consonant onsets are highly restricted in their composition. The first consonants in such onsets must be an s, the second a voiceless stop, and the third a liquid. Moreover, if the second consonant is t, the third must be r.2.4.21.2. Stress in English is very important. English is a stress language. The rhythm of spoken English is to a very large extent determined by strong beats falling on the stressed syllables of words. Thus, a typical spoken utterance of English will consist of a number of rhythmic units. Each unit is dominated by the beat of the stressed syllable. In verse, the wording is characteristically and deliberately organized to yield a regular rhythm, and the units of this rhythm are commonly called 'feet'. This kind of rhythm puts a characteristic stamp on the nature of spoken English.2.4.31. Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound.2. Pitch is very important in Chinese. Different pitches on Chinese characters can lead to meaning differences. For example, "fei", when given different pitches, may mean "飞(fly)", "肥(fat)", "匪(bandit)" or "沸(boil)".2.4.41. The intonation patterns of the following English questions are:a) It begins with a mid pitch, rises to a higher pitch and then falls.b) Falling.c) Rising.d) It begins with a mid pitch, falls to a lower pitch and then rises.2. Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable. Intonation serves several functions in verbal communication such as grouping words, emphasizing words and differentiating meanings.3. Intonation plays a very important role in daily conversations. In some languages, such as English and Chinese, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches.。
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9、抽象思维、发音
三、判断正误
1、错2、对3、错4、错5、对6、对7、对8、对9、错10、对11、错12、错13、错14、对15、对16、对17、对18、错19、对20、错
四、问答题
1、指导23页
2、教材31页
3、教材26页
4、教材27页
5、教材29页
6、教材29页
7、教材29页
五、问答题
1、教材P92
2、教材P89
3、教材P99
4、指导书P84
第五章
一、解释下列名词
1、词汇（教材P126）2、基本词汇（指导书P91）3、多义词（指导书P98）
4、同义词（教材P138）5、反义词（教材P142）
二、填空
1、全民常用、稳固、有构词能力
2、一般性、模糊性、全民性
3、本义、中心义、中心义、派生义
10、“洋泾浜”、混合语11、柴门霍夫、1887
三、辨别正误
1、错2、错3、错4、对5、错6、错7、错8、错9、错10、对
四、单项选择
1、C 2、D 3、A 4、B 5、C
五、问答题
1、教材P198
2、教材P206—207
3、教材P211—212
4、指导书P154
第九章
一、填空
1、方言和亲属语言、记录了语言的过去状态的文字2、聚合关系、组合关系
6、表意、表意兼表音、表音7、表意字、单纯表音字、形声字8、形象和会意9、改进
10、书面语、加工
三、辨别正误
1、错2、错3、错4、错5、对6、对7、错8、错9、错10、错
四、问答题
1、教材P152、指导书P114—115
2、指导书P116
3、指导书P125—126
4、教材P167
第七章
一、解释下列名词
导言
二、填空
1、中国、印度、希腊—罗马。
2、文字、音韵、训诂。
3、语音、词汇、语义—语法。
4、编码、发送、传递、接收。
5、横的方面、纵的方面、共时、历时。
6、历史比较。
7、《语言论》
8、索绪尔
三、问答题
1、指导2页
2、教材3页
3、指导3—4页
4、教材4—5页
5、指导4—5页
6、指导3页
第一章
一、解释下列名词
1、方言（教材P184）2、社会方言（教材P181）3、地域方言（教材P184）
4、共同语（教材P193）5、亲属语言（教材P188）
二、填空1Leabharlann 社会的发展2、渐变性、不平衡性
3、词汇、语音、语法
4、分化、统一
5、行业语、阶级方言、黑话
6、排他性
7、语音、语音
8、独立的语言、语系、“母语”
9、汉藏语系、印欧语系
三、判断正误
1、对2、错3、错4、错5、对6、错7、对8、错9、错10、对
四、问答题
1、（此题不做）
2、教材P236—237
3、教材P238—239
4、教材P244
三、判断正误
1、对2、错3、错4、错5、对6、错7、错8、错9、对10、对11、对12、错13、对14、对15、错16、错17、对18、对19、错20、对
四、问答题
1、自己总结
2、教材9页
3、教材9页
4、教材36页
5、自己做
6、语言没有阶级性
7、教材11页
8、教材11页
9、谁的观点也不正确，因为语言与思维的关系是相辅相成的
4、隐喻、换喻
5、相对反义、绝对反义、相对反义
三、分析题（自己做）
四、问答题
1、教材P127
2、指导书P95
3、指导书P96
4、教材P136
第六章
一、解释下列名词
1、教材P152 2、指导书P121 3、指导书P127
4、由声旁加形旁合成的字5、教材P167
二、填空
1、时间、空间2、形、音、义3、原始4、语言5、实物、图画
8、教材31页
9、教材31页
10、教材33页
第三章
一、填空
1、音素
2、拉丁
3、音高、音重、音长、音质、音高
4、肺、喉头和声带、口腔鼻腔咽腔、共鸣腔
5、元音、辅音、受阻
6、舌位的高低、前后、圆展、央、低、不圆唇
7、发音部位、发音方法、双唇、不送气、清、塞
8、音位
9、条件变体、自由变体、自由变体
10、声母、韵母、声调、韵母、韵头、韵尾
wateresourcesiverovermorehan180manyriverhydropowerdevelopmentprojecconditionsiveluo第二章一名称解释1符号指导234组合关系教材33二填空1形式内容2内容形式3声音意义物质表现形式4约定俗成的5任意性线条性6音位序列语素词7组合关系聚合关系8组合关系聚合关系9抽象思维发音三判断正误10对11错1213错14对15对16对17对18错19对20错四问答题1指导23第三章一填空1音素2拉丁3音高音重音长音质音高4肺喉头和声带口腔鼻腔咽腔共鸣腔5元音辅音受阻7发音部位发音方法双唇不送气清塞8音位9条件变体自由变体自由变体10声母韵母声调韵母韵头韵尾11开口呼合口呼齐齿呼撮口呼12脱落二单项选择题
5、（自己看书总结）
6、教材P194
第八章
一、解释下列名词
1、借词（教材P198）2、意译词（教材P198）3、语言的融合（教材P205）
4、双语现象（教材P211）5、混合语（指导书P154）
二、填空
1、词的借用2、意译词、仿译词3、日语、汉语4、语音、语法、咖啡、沙发
5、仿造6、社会历史条件7、双语现象、语言8、自愿融合、被迫融和9、双语
1、语法规则
2、组合规则、聚合规则
3、有一个完整的语调
4、自由词组
5、实词、虚词
6、句法、词法
7、词尾、词缀、词根
8、构词、变词
9、述宾结构、述补结构、偏正结构、主谓结构
10、词形变化、词形变化、
三、单项选择
1、D 2、D 3、B 4、C 5、A
6、C 7、D 8、A 9、C 10、A
四、分析题（自己做）
五、分析题（用元音舌位图和辅音表自己做）
六、问答题
1、教材57—58页
2、教材59页
3、教材59页
4、指导49—50页
5、教材82页
第四章
一、举例解释下列名词
1、语法是词的构成、变化和用词造句的规则。
2、后缀（教材93页）
3、词尾（教材93页）
4、复合词（教材94页）
5、语法范畴（教材109页）
二、填空
1、语言（自己总结）2、说话（教材9页）3、交际工具：人类交流思想的手段、方式。4、社会现象（指导14页）5、思维（教材13页）
二、填空
1、语言
2、规则
3、交际工具、工具
4、同意、不同意、再见、鼓掌、痛恨、高兴
5、左、直观思维
6、sister uncle
7、量词
8、语言
9、全民性、阶级性
10、社会的、具体
3、条件性、地域性4、亲属语言、对应关系、语言的亲属关系5、组合规则、聚合规
则、类推6、词序、形态、语法范畴、词类7、“类推作用”8、新词的产生和旧词
的消亡、词语的替换、词义的演变9、仄10、替换11、加长词的长度、复音、单音
二、单项选择
1、A 2、C 3、B 4、D 5、D 6、B 7、C 8、B 9、D 10、C
11、开口呼、合口呼、齐齿呼、撮口呼
12、脱落
二、单项选择题
1、D 2、D 3、A 4、A 5、C 6、D 7、B 8、B 9、D 10、C
三、判断正误
1、错2、对3、错4、错5、错6、错7、对8、错9、对10、对
四、名称解释
1、音质（教材50页）2、元音（教材59页）3、送气（教材63页）4、音位变体（指导51页）5、区别特征（教材77页）
10、教材10页
第二章
一、名称解释
1、符号（指导23页）2、符号的任意性（教材29页）3、二层性（教材31页）4、组合关系（教材33页）5、聚合关系（教材33页）
二、填空
1、形式、内容
2、内容、形式
3、声音、意义、物质表现形式
4、约定俗成的
5、任意性、线条性
6、音位、序列、语素、词
7、组合关系、聚合关系
10、印欧、日耳曼
11、某一个方言
12、国语、汉语
13、书面语
14、约定俗成
15、社会经济、政治
16、北京语音、北方话、典范的现代白话文著作
三、辨别正误
1、对2、错3、错4、错5、错6、对7、错8、错9、错10、对
四、问答题
1、教材P173
2、教材P178
3、教材P181、P184
4、教材P178—179