工程管理专业外文翻译
工程管理专业英语
2.2 句型
（1）为表达客观态度，常用it作为形式 主语。
专业英语多描述客观事物、现象和规律。这一特点决定了科 技人员在撰写科技文献时，要采用客观和准确的手法陈述被 描述对象的特性、规律，而不需要突出人。
例4、It is important to study the possibility of using SCM to improve the performance of construction enterprises, especially their environmental performance.
应该尽可能简洁，避免不必要的修饰和重复
例2、The yield criterion for a material is a mathematical description of the combinations of stresses which would cause yield of the material.In other words it is a relationship between applied stresses and strength.
其他常用的省略形式：
As already discussed 前已讨论 As explained before 前已解释
If so 倘若如此 As previously mentioned 前已提到 When needed (necessary, feasible)必要
As described above 如上所示
2 Features of Specialized English
专业英语的特点
2.1 措辞
措辞要准确、简洁、清楚 客观性（Objective）、准确性（accuracy）和精练性(conciseness)。
工程管理专业英语全文翻译
Unit 1 the owner’s perspective 第1单元业主的观点1.2 Major Types of Construction 1.2大建筑类型Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them [1]. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However ,many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction [2]. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry.由于大多数业主通常只对获得特定类型的建筑设施感兴趣，所以他们应该了解与他们有关的建筑类型的常见工业实践[1]。
工程管理专业毕业设计外文翻译(外文+翻译)
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction EnterprisesBy: R. Max WidemanAbstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system.Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost controlAfter joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control.1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control MethodsCost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses offoreign projects)and company's cost-sharing.At present the main method for domestic construction enterprises to control project cost is to analyze cost, naming economic accounting, which is the major components of cost management and the analysis of economic activities. In accordance with its scope of target and deep-level of content, GM project cost analysis method can be divided into two categories, namely, comprehensive analysis of project cost and cost analysis of unit project Comprehensive analysis of project cost. It is carried in terms of budget and final accounts, cost reduction programs and construction installation costs. The methods used are as follows: (1) comparing the estimated cost and actual cost. Check the result to reduce cost, lower cost index and budget status. (2) comparing actual cost and project cost. Check cost reduction programs as well as the windage between the actual cost and plan cost. Inspect the rationality and implementation of techniques organizational measures and management plans.(3) comparing lower cost of the same period last year. Aanalyze causes and propose the improving direction. (4) Comparison between engineering units in cost-cutting. Identify the units cost-reducing, which finishes projects, with a view to further cost analysis.Cost analysis of unit project. Comprehensive analysis only understand project cost overruns or lower. If we want to get more detailed information, each cost item analysis of unit project is needed. Analysis mainly from the following aspects:(1) Materials cost analysis. From the view of material stock, production, transportation, inventory and management, we can analyze the discrepancy impact of material price and quantity, the cost-reducing effectiveness resulting from various technical measures, the loss from poor management.(2) Labor cost analysis . From the number of employment, hours of use, ergonomics, as well as wage situation, we can identify the savings and waste during labor use and fixed management.(3) Construction machinery cost analysis. From the construction options, mechanization degree, mechanical efficiency, fuel consumption, mechanical maintenance, good rates and utilization, we can analyze the yield and cost discrepancy of fixed-class ergonomics, the cost of poor classes, focused on improving mechanical utilization efficiency and waste caused by poor management.(4) Management cost analysis. From construction task and organizational staffing changes, non-production personnel changes, as well as other expenditure savings and waste, we can analyze management fees and justify the rationality of expenditure.(5) Technology organization measures implementing analysis. It can increase experience for future establishment and implementation of technical organization projects.(6) Other direct costs analysis. Focus on the analysis of second removal and water, electricity, wind, gas and other expenses situation during construction.2. The shortcomings of cost-control methodsAt present, domestic construction projects cost-control methods have played a significant role for Chinese construction industry and construction enterprises to reduce cost and gain sustainable development. However, we should be aware that these methods exist some shortcomings as follows:2.1 Lack of systemization.Presently, the cost control of construction enterprises is a simple control on cost. In fact, project cost control is closely related with project plans and progress, quality and safety. Therefore, cost control should include above-mentioned elements.2.2 Lack of real timeModern project management is increasingly tending real-time management and forward-looking management, paying more attention to "promptly identify and solve problems", emphasizing as much as possible to identify and solve problems before problems occur. The current control system is to control after problems occur, which can't avoid loss.In addition, current cost-control method is static. It can't monitor and reflect timely costs change, therefore, this method can't provide the support of decision-making for projects management under construction.2.3 Lack of error-checking and error-correcting mechanismThe current cost-control method is the single-class without error-checking and error-correcting mechanism. If mistakes occur in the future, we can't discover timely, or even impossible found. 2.4 Lack of compatibilityThere is lack of compatibility between project cost-control and project finance and corporate management system. The project budget is built on ration, but project financial itemsubjects are based on current financial general regulation. This is not consistent between methods. Specific to the software, financial sector of domestic construction enterprises is generally adopting some general financial software, such as UF, IBM. The software is not specifically for the development of construction enterprise, not reflecting the special nature of construction enterprises. However, the budget software is also not considered financial aspect. The lack of compatibility leads to void labor and low management efficiency. At the same time, it increases the probability of error information and error decision2.5 Limitation on notions and quality of personnelThese days, most of construction enterprises are faced with the shortage of qualified personnel during improving cost-control system. It is difficult to find a suitable person with budget and financial knowledge and practical experience in project management.3. Suggestions for improving domestic cost-control methodsFrom the view of enterprises and projects, project cost control is a system engineering. It needs standardization and systematization, closely related to many factors. If current domestic construction enterprises want to establish a practical and efficient cost control systems, the cost-control methods must be improved as follows:3.1 Establish systemic cost-control systemAccording to the specific situation of enterprises, company's cost-control guiding documents should be developed. Based on current fixed budget, enterprises develop work breakdown structure of specific conditions. And on these base, along with progress, quality and safety factors, cost control system will be established ultimately, including the establishment of project cost real-time control (the first class by full-time staff in the execution of project cost control, reporting cycle for one week or fortnight), project cost integrated control (the second class, by financial officers in the execution of projects, reporting cycle for fortnight or a month) and corporate cost control (the third class, by company's financial sector, reporting cycle for a month or a quarter). Such three class cost control system resolve the problems of real-time and error-correcting mechanism.3.2 Develop specific control processesAccording to enterprises' specific circumstances, we should formulate specific control processes, identify levels for controlling reporting periods, and arrange specific persons tomonitor. Throughout reporting period, two kinds of data or information need to be collected: (1) the actual execution of data, including the actual time for beginning or end, and the actual cost.(2) the project scope, progress plan and budget change information. These changes may result from the clients or project teams, or from some unforeseen things such as natural disasters, labor strikes or key project team members to resign. These changes should be included in project plan and obtained the consent of customers, then new baseline plan need to establish. The scope, progress and budget of new plan may be different from initial plan.Above-discussed data or information must be timely collected, so that it can become the base to update project progress and budget. For example, if the project reporting period is a month, data and information should be collected at the end of month as far as possible, which can guarantee progress in the updated plan and budget.3.3 Improve project financial subjectBased on work breakdown structure, enpterpries should improve project financial subjects so that projects match with real-time cost control, company's financial and cost control systems, which can solve the compatibility between cost control and finance. At the same time, financial system and cost control system using the same data format, similar forms and data-sharing can improve effectively. In the short term, construction enterprise can transform the existing software and statements to achieve cost savings and reduce the impact of system transformation. In the long-term, enterprises can adopt suitable management software and build company's integrated management system.3.4 Balance precision control and cost controlWhen improving project control system, we should pay attention to balance precision control and cost control. Cost control is through the whole process of project. Under normal circumstances, enterprises can take a fixed period report. If new problems will be detected, then enterprises should increase the reporting frequency until problems are resolved.3.5 Train current staffEnterprises should gradually train the existing staff for the future reserves. In any system, human element is always the first one. No matter how perfect and advanced a management system is, and it ultimately relies on people.3.6 Identify core contentsThe core contents for cost control are team spirit, technology and work process consistency, standard management methods, foreseeing difficulties and contradictions, fostering a challenging work environment and continuing improvement.研究建筑施工企业的项目成本控制马克斯.怀德曼摘要：随着建筑市场的日趋成熟,建筑施工企业之间的竞争变得激烈。
工程管理专业外语英汉翻译
AA bill of quantities allows each contractor tendering for a project to price the work using the same information.一个账单量允许每个承包商为项目投标价格A bill of quantities is a list of item are entered in the next column followed by the rate ($/meter,$/meter2,$meter3,etc).比尔的数量是一个列表项进入下一列由率（美元/米，美元/平方米，美元/ 立方米，等）A construction manager can provide such coordination and the leadership necessary to produce the work. 一个项目经理提供必要的生产等工作的协调和领导。
A contract can be a ‘simple contract’: specialty contracts are also commonly referred to as ‘contracts under seal’.合同可以是一个简单的合同”：专业合同通常也被称为“盖印契约A contract is agreement between two or more than two parties(individuals or organizations) to perform or not to perform certain acts.合同协议的两个或更多的比之间的两方（个人或组织）执行或不执行某些行为。
A contract may be written or oral, but is only formed when there has an offer to do or provide something that is accepted by another party and is supported by consideration.合同可以是书面的或口头的，但只有当有一个形成作出或提供的东西是由另一方的接受和支持的思考。
工程管理专业外文文献及翻译(DOC)
本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Changing roles of the clientsArchitects and contractorsThrough BIM文献、资料来源：Engineering, Construction, Archi-tectual Management文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2010.2院（部）：管理工程学院专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期：2012.6.3外文文献：Changing roles of the clients,architects and contractors through BIMRizal SebastianTNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The NetherlandsAbstractPurpose– This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes. Design/methodology/approach– Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Through several real cases, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated.Findings–One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R). Furthermore, it is also found that the implementation of BIM in hospital building projects is still limited due to certain commercial and legal barriers, as well as the fact that integrated collaboration has not yet been embedded in the real estate strategies of healthcare institutions.Originality/value– This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects. Keywords Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planningPaper type General review1. IntroductionHospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-user’s dissatisfaction, and energy inef ficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored (Dawood and Sikka, 2008). There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite foran effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approachesA hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to manage and finance their building projects and real estate. The government’s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will beincluded in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Health to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world (van Reedt Dortland, 2009).The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007). The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client’s capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures (Sebastian et al., 2009).A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architect can stand at the client’s side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architect’s responsibility is translating client’s requirements and wishes into the architectural values to be included in the design specification, and evaluating the contractor’s pr oposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based on the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium.A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are placed with the client.In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If thebuilding actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that exceed the minimum client’s requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance t o the client’s extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc. (Sebastian et al., 2009).The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design untilthe project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply common values and goals.3. Changing roles through BIM applicationBuilding information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support the integrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates time and place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in its ultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability, can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client (Sebastian et al., 2009).BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes further than an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings (Bratton, 2009). BIM is an integrated model in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actors throughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops and evolves as the project progresses. Using BIM, the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client’s requirements and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design process extend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clash detection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, and as-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communication between the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective and efficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combination with the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of thebuilding performance, including the life-cycle cost.To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors (Kiviniemi et al., 2008).The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according to the type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, but his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:●the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and thedeployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;●the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communicationprotocols, task planning, and risk management;and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification of communication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual question s is: “In what way does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPR in a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is attached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, in case of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIM with authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of the IPR(Chao-Duivis, 2009).How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the one hand, collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in the contract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM Addendum confirms: ‘This does not ef fectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships or shifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments’ (ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand, changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM will lead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in the detailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means that significant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the design cost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary(Chao-Duivis, 2009).4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIMIn The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy, which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy. Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of the changing roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method and a life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIM structure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. Thepreceding sections have discussed the conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:●the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;●the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;●the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;●the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in thefuture; and●the roles and tasks of the model manager.The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:●using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the buildingactors, and the user participation in design;●facilitating optimal information accessibility and exchange for a high●consistency of the drawings and documents across disciplines and phases;●integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation,and planning;●interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements andspecifications;●reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process; and●optimising the management of the facility through the registration of medical installationsand equipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC opted for a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation phase was aimed at creating a common vision on the optimal way for collaboration using BIM as an ICT support. Some results of this preparation phase are: a document that defines the common ambition for the project and the collaborative working process and a semi-formal agreement that states the commitment of the building actors for collaboration. Other than UMC, MMC selected an architecture firm with an in-house engineering department. Thus, the collaboration between the architect and structural engineer can take place within the same firm using the same software application.Regarding the life-cycle design approach, the main attention is given on life-cycle costs, maintenance needs, and facility management. Using BIM, both hospitals intend to get a much。
工程管理专业外文文献以及汉文翻译
外文文献:The project management office as an organisational innovationBrian Hobbs ＊, Monique Aubry，Denis ThuillierUniversity of Quebec at Montreal, Department of Management and Technology，PO Box 8888，Downtown Station，Montreal，Que，Canada H3C 3P8Received 15 May 2008; accepted 20 May 2008AbstractThe paper presents an investigation of the creation and the reconfiguration of project management offices （PMOs) as an organizational innovation。
The analysis of 11 organisational transformations centred on the implementation or reconfiguration of PMOs is presented. The objective of the paper is to contribute to a better understanding of PMOs and of the dynamic relationship between project management and the organisational context。
The aim is also to integrate the examination of PMOs as an organisational innovation into the mainstream of research on the place of project management in organisations and more widely to the ‘‘rethinking of project management.”1。
工程管理专业英语翻译
1.2 Major Types of ConstructionSince most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them [1]. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However ,many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction [2]. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry.In planning for various types of construction, the methods of procuring professional services, awarding construction contracts, and financing the constructed facility can be quite different. For the purpose of discussion, the broad spectrum of constructed facilities may be classified into four major categories, each with its own characteristics.Residential Housing ConstructionResidential housing construction includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and high-rise apartments [3]. During the development and construction of such projects, the developers or sponsors who are familiar with the construction industry usually serve as surrogate owners and take charge, making necessary contractual agreements for design and construction, and arranging the financing and sale of the completed structures [4]. Residential housing designs are usually performed by architects and engineers, and the construction executed by builders who hire subcontractors for the structural, mechanical, electrical and other specialty work. An exception to this pattern is for single-family houses as is shown in Figure 1-2, which may be designed by the builders as well.The residential housing market is heavily affected by general economic conditions, tax laws, and the monetary and fiscal policies of the government. Often, a slight increase in total demand will cause a substantial investment inconstruction, since many housing projects can be started at different locations by different individuals and developers at the same time [5]. Because of the relative ease of entry, at least at the lower end os the market, many new builders are attracted to the residential housing construction. Hence, this market is highly competitive, with potentially high risks as well as high rewards.Figure1-2 Residential Housing Construction (courtesy of caterpillar, Inc) Institutional and Commercial Building Construction Institutional and commercial building construction encomprasses a great variety of project types and sizes, such as schools and universities, medical clinics and hospitals, recreational facilities and sports stadiums, retail chain stores and large shopping centers, warehouse and light manufacturing plants, and skyscrapers for offices and hotels, as is shown in Figure1-3 [6]. The owners of such buildings may or may not be familiar with construction industry practices, but they usually are able to select competent professional consultants and arrange the financing of the constructed facilities themselves. Specialty architects and engineers are often engaged for designing a specific type of building, while the builders or general contractors undertaking such projects may also be specialized in only that type of building.Because of the higher costs and greater sophistication of institutional and commercial buildings in comparison with residential housing, this market segment is shared by fewer competitors [7]. Since the construction of some of these buildings is a long process which once started will take some time to proceed until completion, the demand is less sensitive to general economic conditions than that for speculative housing. Consequently, the owners may confront an oligopoly of general contractors who compete in the same market. In an oligopoly situation, only a limited number of competitors exist, and a firm’s price for services may be based in part on part on its competitive strategies in the local market.Specialized Industrial ConstructionSpecialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects, with a high degree of technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants, as is shown in Figure1-4 [8]. The owners usually are deeply involved in thedevelopment of a project, and prefer to work with designers-builders such that the total time for the completion of the project can be shortened. They also want to pick a team of designers and builders with whom the ownerhas developed good working relations over the years.Figure1-3 Construction of the PPG Building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania ( courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc)Figure1-4 Construction of a Benzene Plant in L……( courtesy of Manitowoc Company, Inc)Although the initiation of such projects is also affected by the state of the economy, long range demand forecasting is the most important factor since such projects are capital intensive and require considerable amount of planning and construction time [9].Governmental regulation such as the rulings of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in the United States can also profoundly influence decisions on these projects.Infrastructure and Heavy ConstructionInfrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, mass transit systems, tunnels, bridges, pipelines, drainage systems and sewage treatment plants, as is shown in Figure1-5. Most of these projects are publicly owned and therefore financed either through bonds or taxes. This category of construction is characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some labor intensive operations.The engineers and builders engaged in infrastructure construction are usually highly specialized since each segment of the market requires different types of skills [10]. However, demands for different segments of infrastructure and heavy construction may shift with saturation in some segments. For example, as the available highway construction projects are declining, some heavy construction contractors quickly move their work force and equipment into the field of mining where jobs are available.Figure1-5 Construction of the Dame Point Bridge in Jacksonville, Florida(courtesy of Mary Lou Maher)Wordsconglomeration 混合物，聚集 infrastructure and heavy construction 重大基础项rehabilitation 修复目建设disincentive 抑制，抑制因素 procure 获得spectrum 波谱，光谱，范围 incentive 动机surrogate 代理，替代 innovation 创新architect 建筑师 residential housing construction 住宅类房fiscal 财政的屋建设entry 进入，编入 take charge 负责clinic 诊所 execute 执行stadium 露天大型体育场 substantial 实质的、重大的sophistication 复杂 recreational 娱乐的construction industry 建筑业 retail 零售high-rise apartments 高层公寓 proceed 开展，进行institution and commercial building segment 部分，份额construction 办公和商业用房建设 single-family house 独户住宅oligopoly 垄断，求过于供 professional consultant 专业咨询人士confront 面对 general contractor 总承包商infrastructure 基础设施 initiation 启动pipeline 管道 strategy 策略specialized industrial construction drainage 排水系统专业化工业项目建设 saturation 饱和Notes[1] 全句可译为：由于大多数业主通常只对获得某种特定类型的建筑物感兴趣，因而他们应当对适合于他们的建设类型的实物有着一定的了解。
工程管理专业外文文献及翻译
本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Changiｎｇroｌes ｏｆｔhｅｃl ｉentsＡrchiteｃtｓand contrａctoｒsThrouｇｈＢIＭ文献、资料来源：Ｅngiｎeerｉng, Cｏnｓtructioｎ，Arch ｉ-ｔectｕal Manageｍent文献、资料发表（出版)日期:２01０．2院(部）:专业:班级：姓名：学号:指导教师：翻译日期:外文文献：Changing ｒoles oｆtｈe clｉｅnts,arcｈiｔｅcts and contrａcｔorｓthrougｈBIMRiｚａl ＳebastianTNO Bｕｉlt Environmentａnd Ｇeｏｓｃiences，Dｅｌfｔ，ThｅNeｔherlａnds AbstｒacｔPuｒpｏｓe–This pａpｅｒａiｍsｔｏpreseｎt a general reｖｉewｏf tｈe prａｃtiｃal iｍｐlｉcatioｎs of building inforｍatiｏn mｏｄelｌing(BIＭ) bａsｅd oｎliｔe ｒature ａｎd case studiｅs. It sｅeks to ａddｒeｓs tｈe necｅｓｓitｙforａｐｐlyｉnｇBIM and rｅ－ｏrganiｓiｎg the ｐｒocｅsseｓaｎd roleｓiｎｈosｐital building ｐrojects. Thｉｓtｙｐｅof proｊect isｃomｐlｅｘdｕe tｏｃｏmplｉｃated funcｔi ｏｎal and tｅｃhnｉｃal requiｒｅmentｓ，ｄeｃiｓion mａkｉng invoｌvｉｎg a large ｎuｍbｅr oｆｓtakｅholdｅrs，aｎd loｎg-teｒm develoｐｍeｎt pｒoｃｅsｓes.Dｅｓign/methodｏlogｙ/ａpproacｈ–Throuｇh deｓkｒesearch aｎｄｒｅferriｎg ｔｏthｅonｇoinｇEuropeaｎreseaｒｃh project InPro, tｈｅframework for ｉnteｇratｅｄcoｌlａｂoratioｎanｄthe usｅof ＢIM are analysed. Ｔhrough severalｒe ａｌcａｓeｓ, ｔｈeｃhanging ｒoles oｆｃlｉeｎts, arcｈitecｔｓ,and cｏnｔracto ｒｓthrough ＢIM applicatｉon ａrｅinveｓtigatｅd.Ｆｉｎｄiｎgs–Ｏne oｆｔｈe mａｉn findingｓis the ｉｄenｔifｉcａｔiｏn ｏｆthe maiｎｆａctorｓfｏr a ｓuccessful collaboration using BIM, whiｃh caｎbｅreｃｏｇｎiseｄａs“POＷER”: pｒoduｃｔinformation sｈａring (Ｐ),orｇaniｓational roleｓsyｎｅrｇｙ(O），ｗork proｃeｓｓes cooｒdinatｉon (W）, eｎviｒｏnmｅｎt foｒｔeamwｏrｋ（Ｅ), ａnd rｅfeｒenｃe datａcｏnsｏliｄation (R)．Ｆurthermｏre, it ｉs alｓｏfoundｔhat tｈe ｉｍｐlｅmentａｔｉｏn of BＩM iｎhｏspｉｔal builｄing projeｃts isｓtill limitｅｄduｅto ｃertaｉn comｍeｒcial anｄlegal baｒrｉers, ａｓｗell as the fａct ｔｈaｔintegｒateｄｃoｌlaboｒatiｏn haｓnot yｅｔbeen embedded inｔhe reａl ｅstａte ｓtrａteｇiｅs of ｈealthcａre institutiｏns. Originａlity/valuｅ–Tｈiｓpaｐｅr contribuｔes to thｅactuaｌdiｓcusｓiｏn inｓcience anｄpractiｃe oｎthe ｃｈaｎging rolｅｓand prｏｃesses that are rｅｑuireｄto deｖｅlop aｎd oｐｅrate sustａinaｂle bｕｉldinｇｓwith the ｓｕｐport of intｅgrａｔｅd ＩCＴfraｍeworks aｎdｔoｏｌs. Iｔpreseｎts the staｔe-ｏf－the－arｔｏf E ｕrｏｐean ｒｅsｅarｃh projeｃtsａnd ｓｏme ｏf theｆiｒｓｔｒeaｌcases of BIM ａｐplｉｃａｔioｎin hospitalｂuilｄing projｅcts．KeywoｒdｓEuｒope, Hoｓpiｔals，Tｈe Netheｒlａnds, Ｃｏｎstrｕctiｏn ｗoｒks，Ｒｅsponsｅｆlexiｂｉlｉty，PrｏjｅcｔplａnｎinｇPaper type Genｅral reｖiew1. IｎtroduｃtｉonHosｐitaｌbuilｄｉng ｐroｊects, aｒｅｏf kｅｙimｐortanｃｅ,and involｖe ｓignifｉcａnt invｅstment, ａnd usuaｌlｙｔake a lonｇ-ｔerm ｄeｖeｌoｐmentｐｅriｏｄ. Ｈoｓpital ｂuildｉng pｒｏｊｅｃts are alsｏvｅry complｅx ｄue to the comｐlicated rｅquiremenｔｓｒegardiｎｇhｙgienｅ,safetｙ, spｅcial equiｐments，and handlｉｎg ｏf ａlａrｇｅaｍount of dａta.Theｂuilding proｃess ｉsｖｅｒy dynaｍic aｎd ｃoｍｐrisｅs iterative phaｓeｓanｄintermediａｔe ｃｈａnｇes．Mａny actｏrs wiｔh shiｆtiｎg ａgendaｓ, roｌes aｎd rｅｓponsｉbilitiｅs ａre actively i ｎvoｌvｅd, sｕｃhａｓ: ｔｈe healｔhｃaｒe inｓtiｔutｉons, nationａl andｌocal ｇoｖernmｅｎts，prｏject develoｐers,fiｎanciａl instｉtutiｏns，arcｈitecｔs，contr ａｃtors,advisoｒs, facｉliｔy mａnagers, and ｅquiｐｍent manuｆactureｒs aｎｄｓuppｌiｅrs. Such bｕiｌding projｅctｓaｒｅveｒy much inｆluencｅｄ, by the ｈe ａｌｔhcarｅpoｌｉcy, whｉｃｈｃhanges rapｉdly in rｅsｐonse to the medical,soｃietal and tｅchnoｌｏgical ｄevelopｍents, aｎd ｖａrieｓｇrｅatly betweｅn countries （World Health Orgａnizatｉon,2０00）．IｎThｅＮeｔｈerlanｄs, for exａmｐlｅ, the way a buildiｎg projｅcｔin the ｈｅaltｈｃare sector iｓｏrganisedｉs undergｏing a major rｅform due to ａfunｄameｎtaｌcｈangｅin the Duｔchｈｅalth ｐoliｃy that waｓinｔrｏｄuced ｉn 2０08．The ｒapidly chanｇing conｔeｘt posts a need for ａbｕilｄiｎg withｆlexibilitｙoveｒits lifｅｃｙcｌe.In ordｅr tｏincorpｏrateｌｉｆe-cycleｃｏnsiderationｓin tｈe builｄing desｉgｎ，consｔrucｔion technique，ａnｄfacｉlｉty ｍanagemeｎｔsｔrateｇｙ, a muｌtｉdiscｉｐlinａry collaｂｏration iｓｒeqｕired. Dｅｓpiｔe the a ｔｔempt for eｓtaｂlｉｓhing inｔegrated colｌａboration, healtｈcａre buｉlｄing projectsｓｔilｌfaces serioｕs proｂlems in pｒaｃｔｉcｅ, such ａs:buｄgｅt oｖerrun, delａy,anｄsｕb－ｏｐtimaｌquality in ｔerms of ｆlｅxｉｂiliｔy,end-usｅr’ｓdissａtisｆactｉｏn，and enｅrｇｙinｅfficｉenｃy.It iｓevidｅnt tｈat tｈe laｃk ｏf communicａtion ａndｃoordinａtion betwｅｅn tｈe aｃtorｓinｖoｌved in the differｅnt phases of ａbuilｄiｎg prｏject is aｍonｇtｈe ｍosｔimｐorｔant reａsoｎs behind tｈese ｐrobｌｅmｓ. The coｍｍｕnicatｉｏn ｂetｗeen ｄiｆｆereｎｔstaｋeｈｏｌderｓbｅcomeｓｃｒitical, as each sｔakｅholder possesses dｉffｅrent ｓeｔoｆskilｌs. Ａｓa result,theｐrocｅssｅｓｆｏr exｔractｉon, iｎｔeｒpretａtiｏn, an ｄcｏmmｕｎicationｏf comｐlex design inｆoｒmatｉｏn fｒoｍdrawings aｎd doｃｕmｅｎts arｅｏｆten time－consumｉｎg and dｉffiｃult. Aｄvanced ｖｉsuaｌisation ｔｅchnologiｅs, like 4Ｄｐlannｉng have tｒemendｏus potentｉal to increasｅthｅcommｕnicatｉon efｆiciency anｄinterpretａtiｏｎａbiliｔy ｏｆthe ｐrｏjecｔtｅam mｅmbers. Hｏwever, tｈｅir use aｓaｎeｆfeｃtive communicatｉon tool is sｔill li ｍｉted and ｎｏt fuｌly explored(Dａwoｏd and Sikka, 2008). There are ａlｓo ｏthe ｒbａｒriers in the informatioｎｔｒａｎsfer anｄｉnteｇratioｎ,ｆor insｔａnce: ｍa ｎｙeｘisｔｉnｇＩCT syｓtｅms do noｔsuppｏrt thｅｏpenness of ｔhe ｄata aｎd ｓtructure tｈat isｐrｅrｅqｕisitｅforａｎefｆective collaｂoｒａtioｎbeｔween differｅnt builｄing aｃtorｓｏr disｃipｌｉnes.Ｂuildinｇinformａtion modｅlliｎg (ＢIM) ｏｆfｅrｓan integｒaｔeｄsolution tｏｔhe prｅviousｌy ｍｅnｔioneｄpｒoｂlｅms. Tｈereｆoｒe，ＢIＭis increasｉnｇlｙuｓｅｄas an ICT support iｎcｏmｐlex buildinｇprojecｔｓ.An effec ｔive multｉdisｃipｌiｎary cｏｌlabｏration sｕpporｔeｄby an optimaｌuse oｆＢIM reｑuire chaｎｇing roｌes ofｔhe cｌients, ａrchitects,anｄcｏntrａcｔoｒs；new coｎtｒactual reｌaｔionships；anｄrｅ-orｇanisedｃollａbｏrａtｉｖe procｅｓses．Uｎfortunaｔely, theｒｅareｓtill gaｐs in ｔｈe practｉcaｌknowleｄｇe on how to manage tｈｅbuｉldｉng acｔｏrs to collaｂoｒate effeｃtｉvｅlｙin tｈeir cｈangｉｎg roles，and tｏｄｅveｌｏｐａnｄutiｌise ＢIMａｓａｎoptimal ICＴsupｐort ofｔhe collaboratｉｏｎ.Thｉs ｐapｅr prｅｓenｔs a geｎeral ｒeviｅw oｆthｅｐｒacticａl ｉmｐlications of buiｌdiｎgｉｎformation modelling (BIＭ) basｅd on literature reｖieｗａｎd ｃase ｓｔuｄｉeｓ. In the ｎｅxt ｓeｃtｉｏnｓ, based on lｉterａtuｒe and recenｔfindingｓfrｏm European reseaｒch pｒojeｃt IｎPｒo，thｅframework for integｒated cｏllabｏration and the usｅｏf ＢIM aｒe analyｓed. Sｕbsequｅnｔlｙ, ｔｈｒougｈth ｅobservaｔｉon of twｏoｎｇoｉnｇpiloｔprojects ｉｎＴhｅＮetherｌａnds，the changing roｌes oｆcｌients, aｒcｈitｅcts, and coｎtrａcｔoｒs throｕgh ＢIM apｐlicatｉon aｒｅinｖｅstigaｔｅd．Iｎｃｏncｌusiｏn, ｔhｅcrｉticａl sucｃess ｆａcｔors as ｗelｌａs the main barriers of a succesｓｆul ｉｎtegratｅd colｌabo ｒation usｉng BＩＭａre ｉdenｔiｆｉｅd.2．Chaｎｇｉng roｌes ｔhrouｇh iｎteｇrａteｄcollabｏration ａnｄliｆe-cｙｃlｅｄesign apｐｒoachesA hospital ｂuilｄiｎg prｏjeｃｔinvolves ｖarious actors, roles, and ｋnoｗledge ｄomａｉns.In Ｔｈe Nethｅrlands, theｃhangiｎg rolｅs of clients, architectｓ, andｃｏntｒactors iｎhospitａｌｂuiｌdinｇpｒojｅcｔs aｒe inｅvｉｔablｅｄｕｅtｈe n ｅw heａlthcaｒe policy.Ｐｒｅvioｕsｌy under ｔhe HealｔｈcaｒｅInstｉtｕtions Act(WTZi), healthcare ｉnｓtitutionｓｗｅre reｑuirｅd to ｏｂtain boｔh a liｃｅｎｓｅａnｄａｂuiｌｄing peｒmit ｆor new coｎstｒuctｉon projecｔs andｍa ｊｏｒrenovａtiｏns. Tｈe permｉt waｓｉｓsuｅｄｂｙｔｈe Dutch Minｉsｔry of Hｅalth. Ｔｈe healthｃare institutｉonｓwere then elｉgibｌe to receｉve financiａｌsupｐort ｆrｏm the govｅｒnmeｎｔ．Sｉnce 200８，neｗlegislaｔion oｎｔｈe managｅmeｎt of hｏｓｐiｔａl buildiｎg proｊects and real estatｅｈａｓcome ｉnto forｃe．In thiｓｎｅｗlｅgｉsｌａtｉon,ａpｅrmit fｏr ｈospital builｄinｇp ｒojｅctｕｎｄｅr the WTZi is nｏlongｅr obｌigatory, ｎｏr obtainaｂlｅ(Ｄutch Mｉｎisｔｒｙof Health, Ｗelfare and Ｓpoｒt, 2008)．Ｔhiｓchangｅaｌlows more ｆｒｅedom froｍｔheｓｔatｅ-directed poliｃy,ａｎd reｓｐｅctｉvely, ａllocates morｅｒespoｎsibilitｉes to the heaｌthｃaｒeｏｒganisatioｎs ｔo dｅal wiｔｈｔhｅfｉnancinｇand ｍanaｇeｍeｎｔof ｔheir reaｌestatｅ．Thｅnew poliｃy implies tｈat the healtｈcaｒe ｉｎsｔiｔutions arｅｆuｌly rｅｓｐonｓibｌe to manａge and fｉnaｎce thｅｉr bｕilｄingｐrｏjectｓａnｄrｅal ｅstａtｅ. Tｈｅgovｅrn ｍent’s suｐport ｆor ｔhｅcｏstsｏｆheａlthcａrｅｆaｃｉlｉｔiｅｓwill no lｏｎgeｒbe given separateｌy, ｂut ｗiｌl be included in thｅfｅeｆor hｅalthcare seｒｖices.This means that healthcａｒe iｎsｔiｔutｉons muｓt eａｒn back thｅir inveｓt ｍｅnt on rｅal estａｔe throｕgh tｈeir serｖiceｓ. Tｈis new policy ｉntends tｏstiｍulate suｓｔaｉnaｂlｅinnｏｖaｔｉons ｉn the design,pｒoｃuremeｎt ａnd man ａgement ｏf hｅalｔhｃａre ｂuildings, which wｉll coｎｔributｅｔｏefｆeｃtive and efｆicｉentｐriｍarｙｈealｔhcare serｖices．Thｅneｗstrateｇy for building ｐrojectｓａnd real ｅstate ｍanagemｅnt endｏrses ａn integrateｄcoｌｌabｏｒatｉon ａpprｏａch. In order to aｓsuｒe tｈe ｓusｔaｉnabiliｔｙｄurinｇconstrucｔioｎ,use，and mainｔeｎancｅ, tｈe end－ｕsｅrｓ, facilit ｙmａｎagers, contｒactors ａｎｄspeｃｉalisｔcoｎｔraｃtoｒｓneｅｄtｏbe in ｖoｌvｅd iｎtｈe plａｎnｉng and desｉgｎprocesses. Ｔhｅimplｉcａtioｎs of the neｗstrateｇｙａre rｅflecteｄin thｅｃhanｇing ｒoｌeｓoｆthe building aｃtors anｄiｎthｅneｗｐｒoｃuｒｅment method．In tｈe tradｉtional prｏcuremｅnｔmｅthod, ｔhe ｄesign, ａnd ｉtｓdetaｉlｓ, a ｒｅdevｅｌoped by the architeｃｔ，and ｄｅsign eｎgineｅrs. Theｎ,the ｃliｅnt (the healthcare ｉｎstituｔｉｏｎ) sｅｎds ａn ａｐplicatiｏn to thｅＭiｎistry ｏf Hea ｌth tｏｏｂtain an appｒovaｌoｎthｅbuildｉｎg pｅrmit aｎd the fiｎanciａl ｓu ｐporｔfroｍtｈe ｇovernment.Ｆolｌoｗing tｈis, a contｒacｔｏr ｉs selected tｈrough a ｔeｎｄｅr pｒｏcesｓtｈat emｐhａsiseｓtｈe ｓｅaｒｃh for the loｗest－pricｅｂidder．Dｕrｉｎg tｈe consｔｒｕｃtion ｐeriod,changes often tａke ｐlace du ｅto cｏnsｔructａbiliｔｙprｏblems ｏｆｔhe design anｄnｅw ｒequirｅmeｎtｓｆｒomｔhe cliｅｎt．Beｃａusｅｏf thｅhigh lｅvel of technical comｐlexiｔy,aｎd ｍoreoｖer，deｃｉsion－maｋinｇcompｌexitｉes，the whoｌe proｃesｓfroｍin ｉtｉatiｏｎｕntil delｉvery of a hospiｔal building pｒoject can take uｐto tｅn yeａrs timｅ. After the ｄelｉvery, the healtｈcａre iｎstitｕｔｉoｎiｓfully in charｇe ｏf the operation ｏf thｅfaciｌｉtieｓ.Rｅdeｓigns and chanｇes ａlso take pｌaｃe in the ｕｓe phase toｃope with ｎewｆunｃtionｓand develｏpmｅnts in tｈｅmｅｄical wｏｒｌd (van RｅｅｄｔDｏrｔland, 20０9)．Ｔhe inteｇrated procuremｅnt ｐｉcturｅsａnewｃonｔｒacｔual relatioｎship bｅtｗeｅn the paｒｔｉes invｏlveｄiｎa buｉldｉng prｏject. Inｓtead ｏｆa ｒeｌationｓhｉｐbｅtｗeen thｅｃlｉｅnt and architecｔfor desｉgn, aｎd tｈｅｃｌienｔaｎｄcｏnｔracｔｏr ｆoｒｃonstｒuction,in an integｒateｄpｒｏｃｕreｍeｎt the clienｔoｎly hｏｌds a ｃoｎtrａcｔuａl ｒｅｌatioｎｓhiｐｗith theｍａin ｐartｙthaｔis ｒｅspｏnsiｂｌe fｏr bｏth deｓiｇn and ｃoｎstruｃｔｉｏｎ( Joint Contｒacts Trｉbuｎaｌ,２007). Thｅtrａditionａl boｒdｅrs between tａskｓaｎd ｏccｕp ａtiｏnal grｏｕpｓｂeｃome blurｒｅd since aｒchiｔeｃｔs, ｃonsulｔｉng firmｓ, contrａcｔｏｒs, suｂｃonｔｒａctoｒs, ａnd suppliｅrs aｌｌstand on thｅsｕpply ｓidｅin the ｂuildiｎg prｏｃｅｓs ｗhile ｔhe cｌient oｎtheｄemaｎd sｉde．S ｕcｈｃonｆiguｒａtｉon ｐｕts tｈe archｉtect, ｅnｇｉｎeｅr and ｃontraｃｔoｒi ｎ a vｅry dｉffereｎt pｏsitioｎｔhａt inflｕenｃes ｎot only tｈeir roleｓ, bｕt also theｉｒresponsｉbiｌitiｅs, tasksａnd cｏmｍunicａtioｎwitｈthe clｉeｎt，the users，the tｅaｍandｏｔheｒstakeholdｅrs.The tranｓitioｎfroｍtraditｉonal to inｔegｒated procｕｒｅment meｔhod rｅquires a ｓhifｔｏｆmｉｎdset ｏｆtheｐaｒties ｏn boｔｈthｅdｅｍand and supply s ｉdｅs. Iｔis esseｎtiaｌｆor the cliｅnt anｄcｏntｒactoｒtｏhavｅaｆair ａｎd opeｎcｏlｌaboratｉon iｎwhｉch boｔh caｎopｔimalｌｙuse thｅｉｒcomｐe ｔencies．The ｅffectivenessｏf ｉntegrated collaborａｔion ｉs aｌso deteｒmineｄb ｙthe cｌｉent’s ｃapacｉty and ｓtrategy ｔo organizｅiｎnovative tenderiｎgｐｒｏcedures (Ｓeｂastian ｅｔａl.,2009).A neｗchallenge emerges in caｓe ｏｆpoｓitionｉｎg an ａrchitｅcｔｉn a pａｒｔnership with tｈe contractｏr ｉnｓｔead of ｗiｔｈｔhe cｌient.In ｃａｓｅｏｆthe ａｒchｉｔeｃｔeｎtｅrs ａpartnership ｗith thｅconｔｒactｏr, ａn imｐortant ｉｓsues is hｏw to ensuｒｅthe realｉsaｔion oｆtheａrｃhitecｔｕral vａluｅs as wel ｌaｓinnｏvative enｇinｅeｒｉng tｈrough an effiｃient construｃｔｉon proceｓs．Iｎanother ｃasｅ, thｅａrchitｅct can stａnd at the clienｔ’s side iｎa sｔraｔegic aｄvisoｒy role insteａd ｏf bｅing the dｅsｉgｎｅr. Iｎｔhis ｃase,thｅarchitect’s responｓibility is tranｓlating clienｔ’s reｑuirementｓanｄwishes intｏthｅarｃhiteｃtｕrａl vａｌuｅｓto bｅiｎcluｄeｄin the desigｎspecificatｉon, and eｖａluatｉng tｈe ｃontｒactｏr’s proｐosal agaiｎst this. Inａny of ｔhis nｅw roｌｅ,ｔhe ａrchiｔecｔｈolds tｈe resｐonsｉbiｌｉties aｓstaｋeholdeｒinｔerｅｓt facil ｉtatｏr, cｕstodiａn of customeｒvａlｕe and cuｓtodian of deｓigｎmoｄels.Tｈｅｔransition frｏm ｔｒaditioｎal to integｒatｅd prｏcurement mｅthod ａlso brings coｎseｑuｅｎces inｔhｅpayｍent scｈemeｓ．In ｔhe tｒadiｔiｏnal ｂuiｌdi ｎg procｅｓｓ, the hoｎｏrａriｕｍｆoｒthe archiｔeｃt iｓusuaｌly baseｄon ａpｅrcenｔage of the pｒoject cｏsts;this may siｍｐlｙmean ｔhat ｔhｅmorｅeｘpenｓiｖｅthe buｉlding is, the hｉgｈｅｒthe hｏｎoraｒｉｕm ｗiｌl ｂe. Thｅengiｎeer rｅceivｅs thｅhonorarｉum based on ｔhe complexiｔｙof ｔｈe design and the inteｎｓity of tｈe assignｍeｎｔ. A hｉgｈｌy complex buiｌding, which takｅｓ a nu ｍbeｒｏｆredｅsigns，is usｕally fａvourａｂleｆor tｈe eｎgineeｒs in terｍs ｏｆhonorａｒｉuｍ. Ａtradｉtiｏnaｌcontractoｒｕsually reｃeｉvｅs ｔhe comｍｉsｓion bａｓｅd ｏn tｈｅtender to coｎstrucｔtｈe bｕilding ａt tｈe lowesｔprice by ｍeｅtinｇthｅmiｎｉmum sｐecｉficａtionｓgiｖen by the clieｎt. Eｘtra worｋdue to modｉficatioｎs is chargｅd seｐaratｅly ｔo ｔhe client. After the deliveｒy, the c ｏｎtｒａｃtoｒis ｎo longer responｓiblｅｆｏr the long-term use of tｈｅbｕildiｎg. In the ｔraditｉonaｌpｒocurｅｍent ｍethod,aｌl rｉsks ａre pｌaced witｈthe c ｌiｅnt．In inｔegrated pｒoｃurｅｍeｎt method,thｅpａymenｔis ｂased ｏn thｅａｃhieved bｕildiｎｇperｆormａnce；thus, the pａyment ｉs non-aｄvｅｒsａrial. Since ｔh ｅaｒchitect，engiｎeerａnｄｃontracｔor haｖe a wideｒresponsibilitｙoｎｔhｅquａｌityｏf tｈe dｅsign ａnｄｔhe bｕilｄing，ｔhｅpaymｅｎｔis ｌinked to ａmeaｓurｅmｅnt syｓｔｅmｏｆtｈe fｕnctioｎａl aｎd techniｃａl pｅrfoｒmance ｏf thｅｂｕilding over a cｅrtain perｉod ｏf time.The ｈｏnorarium becomes an i ｎｃｅntiｖe tｏacｈiｅｖe the optｉmal qｕaliｔｙ. Iｆthe buildｉｎg actors suｃceｅd tｏｄeliver a higｈer added-vａluｅthat exｃeed ｔhｅｍｉnimum ｃｌient’s rｅquｉreｍenｔs, thｅy wｉｌl ｒeceive a bonuｓiｎaccoｒdａnce to the clｉent’s extra g ａin. Ｔhe level of trａnsparencyｉs aｌso iｍｐroｖｅd. Open book accouｎｔinｇiｓａｎexcellenｔinsｔruｍｅnt ｐroviｄed thatｔhe stakeholdｅrs agｒee oｎthe i ｎformatｉｏn ｔｏbｅshａred and to iｔｓlevel of dｅtaｉｌ(InPro，２00９)．Nexｔｔo ｔhe adoptｉon of integrated procurement method,thｅnewｒｅaｌｅstate strateｇy for hoｓｐｉｔａl bｕilding ｐrojｅcts adｄrｅsses aｎinnoｖative ｐro ｄuｃｔdevelｏpment ａｎｄlｉfｅ-cｙclｅｄesigｎａpｐroａｃhes. A suｓtａｉnaｂlｅbusiｎess case for the inｖeｓtment and eｘploitation of hoｓpital bｕildings relies on ｄｙnamic life-cyｃle maｎaｇeｍenｔthat includes cｏnｓiｄerations aｎd analysｉs of ｔhe market dｅvｅloｐｍent over time nexｔto thｅbuilｄing ｌife－cyｃle coｓts (iｎv ｅｓtment/inｉtial coｓt, operationaｌcoｓt，ａnｄｌｏgiｓtiｃｃｏst）. Ｃompared ｔｏtｈｅcoｎventiｏnａl liｆe-cycｌe ｃosting methｏｄ, the dynaｍiｃｌife-cycｌe maｎａｇemｅnt eｎcompaｓses a shifｔfｒom fｏｃusｉng oｎlｙｏｎminｉmｉzing the costs tｏfocｕsinｇon maximiｚｉｎg ｔhｅtotal benｅfit that can be gained. On ｅof tｈe ｄeｔerｍininｇfａctorｓfor a sucｃｅｓsｆul iｍｐlementａtioｎｏf ｄｙnａmｉｃlｉfｅ－ｃycｌｅmaｎagemenｔｉs tｈｅsｕstainabｌeｄesｉｇn oｆｔhe bｕilｄing andｂuildinｇcｏmpｏnents，ｗhich ｍeａｎｓthaｔthe dｅsign carｒi ｅs sufｆiciｅnt flexibility to ａccoｍｍｏdaｔeｐossible ｃhａngｅs in tｈｅloｎg ｔeｒm （Prinｓ,1９９2).Ｄｅsｉgｎｉng based on thｅprinciples of liｆe-cycle manaｇemenｔafｆeｃts th ｅrｏｌe ｏf thｅａｒchｉteｃt, as he needs tｏbe ｗell ｉnforｍed abｏut the uｓａge sｃenarioｓaｎd relatｅd fｉｎaｎcｉal arraｎgｅｍｅnts, the chａngiｎg ｓocial ａnd phyｓicaｌenｖirｏnmｅnts, and new technolｏgieｓ. Deｓｉgｎnｅeｄs tｏｉntegrate pｅｏｐle ａctiｖitｉes and bｕsｉｎeｓｓsｔｒategies ｏｖeｒtimｅ. In this cｏnｔeｘｔ, the ａｒｃhｉtect is ｒeｑuｉred ｔｏalign thｅdesign straｔeｇｉe ｓwｉtｈthe organisatiｏnal, local and global polｉcies ｏn fiｎａｎce, busineｓs opｅrations, healｔh and safｅtｙ, ｅnｖironment, etc.(Sebasｔiａｎet al., ２00９)．The cｏmｂinatioｎof procesｓand prｏｄucｔｉnnovatiｏn, aｎd the changinｇrｏlｅsｏf thｅbuｉldｉng actors can be accommodatｅd by integｒated proｊｅcｔdｅliv ｅry or ＩPD (ＡIA Cａlifornia Councｉl, 2０07)．IPD ｉs ａn approach tｈat iｎｔｅgrａtes pｅople，syｓtems, bｕsineｓs structurｅs and ｐracｔiceｓinto a pｒocess ｔhat ｃｏlｌaboraｔively ｈarnesses ｔｈe talｅntｓanｄiｎｓｉghts of ａll participａnｔs tｏrｅduce waste aｎｄｏpｔimizｅeffiｃiｅｎcy ｔhroｕｇｈall phases of ｄesign，ｆａｂｒｉｃation anｄｃonstrucｔion．IPＤpｒiｎcｉpleｓcan be ａpｐｌied ｔｏa vａriety oｆｃoｎtｒactualａrｒangemenｔs. IPD teａｍｓwill uｓually include ｍemｂｅｒｓｗell ｂeｙond the baｓiｃtrｉad of client, ａrchitect，and cｏnｔractｏr.At a minimum,ｔhｏｕgh, an ＩnteｇｒateｄPrｏject shoｕｌd incｌｕde a tｉｇｈt cｏllaboｒａｔion betweeｎtｈe ｃlient，the ａｒchitecｔ, aｎd thｅmａin cｏntra ｃtor uｌtｉmaｔely ｒesｐoｎsiblｅfor coｎstrucｔｉon of the proｊeｃt, from the early dｅｓignｕntil the pｒojeｃt handover．The key tｏa successｆul ＩＰD iｓassembl ｉｎｇａtｅam tｈaｔis commiｔteｄto ｃｏlｌａｂoratｉvｅpｒocesｓes and iｓcａpａbｌe of workiｎg toｇeｔheｒeｆfectiveｌy. IPD is built ｏn collａｂｏratiｏｎ. As a rｅｓｕlt, it can only ｂe ｓuccessful if thｅｐarｔiciｐantｓｓharｅａｎd apply comｍon ｖalueｓａnd goａls.3. Ｃhangiｎgｒｏles tｈrough BIM apｐlicatｉonBuｉlｄiｎg infoｒmation ｍodｅｌ(BIM) cｏmpriseｓＩCT frameworｋs aｎd toolｓthat caｎsupｐort the integraｔed colｌaboｒation ｂaｓed ｏｎlife-cycｌe ｄesiｇｎapproach. BIM iｓ a digｉtaｌrepresenｔａｔiｏn of physｉcａl ａnｄfunctｉoｎal characterisｔics of a faciliｔy.As sucｈiｔservｅs aｓ a shared knｏwledge rｅsouｒcｅfor information ａbout ａfacｉｌity ｆorｍing a rｅlｉaｂlｅbasis for dｅciｓｉｏns duringｉts lｉfｅｃyclｅfrｏm ｉnceｐtion ｏnwaｒd (Ｎatｉoｎal Institｕte of Building Scieｎces NIBS，20０7）. BIMｆacilitatｅｓtiｍe and ｐlａcｅiｎｄｅpenｄent collabｏｒａｔive ｗoｒking. A bａsｉｃｐｒemise of BIM iｓcollaborａtion by dｉffereｎt stakehoｌdｅrs at ｄiffeｒenｔphａｓes of the life cyｃle oｆa faci ｌｉty tｏiｎｓert, exｔｒact, upｄaｔe or modify ｉnfｏrmaｔion in ｔhｅBIM to ｓuｐport anｄreflect tｈe rｏｌeｓof that stakeholder．BIM ｉn iｔｓｕｌtｉmａte form, ａs ａsｈarｅd diｇｉｔａl rｅｐrｅｓentａｔion fouｎded on opｅｎsｔandaｒｄs foｒｉntｅｒoｐｅｒability，can becoｍe a virtualｉnfoｒｍation modｅl to be h ａnded from the ｄｅsigｎteam to thｅｃｏnｔrａcｔor and suｂcontｒactｏrs ａnd t ｈen to the clｉent (Sebaｓtiａｎet ａl., ２0０９)．BIＭis ｎot the ｓame ａs the earlier knoｗｎcｏmpｕter aided dｅｓｉｇn(CAD）. BIM goes furtｈer than an aｐplicａtiｏn to gｅｎerate digiｔal (2D or３Ｄ）ｄrawiｎgs (Brattｏn,２00９). BＩM ｉs ａn integrａted model ｉｎｗｈich all pｒｏcess and pｒｏduｃt inｆormation is combｉned，stored，eｌaｂoｒatｅｄ, and interacｔively disｔｒi ｂuted tｏall relｅvａｎt buiｌdinｇacｔors．As a centｒａl model ｆｏr alｌｉnvolveｄａcｔors thｒoughouｔthｅprojｅｃt ｌifecyclｅ,BIM deｖelｏps and evolves as the projeｃt prｏgressｅs．Using BIＭ,ｔｈe propｏsed deｓｉgn ａｎdｅngiｎeeｒiｎg solｕtiｏnｓｃan be mｅasｕred against ｔhｅｃlｉent’s rｅｑｕiｒｅmentsａｎdｅxpectｅｄbuilｄing perｆoｒmaｎce．Ｔhe ｆｕｎｃtｉonalｉtiｅs of BIＭto supｐort thｅdesiｇn process exteｎd to mulｔｉdｉmensiｏnal (nD), incluｄing: ｔhｒee-diｍeｎsional visuａlisatioｎandｄeｔailiｎg,cｌａsh detection,ｍa ｔerｉal schedule,planning, cost esｔimate，prodｕction aｎｄlｏgistic ｉnfｏrｍation, aｎd ａs-ｂｕilt documｅnｔｓ.Ｄuｒing tｈe construction procｅｓs, BIM can support the coｍmunication between thｅbuilｄiｎｇsiｔe，the facｔorｙaｎd the ｄeｓign office–whicｈis crucｉaｌfｏｒan effｅctive aｎd efｆiｃient ｐreｆabricaｔion and aｓsemｂｌy procｅsseｓas well ａｓto ｐrｅｖeｎt oｒｓolｖe prｏblｅms rｅlａted ｔｏｕnfｏｒesｅen eｒｒors or modｉｆicaｔｉons. When tｈｅbuilding is in use, BIＭcan bｅｕsed in cｏｍbinａtｉoｎwitｈthe intｅlｌigent bｕildiｎg sysｔemｓto ｐｒｏvide aｎd maｉｎtaｉn up－to-ｄａｔe inｆｏrmａｔiｏnｏｆｔhe b ｕiｌｄing performancｅ, ｉｎcｌｕdinｇtｈｅｌife-cyｃlｅcｏｓt.Ｔo unleashｔhe full potｅnｔiaｌof mｏreｅffｉcienｔinformａｔion exchan ｇeｉn the ＡＥC/FM iｎdustｒy in collaｂoｒａtivｅworking uｓｉｎｇＢIＭ, both highｑuａlity oｐeｎｉnternａｔiｏnal ｓtandards anｄhｉgh quａlitｙimｐleｍeｎtations of theｓe standardｓmｕst ｂｅin ｐｌace. The IFC openｓtaｎｄarｄiｓgen ｅrally ａgreed to be oｆhigh quａlｉty and is widｅly ｉmｐｌemeｎtｅd ｉn softwaｒe. Unfortｕnａtely,the ｃeｒtificaｔiｏｎprｏcess alｌoｗs pｏor qｕａlityｉmplemeｎｔatiｏns tｏbｅcｅrｔifiedａｎd ｅsｓｅntially rｅnｄｅrs theｃertified softwarｅｕsｅlｅss ｆor anｙpraｃtiｃａl ｕｓａge witｈIFC. IＦCｃompliant BIＭis actuaｌｌｙused ｌess than ｍａnｕal ｄraｆtinｇfoｒａrchitecｔｓand contｒａctorｓ, aｎd show aｂout the sａme ｕｓagｅfｏr eｎgineeｒｓ. Ａｒecent surｖey shｏws thaｔCＡD(as a closｅd-systeｍ）ｉｓstill the mａjｏr forｍoｆｔechniｑｕe ｕsed in desｉgn worｋ(over 6０ｐeｒcenｔ）whｉle ＢＩM ｉs uｓeｄiｎarｏｕｎd 20 ｐercenｔoｆｐｒoｊectｓfor arｃｈｉｔｅcts aｎｄiｎarounｄ10 ｐer cent ｏｆprojecｔｓfor engｉneeｒs anｄｃｏntracｔｏrs (Ｋｉviniemi et al．，2００8）.The aｐｐlicaｔｉoｎof ＢＩＭto sｕppoｒt an oｐｔimal cross－ｄiｓciｐｌｉnary aｎｄcrｏss－phａse coｌlabｏratｉon oｐensａneｗdimenｓion in the roles ａnｄｒelatｉoｎshｉｐs between tｈｅｂｕilding actorｓ. Several mｏst rｅlevanｔiｓsueｓａre：the new role oｆａｍｏdel mａｎager；ｔhe ａｇreｅment ｏn ｔｈe ａcc ｅss rｉght and Intellecｔual Property Right（IPR）；the liabiｌity anｄpaymeｎt a ｒｒangeｍenｔaccorｄing tｏthｅtype ｏf contraｃt and ｉn reｌatｉon tｏthe integｒateｄprocｕrement; anｄtｈeｕse oｆopen ｉnｔernatiｏnａl standaｒds．Colｌaboraｔive workｉng using BＩM deｍands a new expｅｒt roｌe oｆa mｏd ｅl ｍanaｇer ｗｈo ｐossesｓes ICT ａs wｅll ａs coｎsｔruｃtion pｒocesｓknｏw-how （IｎPro,2009). Ｔhe mｏｄel manager dealsｗith tｈｅsystem as ｗelｌas withｔhe aｃtorｓ. He ｐrｏviｄes and ｍainｔaiｎs technｏlogｉcal solutｉons rｅqｕiｒｅd for BＩMｆｕｎｃtionalities, mａｎageｓｔｈｅinｆormａｔionｆlow, ａnｄimｐｒovｅs the ICＴｓkｉlls of tｈe stａｋｅhoｌders．Ｔｈe modeｌmａnａger doeｓnｏt takｅｄecisionｓoｎｄｅsign ａnｄeｎgineeｒing sｏluｔｉｏns, nor ｔhｅorganｉsaｔional procesｓes, but his rｏles in the ｃｈaｉn ｏｆdｅcisｉon ｍaking are focuｓed oｎ:●thｅdｅvelopment ofＢIＭ,theｄefinitｉon oｆthｅstructｕrｅand detailｌｅvel ofｔhｅmｏdel, and tｈｅdeｐloymenｔof relevant BＩM toｏｌs, ｓｕch as forｍｏｄｅｌs cｈecking，meｒgiｎｇ, ａnd clash dｅteｃtｉｏｎs;●ｔhe contriｂution tｏｃollａboｒａtion meｔhodｓ, esｐecially decision ｍakｉngand commｕnication pｒｏtoｃolｓ, taｓｋplaｎning, ａnd rｉsk managｅｍent;●anｄthe manageｍｅｎt of iｎforｍatiｏｎ, in ｔeｒms of ｄata fｌｏw anｄstｏｒａｇe, identｉｆicatiｏn of commｕnicatｉoｎerrors, anｄdｅcisｉon oｒproｃess (re－）trackｉnｇ.Regaｒdｉng tｈe lｅgal and organｉsatｉonal iｓsues, oｎｅof the aｃtuaｌquesｔｉons iｓ: “In whａt waｙdoes the inｔellｅctual proｐerty right (IＰＲ）ｉn cｏllab ｏｒaｔive ｗｏrｋingｕsing BIM ｄiffer ｆrom tｈe IＰR inａｔｒａｄitioｎａl ｔeａｍｗｏrk?”. Ｉn tｅrms ｏf combiｎed ｗork, the IＰRｏf eachｅlemｅnt iｓattａcheｄto ｉts ｃｒeatoｒ.Ａltｈougｈｉt sｅemｓｔｏbe a fulｌy inｔeｇrat ｅd design,BIM aｃtuａllyｒesulted frｏm a coｍｂinatiｏｎof woｒks/eｌeｍｅｎts; ｆor ｉnstaｎcｅ:the oｕｔliｎｅof the builｄing dｅsｉgn，ｉs creaｔｅｄby the arｃhitect, the design forｔhe eleｃｔｒicａl sysｔeｍ, is creatｅｄby the electricaｌcｏｎtractoｒ, ｅｔc.Thｕs, iｎcasｅｏf BＩＭａｓa combinｅd wｏrｋ, the ＩPR is similａｒｔo ｔraｄitiｏnal teamworｋ．Workｉng witｈBIM with aｕthorｓｈｉｐregistｒaｔioｎfunctionａlｉtiesｍay actuaｌly make it eaｓier to kｅｅp track o ｆtｈe ＩPR(Chａo-Ｄuｉｖｉs,200９）.Ｈｏw ｄoes colｌａborative ｗｏrｋinｇ,using ＢIM, effect tｈe cｏntractuaｌrelatｉonｓhip? Ｏn the one hand，collaｂoratｉve wｏrking uｓingＢIM dｏes noｔｎｅcｅssaｒｉly chaｎgeｔｈe liａbilｉtyｐositｉoｎiｎtｈe ｃonｔract nor does ｉt obligate aｎallｉaｎcｅcontｒact. The GenerａｌＰriｎciｐles of BIM Ａdｄendum con ｆirｍs: ‘Ｔhis ｄoes not effeｃtuaｔe or rｅquire ａrestrucｔurｉｎg of cｏntrａｃｔual relaｔｉonships or shiftｉnｇof riｓks between ｏr aｍｏng ｔhe ProjecｔＰaｒｔi ｃipants other than as spｅｃificａｌly required per tｈe ProtocｏlＡddendum aｎd itｓＡttａchmenｔs’(ConseｎsusＤOCS, ２00８). On the oｔhｅｒhand, ｃhanges iｎtｅrms of paymeｎｔscｈemes cａn ｂe antｉcipated. Colｌaｂorativｅprocesｓes uｓiｎg ＢIM ｗilｌlead to the shifting of ａｃｔivitiｅｓｆｒom to ｔｈｅｅarｌy dｅsｉgn phaｓe. Much，ｉf ｎot all,actiｖiｔiｅs iｎtｈe ｄetaileｄengineｅrｉｎg and s ｐecification phasｅｗill ｂe ｄoｎe ｉｎthe earlｉｅｒｐhaｓes. It mｅaｎs ｔhat ｓignificａnt paｙmｅnt ｆｏｒｔhe engineeriｎg phａｓe，whicｈmay cｏunｔup ｔo ４０per ｃeｎt oｆtｈe deｓｉgn cｏst,ｃａｎnｏlonger be eｘpｅcｔed. As engｉneｅring woｒk is done concｕrｒｅntly with the ｄesign, a new ｐroportioｎof the ｐayment in the earlｙｄesｉgn phase is nｅcessary（Cｈao-Dｕiｖｉs, ２009).４.Ｒeviｅw ｏｆoｎgｏiｎg ｈospitａｌbｕilding projｅcｔs usｉng BＩM IｎTｈeＮetｈerlands,tｈe cｈangｉng ｒoles ｉnｈospital buiｌdｉng proj ｅcts are ｐart of tｈｅstrateｇy,which ａims at acｈieving ａsustaｉnable real ｅstate in ｒｅsｐｏnｓｅｔo ｔｈe ｃhanｇing hｅalthcａre policｙ.Reｆｅrring tｏｌiterａｔure aｎd prevｉouｓreｓeａrch, tｈe maｉn ｆaｃtors tｈａtｉｎflueｎｃｅthe suｃcess of tｈe chaｎｇing roｌeｓcan be ｃｏｎclｕｄｅd ａs: the iｍplemｅnｔat ｉｏn oｆａｎiｎtegrateｄprocuｒeｍenｔmetｈｏｄand a ｌｉｆｅ-cｙcle desｉgn apprｏach fｏr a sustａinable cｏlｌaboｒative pｒoｃess; ｔｈe aｇrｅｅmenｔon the BIＭsｔｒｕｃｔure and ｔｈe iｎｔｅlleｃtｕal rigｈts;and the inｔegratiｏn of tｈe ｒole oｆa modeｌmanａｇer. The ｐreｃedｉng seｃｔｉons haveｄisｃussｅd the coｎceptual tｈinｋing on how tｏdｅal wｉｔh these factors effｅｃtiveｌy．This cｕrrenｔｓecｔion obｓerｖes twｏactual projｅctｓａｎｄcoｍpares tｈe actual pｒactice wｉｔh tｈe ｃｏｎcｅptual viｅｗrｅsｐecｔively．Thｅｍａiｎissues,ｗhiｃh ａre oｂｓｅrved in the case studies,ａre:●the seleｃtｅｄprocurｅmenｔmetｈｏd and the rolｅｓof the iｎvolveｄpａrties ｗithｉn ｔhisｍeｔhod；●thｅimｐlemｅnｔatｉｏn of theｌife-cｙｃｌe design ａpｐrｏacｈ;●the type,struｃture, and fｕnctｉonaｌitiｅs of BIM uｓeｄiｎthe pｒoject；●tｈe opｅｎnｅｓｓiｎdata sharing and traｎsferｏf thｅmoｄｅｌ,and the ｉntenｄed ｕsｅof BIＭin thｅfｕｔuｒe; ａnd●thｅｒoles aｎd tａsks oｆthe mｏdel manageｒ.The pilot expeｒienｃｅoｆｈoｓpiｔaｌｂuilｄｉng projecｔs ｕsiｎg BIＭｉn the Netherlands cａn be oｂｓeｒved aｔUniverｓity Mｅdical Cｅnｔｒe St Rａd ｂoud （ｆurtｈeｒrefｅrrｅd ａs UMＣ) and MａｘｉmａMediｃalＣeｎtre (ｆｕrtｈer rｅferred ａs MMC). At UＭC, the new buildｉng proｊecｔｆｏｒthe Faｃultｙof Dｅntiｓtryｉn the cｉty of Nijmeｇen has bｅen dedｉcateｄas a BIＭpilot prｏjｅｃt. At MMC，BIM is uｓed in designiｎｇnew bｕｉlｄings for Ｍedｉcal Siｍuｌａt ｉｏn and Moｔhｅｒ-and-ChｉlｄCenｔre ｉn ｔhｅcｉtyｏf Vｅｌdhoveｎ.The fiｒｓt case is a prｏjecｔａt thｅＵniversiｔy Medicａl Cｅntrｅ(UＭC) ＳｔRadｂoud. UMC iｓmore tｈａｎｊｕsｔ a hospital. UMC comｂineｓmediｃａｌsｅｒvicｅs,educaｔionａｎd resｅａrch. Ｍｏre tｈan85０0 staｆf ａnd30０0 sｔｕdents ｗoｒk at UMC. Aｓ a pａｒｔof the iｎnovａtive real estate ｓtrａtegｙ, ＵMC ｈaｓｃｏnsiｄered to ｕse ＢIM foｒits bｕiｌding proｊects. The ｎｅw ｄevelｏｐmｅnt oｆthe Ｆacuｌｔy ｏf Deｎtistｒy and the surrｏundｉng buildin ｇs on thｅKapitｔelweg in Nｉjmeｇen has beｅn chｏsｅn ａs a pilotｐｒoject tｏｇathｅr practiｃａl knowleｄge and experieｎｃe oｎcollaborａｔiｖe ｐrocesses with BIM ｓuｐport.The ｍaiｎaｍbition ｔo ｂe achieved ｔhrough the use oｆBIＭin ｔhe buildingｐrojects at UMC can be summａrised as ｆollows：●using 3D vｉsualisatioｎto eｎhance theｃoｏrdｉｎａtｉon ａｎd cｏmmunｉｃaｔion aｍongｔhe bｕiｌdiｎｇactoｒs，and tｈe ｕsｅr ｐarticｉpatｉoｎiｎdeｓiｇｎ;●ｆacilitａｔｉｎg optimal inｆｏｒmaｔion accessibｉlity and eｘｃｈangｅfor ahigh●conｓistｅｎｃyｏｆｔｈｅdrawingｓａnｄdｏｃumｅnts aｃross disciｐｌines and pｈases;●iｎtｅgrating thｅａrcｈiｔeｃtuｒal deｓｉgn wiｔｈsｔruｃｔｕral anaｌyｓiｓ,enｅrgy analysis，cost esｔｉmation,anｄpｌanninｇ;●inteｒaｃtively eｖａｌuaｔinｇｔhe desigｎｓolutiｏnsａgａinst tｈe prｏgramｍe of requiremｅntｓａnd specificatiｏns；●reducinｇrｅｄｅsign／rｅmakｅcosts ｔhrouｇｈclaｓh ｄetection dｕring ｔhedeｓｉgn prｏcess; and●optimｉsｉｎg thｅｍaｎａgement oｆthe faciｌiｔy throuｇh thｅregiｓｔrａtion of meｄical iｎsｔallatioｎs ａnd equiｐｍents, fｉxedａnｄfｌｅｘibｌe furniture, ｐｒoｄuct ａｎｄouｔput spｅｃｉfications,andｏpｅrational ｄata.Ｔhｅsｅcｏnd ｃａse iｓ a pｒoject ａt tｈe Mａxiｍa Mｅdical Ceｎtre (MMC).ＭＭC is ａｌａrgｅhｏspiｔal resｕｌtｅd from a ｍeｒgeｒbｅtｗeen the Ｄｉａconｅｓsenｈuis ｉｎEindhoven and Ｓt ＪｏsepｈHospｉtａl in Veｌｄhoven. Ａｎnuaｌlｙthe3,４0０staｆｆof MMC provides meｄiｃaｌsｅrｖiｃesｔo mｏrｅthan 4５0,000 vｉsitorｓaｎｄｐatients. A ｌaｒge-scaled extenｓｉon projｅct of ｔhe hｏｓpｉtal iｎＶelｄhoｖeｎis a ｐaｒt oｆｉts real estaｔe ｓｔratｅgy. A ｍedi ｃal siｍulation ｃｅntｒe anｄ a womeｎ-and-childｒeｎmedicaｌｃeｎtre aｒe ａmong the mｏst imｐortantｎew facilities ｗｉthiｎｔhis eｘtensｉon pｒojeｃt.Th ｅｄesign hａｓbeen deveｌoped uｓｉng３Ｄmodelling wiｔh sｅｖeｒal fｕnctionａｌitieｓofＢIM.The fｉｎdｉngs from boｔh ｃａｓｅs ａｎｄthe aｎａlysｉs are ａs folｌows. Ｂoth ＵMC aｎd MMC opted fｏr a traｄiｔｉonal pｒｏcuｒeｍent meｔhod ｉn which th ｅclieｎt dｉrecｔlyｃontｒactｅd an architｅct, aｓtrｕctural engineer, ａndａmecｈanicaｌ, elecｔriｃａｌａnd plumbing (MＥP）consultant in ｔhｅdesｉgn team. Oncｅthe desｉgn ａnd detａileｄspecifiｃaｔｉons ａre finisｈｅｄ, a teｎdｅr ｐrｏcedｕrｅwill ｆｏllow ｔo ｓeｌecｔａcｏntrａｃtｏr. Ｄeｓｐitｅthe cｈｏice foｒtｈis tｒaditionalｍethoｄ, mａnｙａｔtｅmpts have ｂeeｎmade for a clｏsｅｒa ｎd ｍoｒe effectｉve mｕltｉｄisciｐlinary colｌaｂｏratｉon. ＵＭC dedicated a relaｔivel ｙlｏng prｅpａｒaｔion ｐhａse ｗith the architect，stｒuctural enginｅｅr and MEＰcｏｎsultant bｅfore tｈe deｓigｎcommeｎｃｅd. This preparation ｐhaｓｅwａs aimeｄat creaｔing a ｃoｍmon viｓion on tｈe optimａl way for ｃollaboratｉｏn us ｉng ＢＩM as aｎICT sｕppｏrt．Some resｕｌts of thｉs prｅparaｔion phａse ａr ｅ：ａdｏcumeｎt ｔhａtｄefinｅs the common ambitiｏn for the pｒｏjｅｃｔaｎｄthe coｌlaborａtiｖｅworｋiｎg pｒｏｃess anｄ a sｅmｉ-forｍａl agrｅｅｍent ｔhat stａtes thｅcommitmｅnt of the bｕilｄing ａctｏrsｆor ｃｏｌlabｏｒatｉｏn. Othｅr ｔhan UMC，MＭＣsｅlecｔedａn ａrｃhitｅcｔuｒe ｆｉrm ｗith an i ｎ-hｏuse ｅｎgineeｒing dｅｐａrtment. Thus，ｔhe collabｏration betｗeeｎｔhe ａrchiｔｅcｔaｎd strｕcｔｕral ｅnginｅer cａn ｔakeｐlace wｉthｉn the sａmｅfｉr ｍuｓｉng thｅsａmｅsoftware ａｐplicatｉoｎ.Regａrding the liｆe-ｃycle desiｇn aｐproａch, thｅｍaiｎatｔｅntｉoｎｉｓgiven on life-cyｃle coｓｔs, mａinｔｅnanｃe needs，and facilｉtｙmanagemen ｔ．Usiｎg BIM,boｔｈhospitａls inｔend to ｇｅt a mｕcｈbｅtｔｅrｉnｓighｔin thｅsｅaspeｃｔs over the ｌife-cyｃle ｐｅｒiｏd. Ｔhe lifｅ-cｙcle ｓusｔaiｎａb ｉliｔy cｒiｔeｒｉa are ｉｎｃluｄｅｄin tｈｅａssiｇnmｅｎts fｏr the dｅsiｇn teams. Multidｉsciplinaryｄeｓｉgｎｅrｓａｎd ｅnginｅｅｒs are aｓｋｅｄto collａbｏｒate moｒe closｅly ａnd to interact ｗith tｈe ｅｎd-uｓｅrs to addｒess ｌife-cycle reqｕiremｅnts. Hｏwever,ｅnｓuｒｉng tｈe ｂｕiｌdinｇａcｔｏrs to engagｅiｎａｎintegrａtｅｄｃollaboration toｇeneｒate sustainａｂｌｅdesiｇn ｓolutiｏns thaｔmｅet tｈｅliｆe-cyｃle ｐeｒfｏｒｍａncｅexpeｃｔatioｎs is sｔill d ｉffiｃult. Ｔhesｅａｃｔoｒｓａｒe ｃontractｅd thrｏｕｇh a traditionａl prｏcurｅｍeｎｔmeｔhod. Ｔｈeir tａsｋs ａre specific，their inｖolvｅment is rather sｈort－term iｎ a cerｔａin prｏｊecｔphase,thｅｉr reｓpoｎsｉbilities and ｌiabilitieｓaｒｅlimited，aｎd there is no ｔanｇible inceｎｔive for ｉｎｔeｇratｅd collａbｏration.Frｏｍthe ｃｕrｒeｎｔprogrｅss oｆｂoth projects, ｉt ｃan be obsｅrved thａt ｔhe typｅand structurｅof ＢＩＭrｅlies heａｖilｙon the choice for BIM software ａpplicａｔｉons．RevｉｔArｃhitecture aｎd RevｉｔStructure by Autoｄesk。
工程管理专业,外文翻译资料
外文资料翻译资料来源：文章名:Predicting Effectiveness of Construction Project Management: Decision-Support Tool for Competitive Bidding书刊名：An International Journal作者：Rasa Apanaviciene, Arvydas Juodis出版社：国际杂志，2006章节：V ol.6, No.3 / September - December 2006页码：P347~P360文章译名：建设工程项目管理的预测功效：用于决策支持工具竞争性招标姓名：学号：指导教师(职称)：专业：班级：所在学院：外文原文Predicting Effectiveness of Construction Project Management: Decision-Support Tool for Competitive Bidding1.IntroductionConstruction projects are delivered under conditions of risk in the competitive market environment. The origin of risk is the uncertainty inherent to any project, and every risk is associated with a cause, a consequence and the probability or likelihood of the event occurring. There are external risks (economic, political, financial and environmental) and internal risks based on project management issues, i.e. projects manager's and his team competency, experience, strategic and tactic decisions made during construction project delivery. The opportunity to improve organizational performance through more effective project management could provide substantial savings for construction management company. Project management effectiveness depends on certain factors of project management system. The literature review revealed a substantial volume of work on measuring or identifying the factors or conditions contributing to the effectiveness of construction projects. There are three main trends of previous research on construction project success factors:●key factors identification for construction project success [Jaselskis et. A1.(1991);Sanvido et. A1. (1992); Chua et. A1. (1997)];●identification of key success factors for a particular group of construction projects,e.g.BOT, design-build, public-private partnerships [Tiong (1996);Molenaar et. A1. (2001);Chan et. AI. (2001), Zhang (2005), Shen et. A1.(2005)];●analysis of a particular factor impact on construction project success [Cheng et. A1.(2000); Bower et. A1. (2002); Ford (2002)].Some writers were attempting to develop predictive models while others focused on generating a list of practices. Predictive models developed to identify the key factors and to measure their impact on overall project success were using regression and correlation techniques, factor analysis, Monte-Carlo simulation, experts and multicriteria decision-making support methods. Essentially in these approaches the functional relationships between the input factors and project outcome is assumed and tested against the data. The relationships are modified and retested until the models that best fit the data are found.When developing construction project management effectiveness model (CPMEM) referred to here, the writers attempted to cull the best aspects of artificial neural networks (ANN) methodology. The neural network approach does not require an a priori assumption of the functional relationship. Artificial neural networks are very useful because of their functional mapping properties and the ability to learn from examples. Networks have been compared with many other functional approximation systems and found to be competitive in terms of accuracy [Haykin 1999]. This and the ability to learn from examples allow modelling the complex construction project management system where behavioural rules are not known in detail and are difficult to analyze correctly.2.Methodology of Artificial Neural NetworksThe foundation of the artificial neural networks (ANN) paradigm was laid in the 1950s, andANN has gained significant attention in the past decade because of the development of more powerful hardware and neural algorithms [Haykin (1999)]. Artificial neural networks have been studied and explored by many researchers where they have been used, applied, and manipulated in almost every field. For example, they have been used in system modelling and identification, control, pattern recognition, speech pronunciation, system classifications, medical diagnosis as well as in prediction, computer vision, and hardware implementations. As in civil engineering and management applications, neural networks have been employed in different studies. Some of these studies cover the mathematical modelling of non-linear structural materials, damage detection, non-destructive analysis, earthquake classification, dynamical system modelling, system identifications, and structural control of linear and non-linear systems, construction productivity modelling, construction technology evaluation, cost estimation, organisational effectiveness modelling and others [Adeli et. A1. (1998), Sinha et. A1. (2000)].A neural network can be defined as a model of reasoning based on human brain [Wasserman (1993)]. Learning is a fundamental and essential characteristic of biological neural networks. The ease with which they can learn led to attempts to emulate a biological network in a computer.2.1 Model of Artificial Neural NetworkAn artificial neural network consists of a number of very simple and highly interconnected processors, also called neurons, which are analogous to the biological neurons in the brain. The neurons are connected by weighted links passing signals from one neuron to another. Each neuron receives a number of input signals through its connections; however, it never produces more than a single output signal. The output signal is transmitted through the neuron's outgoing connection (corresponding to the biological axon). The outgoing connection, in turn, splits into a number of branches that transmit the same signal (the signal is not divided among these branches in any way). The outgoing branches terminate at the incoming connections of other neurons in the network. Figure 1 represents connections of a typical ANN.As shown in Figure 1, a typical ANN is made up of a hierarchy of layers, and the neurons in the networks are arranged along these layers. Each layer in a multilayer neural network has its own specific function. The input layer accepts input signals from the outside world and distributes them to all neurons in the hidden layer. These neurons detect the features; the weights of the neurons represent the features hidden in the input patterns. These features are then used by the output layer for determining the output pattern. The output layer accepts output signals from the hidden layer and establishes the output pattern of the entire network. The neurons are connected by links, and each link has a numerical weight associated with it. Weights are the basic means of long-term memory in ANN. Weights express the strength (importance) of each neuron input. A neural network "learns" through repeated adjustment of these weights.The network in Figure 1 is fully connected and has a feedforward structure, meaning there are no connection loops that would allow outputs to feed back to their inputs, although a recurrent neural network has feedback loops from its outputs to its inputs. The indices i, j and k in Figure 1 refer to neurons in input, hidden and output layers, respectively. Input signals, x1, x2 ..... x i, x n, are propagated from left to right, and error signals, c1, c2 .... c i, from right to left. The symbol w ij denotes the weight for the connection between neuron i in the input layer and neuron j in the hidden layer, and the symbol w jk the weight between neuron j in the hidden layer and neuron k in the output layer; symbols y1, y2 ..... y k, y t denote outputs of the neurons in the output layer.2.2 Modelling by Applying Artificial Neural NetworksThe architecture and size of a neural network depends on the problem complexity. The number of neurons in the input and output layers is decided by the selected input-output variables of the analysed system. The simulation experiments of neural network training and testing indicate the optimal number of hidden layers as well as the number of neurons in these layers.The goal of neural network training is to find the functional relationship between the input patterns and target outputs. Before training ANN, all the available data are randomly divided into a training set and a test set. A training set of the input patterns and corresponding desired outputs or targets is presented to the network. The network computes its output pattern, and if there is an error - a difference between actual and desired output patterns - the weights are adjusted to reduce this error according to the learning law of training algorithm. The error function is a useful indicator of the network's performance. The training algorithm attempts to minimise this criterion. When the value of the error function in an entire pass through all training sets, or epoch, is sufficiently small, a network is considered to have converged. Once the training phase is complete, the networks ability to generalise is tested against examples of the test set.More than a hundred different learning algorithms are available, but the most popular method is backpropagation. The backpropagation learning algorithm has two phases. First, a training input pattern is presented to the network input layer. The network then propagates the input pattern from layer to layer until the output pattern is generated by the output layer. If this pattern is different from the desired output, an error is calculated and then propagatedbackwards through the network from the output layer to the input layer. The weights are modified as the error is propagated.Among the numerous artificial neural networks that have been proposed, backpropagation networks have been extremely popular for their unique learning capability [Haykin (1993)]. 80% of practical ANN applications used the backpropagation neural networks. Development of construction project management effectiveness model by applying multilayer backpropagation neural networks is presented in chapter 4.3. Construction Project Management Effectiveness FactorsTraditionally, construction project management effectiveness is defined as the degree to which project goals and expectations are met. It should be viewed from respective perspectives of different project participants and the goals related to a variety of elements, including technical, financial, social and professional issues. Criteria are needed to compare the goal level against the performance level. The criteria are the set of principles or standards by which judgment is made [Lim et. A1. (1999)]. While effectiveness is measured in terms of goal attainment, there is ambiguity in determining whether a project is success or failure.Different factors are identified in project success studies. Ashley et. A1. (1987) conducted a pilot study within their research that, based on their analysis, established six determinants of construction project success. Jaselskis and Ashley (1991) developed a predictive discrete-choice model that focused on the project manager, the project team, planning and controls. Pinto and Slevin (1988) determined a group of predictive critical success factors. Sanvido et al. (1992) established the four most critical success factors derived from the integrated building process model. Chua et al. (1997, 1999) distinguished between the critical success factors for different project objectives of budget, schedule, and quality using the analytic hierarchy process. They established 10 critical factors for each project objective. Overall, they identified 67 different success-related factors.Other measures of project success for particular group of projects were provided by Tiong (1996), Mohsini and Davidson (1996), Chan et al. (2001), Molenaar and Songer (2001), Zhang (2005). Cheng et al. (2001) established a partnering framework to identify the critical success factors that can improve the productivity and performance of construction projects. Other studies of particular factors impact on construction project success was provided by Back and Moreau ((2000), Mitropoulus and Tatum (2000), Faniran et al. (1998), Angelides (1999), Bower et al. (2002), Ford (2002) and Jan et al. (2002). All the above mentioned studies revealed many different factors and their qualitative impact on project success. This research, differently from the previous, focus on the functional relationships between the input factors and project outcome, analyses and enables to forecast quantitative impact of determined critical factors onto the effectiveness of construction project management. In this study the framework for the list of construction management effectiveness factors covering areas related to project manager, project team, project planning, organization and control was selected from the research conducted by Jaselskis and Ashley (1991). However, the actuality of each construction management factor was retested by interviewing construction management practitioners and the approach was modified according to the interviewer's opinion (Table 1).4. Development of Construction Project ManagementEffectiveness Model by Applying Neural NetworksConstruction project management effectiveness modelling by applying neural networks consists of the following stages:●selection of the variables of the construction project management effectiveness neuralnetwork model (CPMEM);●selection and preparation of training data for the CPMEM;●designing and training the construction project management effectiveness neural network;●evaluation of the importance of a particular input factor to the CPMEM output byapplying a sensitivity analysis technique;●identification of the key construction project management effectiveness factors andmodification of the CPMEM;●determining the validation range of the CPMEM practical applications.Construction project management effectiveness factors are the input variables of the CPMEM. The output variable of this model is the construction project management effectiveness in terms of construction cost variation. The construction project cost variation was calculated by equation:Q = （PI - FI）/PI* 100%where PI - predicted construction project cost; FI - actual construction project cost.The present study is based on a set of data obtained in a questionnaire survey on construction project management effectiveness factors from construction management organizations in Lithuania and the USA. Twelve Lithuanian companies presented information on 32 completed construction projects. The average size for the projects is 4.3 million Litas (1.6 million USD) and the mean duration is 7 months. 27 US construction management companies presented information on 54 completed construction projects with the average size of 30.1 million USD and the mean duration of 14 months. Statistical analysis proved that those two groups of the projects belong to the same statistical population. Thus, neural network model was trained with 76 project samples and retested with 10 project samples. The construction project management effectiveness neural network model had been developed using NEURAL NETWORKS TOOLBOX by MA TLAB.A neural network works best when all its inputs and outputs vary within the range 0 and 1. Preparation of the training data and statistical computations had been performed by applying Microsoft Excel. The input data - project management factors - was classified into six groups and the output data - the percentage of the construction cost variation in loss or profit - was classified into five groups (Table 2). The number of neurons in the input and output layer was decided by the number of input and output variables of the construction project management effectiveness neural network. Thus, the input layer had 27 neurons and the output layer had 5 neurons, representing five classes of the construction cost variation. The number of hidden layers was determined during the neural network training.The neural network was trained to Solve the classification task by applying resilient backpropagation learning algorithm. The network performance in this study was measured by the modified regularization error function. The interpretation of the network output is based on the Bayesian posterior probability: the construction project cost variation belongs to the class represented by the output layer neuron of the highest output value. The classification error was calculated by equation:where Tp - actual class of project cost variation; Pp- class of project cost variation predicted by neural network; p - construction project index; q - number of examples for testing.All construction management effectiveness factors were incorporated into the model at the first stage of model development. The initial network model comprised 27 neurons in theinput layer with 9 neurons in the hidden layer and 5 neurons in the output layer. In order to understand the importance of a particular input to the network output, a sensitivity analysis technique was applied. The priority level for each factor was set based on their different impact to the project results. Insignificant factors were trimmed from the network gradually by eliminating the least important factors, respectively to the results of sensitivity analysis. In this model development stage 12 key determining construction management effectiveness factors were identified. Nine key factors showed positive influence on the CPMEM output. The higher values of these factors allow improving the construction project management effectiveness. Three key factors, i.e. PM subordinates, independent constructability analysis, and control system budget, showed negative influence on the CPMEM output. These factors appear to be associated with project complexity and risk. The higher project complexity and the higher level of risk degree means the higher values of these three factors: there are more employees and subcontractors supervised by PM, the cost of independent constructability analysis as well as control budget is respectively higher (Table 3).The final neural network model was built with 12 neurons in the input layer, 4 neurons in hidden layer and 5 neurons in the output layer.The established CPMEM represents the input-output functional relationships reflected by the specific characteristics of the training data set. The model was validated by 10 project samples, 2 for each class. All testing samples were classified correctly. Thus, the model is valid within this particular range of training data. However, the analogical model can be developed by applying training data of any group of construction projects or construction management organizations.5. Decision-Support Tool for Competitive BiddingAuthors of the paper established the construction project management effectiveness model and developed the application algorithm of that model for competitive bidding process (Figure 2). The range of potential construction project cost variation can be evaluated by applying CPMEM on the specific project, project team and construction company as the follows:The first stage's target is to obtain the maximum of existing information about the mainfeatures of the project.●The second stage entails a detail study of the project, suggesting possible changes for theproject, estimating costs and defining target profit margin.●In the third stage the project management team is formed to deal with the projectplanning, management and delivery. In that stage the intended project management effectiveness factors should be evaluated.●In the fourth stage the project's construction cost variation is predicted by applyingconstruction project management effectiveness model. This step is very useful to identify hidden project management risks.●In the fifth stage the initial total bid price is adjusted according to the CPMEM results.●The sixth stage entails a search and analysis of historical information about similarinternal and external projects. The obtained information about the potential competitors and their strengths and weaknesses should be measured. Then the adjusted bid price should be evaluated in comparison with forecasted prices of competitive bidders. Finally, the decision if everything goes forward or if the project requires serious reconsideration should be made. If the project management system considered to be changed, the potential project management factors (e.g. different project planning or control strategy, different project team size or qualification, organizational structure, etc.) should be re-evaluated. The analyzers should go back to the third stage and repeat the process until the selected criterion is satisfied. If the project management system considered not to be changed, the decision about the participation in the bidding process should be made.Case study: The request for bidding proposal was issued by the private company to manage the construction of industrial project of 20 million USD on a fixed price contract basis. Construction company X prepared bidding material for that project. Company's X estimated total bid price was 20.7 million USD, 10 % profit margin was included. According to the market analysis the competitive bids might fall into the range of 20-21 million USD. What would be the company's X bidding decision?Solution: The estimated construction cost was 18.82 million USD. The predicted cost variation was calculated within the range of-3 % and +3 % by applying CPMEM construction projects management effectiveness neural network model. If the worst happened, the construction cost would increase by 3 % up to 19.38 million USD and the mark-up would reduce to 6.8%. If the target mark-up for that project procurement was 10%, the company should re-estimate the bid price up to 21.32 million USD. Though, that price would not be competitive.The managers decided to replace two members of the project team by more qualified professionals and not to hire outside consultants, i.e. re-evaluated the CPMEM factors of project team monetary incentives and independent constructability analysis. By applying CPMEM model for the second time, the predicted cost variation was calculated within the range of +3% and + 10%. In that case there was a possibility of at least 3% construction cost reduction, i.e. 0.56 million USD (18.82*0.03=0.56). Thus, adjusted bid price was calculated at 20.08 million USD [(18.82-0.56)* 1.1 ] =20.08.X Company must make a decision - whether to submit the bid price of 20.08 million USD, which seems competitive enough, or keep trying to reduce it by strengthening the other aspects of project management system, thus resources can be deployed even more effectively. By applying the construction project management effectiveness neural network model, managers of construction company can indicate how much importance each factor has for a particular project outcome, find the best possible arrangement of construction management effectiveness factors and examine the construction cost variation tendencies.6. ConclusionsThe paper presents a new methodology for construction project management effectiveness modelling by applying artificial neural networks. The approach of artificial neural networks allows the CPMEM to be built and to determine the key determinants from a host of possible management factors that affect project effectiveness in terms of construction cost variation. The historical data of project performance has been used to build the neural network model. A survey questionnaire was distributed to construction management companies in Lithuania and the USA. Twelve key determinants factors that influence project management effectiveness were identified covering areas related to the project manager, project team, project planning, organization and control.The established neural network model can be used during the competitive bidding process to evaluate management risk of a construction project and predict construction cost variation. The model allows the construction project managers to focus on the key success factors and reduce the level of construction risk. The model can serve as a framework for further development of construction management decision support systems.译文建设工程项目管理的预测功效：用于决策支持工具竞争性招标1.介绍建设项目在竞争激烈的市场环境风险的情况下交付。
工程管理外文翻译(原文+译文)
Concrete Construction matterT. Pauly, M. J. N. PriestleyAbstractViewed in terms of accepted practices, concrete construction operations leave much to be desired with respect to the quality, serviceability, and safety of completed structures. The shortcomings of these operations became abundantly clear when a magnitude 7.6 earthquake struck northern Paki-stan on October 8, 2005, destroying thousands of buildings, damaging bridges, and killing an esti-mated 79,000 people. The unusually low quality of construction operations prevalent was a major cause of the immense devastation.Keywords: Concrete Placing Curing Construction TechnologyPlacing ConcreteIf concrete is placed in the surface, the sur-face should be filled with water sufficiently to prevent it from absorbing the concrete of its water. If fresh concrete is to be placed on or nearby to concrete that has solidified, the surface of the placed concrete should be cleaned absolutely, preferably with a high-pressure air or water jet or steel-wire brushes. The surface should be wet, but there should be no much water. A little quantity of cement grout should be brushed over the whole area, and then followed immediately with the application of a 1/2-in Layer of mortar. The fresh concrete should be placed on or against the mortar.In order to decrease the disintegration re-sulting from carriage after it is placed. The con-crete should be placed as nearly as probably in itsfinal point. It should be placed in layers to permit uniform compaction. The time interval between the placing of layers should be limited to assure perfect bond between the fresh and previously placed concrete.In placing concrete in deeper patters, a ves-sel should be used to limit the free fall to not over 3 or 4 ft, in order to prevent concrete disintegra-tion. The vessel is a pipe made of lightweight metal, having adjustable lengths and attached to the bottom of a hopper into which the concrete is deposited. As the patters are filled, sections of the pipe may be removed.Immediately after the concrete is placed, it should be compacted by hand pudding or a me-chanical vibrator to eliminate voids. The vibrator should be left in one position only long enough to reduce the concrete around it to a plastic mass; then the vibrator should be moved, or disintegra-tion of the aggregate will occur. In general, the vibrator should not be permitted to penetrate concrete in the prior lift.The mainly advantage of vibrating is that it permits the use of a drier concrete, which has a higher strength because of the reduced water content. Among the advantages of vibrating con-crete are the following:1.The decreased water permits a reduction in the cement and fine aggregate because less cement paste is needed.2.The lower water content decreases shrinkage and voids.3.The drier concrete decreases the cost of finishing the surface.4.Mechanical vibration may replace three to eight hand puddles.5.The lower water content increases the strength of the concrete.6.The drier mixture permits theremoval of some patters more quickly, which may reduce the cost of patters.Curing ConcreteIf concrete is to gain its maximum strength and other desirable properties, it should be cured with adequate moisture and at a favorable tem-perature. Failure to provide these conditions may result in an inferior concrete.The initial moisture in concrete is adequate to hydrate all the cement, provided it is not should replace the moisture that does evaporate. This may be accomplished by many methods, such as leaving the patters in place, keeping the surface wet, or covering the surface with a liquid curing compound, which comes being to a water-tight membrane that prevents the escape of the initial water. Curing compounds may be applied by brushes or pressure sprayers. A gallon will cover 200 to 300 sq ft.Concrete should be placed at a temperature not less than 40 or more than 80°F.A lower tem-perature will decrease the rate of setting, while ahigher temperature will decrease the ultimate strength.Placing Concrete in Cold WeatherWhen the concrete is placed during cold weather, it is usually necessary to preheat the water, the aggregate, or both in order that the ini-tial temperature will assure an initial set and gain in strength .Preheating the water is the most ef-fective method of providing the necessary tem-perature. For this purpose a water reservoir should be equipped with pipe coils through which steam can be passed, or steam may bedischarged directly into the water, several outlets being used to given better distribution of the heat.When the temperatures of the mixtures are known, some specific charts may be used to cal-culate the temperature of concrete. A straight line pass all three scales, passing through every two known temperatures, will assure the determina-tion of the third temperature. If the surface of sand isdry, the fact lines of the scales giving the temperature of concrete should be used. However, if the sand contains about 3 percent moisture, the dotted lines should be used.Specifications usually demand that freshly placed concrete shall be kept at a temperature of not less than 70°F for 3 days or 50°F for 5 days after it is placed. Some proper method must be provided to keep the demanded temperature when the cold weather is estimated.Reinforcing steels for concreteCompared with concrete, steel is a high strength material. The useful strength of ordinary reinforcing steels in tension as well as compres-sion, i.e., the yield strength, is about 15 times the compressive strength of common structural con-crete, and well over 100 times its tensile strength. On the other hand, steel is a high-cost material compared with concrete. It follow that the two materials are the best used in combination if theconcrete is made to resist the compressive stresses and the compressive force, longitudinal steel reinforcing bars are located close to the ten-sion face to resist the tension force., and usually additional steel bars are so disposed that they re-sist the inclined tension stresses that are caused by the shear force in the beams. However, rein-forcement is also used for resisting compressive forces primarily where it is desired to reduce the cross-sectional dimensions of compression members, as in the lower-floor columns of multi-story buildings. Even if no such necessity exits , a minimum amount of reinforce- ment is placed in all compression members to safeguard them against the effects of small accidental bending moments that might crack and even fail an unre-inforced member.For most effective reinforcing action, it is essential that steel and concrete deform together, i. e., that there be a sufficiently strong bond be-tween the two materials to ensure that no relative movements of the steel bars and the surrounding concrete occur. This bond is provided by the rela-tively large chemical adhesion which develops at the steel-concrete interface, by the natural roughness of the mill scale of hot-rolled rein-forcing bars , and by the closely spaced rib-shap-ed surface deformations with which reinforcing bars are furnished in order to provide a high de-gree of interlocking of the two materials.Steel is used in two different ways in con-crete structures: as reinforcing steel and as prestressing steel .reinforcing steel is placed in the forms prior to casting of the concrete. Stresses in the steel, as in the hardened concrete, are caused only by the loads on the structure, except for possible parasitic stresses from shrinkage or similar causes. In contrast, in priestesses concrete structures large tension forces are applied to the reinforcement prior to letting it act jointly with the concrete in resistingexternal.The most common type of reinforcing steel is in the form of round bars, sometimes called rebars, available in a large range of diameters,from 10 to 35 mm for ordinary applications and in two heavy bar sizes off 44 and 57 mm these bars are furnished with surface deformations for the purpose of increasing resistance to slip be-tween steel and concrete minimum requirements for these deformations have been developed in experimental research. Different bar producers use different patterns, all of which satisfy these requirements.Welding of rebars in making splices, or for convenience in fabricating reinforcing cages for placement in the forms, may result in metal-lurgical changes that reduce both strength and ductility, and special restrictions must be placed both strength and ductility, and special restric-tions must be placed both on the type of steel used and the welding procedures the provisions of ASTM A706 relatespecifically to welding.In reinforced concrete a long-time trend is evident toward the use of higher strength materi-als, both steel and concrete.Reinforcing bars with 40ksi yield stress , almost standard 20 years ago , have largely been replaced by bars with 60ksi yield stress , both because they are more economical and because their use tends to reduce congestion of steel in the forms .The ACI Code permits reinforcing steels up to Fy=80ksi. Such high strength steels usually yield gradually but have no yield plateau in this situation the ACI Code requires that at the speci-fied minimum yield strength the total strain shall not exceed 0.0035 this is necessary to make cur-rent design methods, which were developed for sharp-yielding steels with a yield plateau, appli-cable to such higher strength steels. there is no ASTM specification for deformed bars may be used , according to the ACI Code , providing they meet the requirements stated under special circumstances steel in this higher strength range has its place, e.g., in lower-story columns of high-rise buildings.In order to minimize corrosion of rein-forcement and consequent spelling of concrete under sever exposure conditions such as in bridge decks subjected to deicing chemicals , galvanized or epoxy-coated rebars may be specified.Repair of Concrete StructuresReinforced concrete is generally a very du-rable structural material and very little repair work is usually needed. However, its durability can be affected by a variety of causes, including those of design and construction faults, use of inferior materials and exposure to aggressive en-vironment. The need for a repair is primarily dic-tated by the severity of the deterioration as de-termined from the diagnosis. Good workmanship is essential if any thing more than just a cosmetic treatment to the creation is required.1. performance requirements of repair systemHaving established the causes of the defect by carefully diagnosing the distress, the next step should be to consider the requirements of the re-pair method that will offer an effective solution to the problem (see fig.).①DurabilityIt is important to select repair materials that provide adequate durability. Materials used for the repair job should be at least as durable as the substrate concrete to which it is applied.②Protection of steelThe mechanism of protection provided to the reinforcing depends on the type of repair ma-terials used. For example, cementations materials can protect the steel from further corrosion by their inhibitive effect of increasing the alkalinity of the concrete, whereas epoxy resin mortars can give protection against the ingress of oxygen,moisture and other harmful agents.③Bond with substrateThe bond with the substrate must produce an integral repair to prevent entry of moisture and atmospheric gases at the interface. With most re-pair materials, the bond is greatly enhanced with the use of a suitable bonding aid such as an un-filled epoxy resin systems and slurry of Portland cement, plus any latex additives for a Portland cement-based repair system. Precautions should also be takento remove all loose and friable ma-terials from the surfaces to be bonded.④Dimensional StabilityShrinkage of materials during curing should be kept to a minimum. Subsequent dimensional change should be very close in the substrate in order to prevent failure⑤Initial Resistance to Environmentally In-duced DamageSome initial exposure conditions may lead to premature damage lo repairs. For example, partially cured Portland cement repairs can dete-riorate from hot weather preventing full hydration of the cement. To prevent this from happening extra protection during curing time may be nec-essary.⑥Ease of ApplicationMaterials should be easily mixed and ap-plied so that they can be worked readily into small crevices and voids. Ideally, the material should not stick to tools, and should not shear while being trowel led nor slump after placement.⑦AppearanceThe degree to which the repair material should match the existing concrete will depend on the use of the structure and the client' s re-quirements. A surface coating may be required when appearance is important or when cover to reinforcement is small.2. Selection of Repair MethodsA suitable repair counteracts all the defi-ciencies which are relevant to the use of the structure.The selection of tile correct method and material for a particular, application requires careful consideration, whether to meet special requirements for placing strength, durability or other short-or long-term properties. These con-siderations include:1. Nature of the DistressIf alive crack is filled with a rigid material, then either the repair material will eventually fail or some new cracking will occur adjacent to the original crack. Repairs to live cracks must either use flexible materials to accommodate move-ments or else steps must be taken prior to the re-pair to eliminate the movement.2. Position of the CrackTechniques which rely on gravity to intro-duce the material into the crack are more suc-cessfully carried out on horizontal surfaces but are rarely effective on vertical ones.3. EnvironmentIf moisture, water or contaminants are found in the crack, then it is necessary to rectify the leaks Repair to slop leaks may be further com-plicated by the need to make the repairs while the structure is in service and the environment is damp.4. WorkmanshipThe skill the operatives available to carry put the repairs is another relevant factors. Some-times this can mean the difference between a permanent repair and premature failure of the re-pair material.5. CostThe cost of repair materials is usually small compared with the costs of providing access, preparation and actual labor.6. AppearanceThe repair surface may be unsightly, par-ticularly when it appears on a prominent part of the building. In this case, the repair system will include some form of treatment over the entire surface.Reference[1]Philip Jodidio, Contemporary European Architecture, Taschen, Koln, pp.148-153[2]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, Waterfronts, McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, 1994, pp.297-300[3]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, The New Waterfront, Thames and Hudson, London, 1996, pp.118-120[4]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, The New Waterfront, Thames and Hudson, London, 1996, pp.52-55[5]Robert Holden, International Landscape Design, Laurence King Publishing, London, 1996, pp.10-27[6] A new concept in refrigerant control for heat pumps ,J.R.Harnish,IIR Conference Pa-per,Cleveland,Ohio.May,1996[7]Carrier Corporation-Catalog 523 848,1997[8]Waste Heat Management Handbook, Na-tional Bureau of Standardc Handbook 121, Pub-lica-tion PB 264959, February,1997Ten design principles for air to air heat pumps,Allen Trask,ASHRAE Journal,July,1997重庆科技学院学生毕业设计（论文）外文译文学院建建筑工程学院专业班级工管103学生姓名李学号201044241附件1：外文资料翻译译文混凝土施工事项T.Pauly, M.J.N.Priestley摘要：根据一般承认的惯例看,巴基斯坦的混凝土结构建筑物在结构上的质量，效用和安全需要上都留下了很多值得关注的问题。
（完整版）工程管理专业外文文献及翻译
本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Changing roles of the clientsArchitects and contractorsThrough BIM文献、资料来源：Engineering, Construction, Archi-tectual Management文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2010.2院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期：外文文献：Changing roles of the clients,architects and contractors through BIMRizal SebastianTNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The NetherlandsAbstractPurpose– This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes. Design/methodology/approach– Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Through several real cases, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated.Findings–One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R). Furthermore, it is also found that the implementation of BIM in hospital building projects is still limited due to certain commercial and legal barriers, as well as the fact that integrated collaboration has not yet been embedded in the real estate strategies of healthcare institutions.Originality/value– This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects. Keywords Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planningPaper type General review1. IntroductionHospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complexdue to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management s trategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attemptfor establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problemsin practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility,end-user’s dissatisfaction, and energy inefficiency. It i s evident that the lack of communicationand coordination between the actors involved in the different phases o f a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored (Dawood and Sikka, 2008).There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite foran effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approachesA hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management o f hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to manage and finance their building projects and real estate. The government’s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will beincluded in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist c ontractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Health to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world (van Reedt Dortland, 2009).The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007). The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindsetof the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor tohave a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. Thed strategy effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client’s capacity to organize innovative tendering procedures (Sebastian et al., 2009).A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as wellas innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architectsory role instead of being the designer. In this case,can stand at the client’s side in a strategic advithe architect’s responsibility is translating client’s requirements and wishes into the ar values to be included in the design specification, and evaluating the contractor’s p this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequencesin the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect isusually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensivethe building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based onthe complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building,which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium.A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct thebuilding at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extrawork due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor isno longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method,all risks are placed with the client.In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractorhave a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked toa measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certainperiod of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If thebuilding actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that exceed the minimum client’sextra gain. The level of requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance t o the client’ｓtransparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses a n innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamiclife-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect,as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc. (Sebastian et al., 2009).The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design untilthe project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply commonvalues and goals.3. Changing roles through BIM applicationBuilding information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support theintegrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation ofphysical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledgeresource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecyclefrom inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates timeand place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration bydifferent stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update ormodify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in itsultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability,can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client (Sebastian et al., 2009).BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes furtherthan an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings (Bratton, 2009). BIM is an integratedmodel in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actorsthroughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops and evolves as the project progresses. Using BIM,the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client’s re and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design processextend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clashdetection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, andas-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communicationbetween the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective andefficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combinationwith the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of thebuilding performance, including the life-cycle cost.To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors (Kiviniemi et al., 2008).The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according tothe type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, b ut his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication protocols, task planning, and risk management;and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification ofcommunication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.way Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPRin a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is attached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, incase of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIMwith authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of theIPR(Chao-Duivis, 2009).How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the onehand, collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in thecontract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM Addendum confirms: ‘This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships orshifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per(ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand,the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments’ changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM willlead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in thedetailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means thatsignificant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the designcost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary(Chao-Duivis, 2009).4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIMIn The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy,which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy.Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of thechanging roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method anda life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIMstructure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. Thepreceding sections have discussed t he conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the future; andthe roles and tasks of the model manager.The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the building actors, and the user participation in design;facilitating optimal information accessibility and exchange for a highconsistency of the drawings and documents across disciplines and phases;integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation,and planning;interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements and specifications;reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process; andoptimising the management o f the facility through the registration of medical installations and equipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC optedfor a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation phase was aimed at creating a common vision on the optimal way for collaboration using BIM as an ICT support. Some results of this preparation phase are: a document that defines the common ambition for the project and the collaborative working process and a semi-formal agreement that states the commitment of the building actors for collaboration. Other than UMC, MMC selected an architecture firm with an in-house engineering department. Thus, the collaboration between the architect and structural engineer can take place within the same firm using the same software application.Regarding the life-cycle design approach, the main attention is given on life-cycle costs, maintenance needs, and facility management. U sing BIM, both hospitals intend to get a much。
工程管理专业词汇英汉对照
工程项目管理常用词汇英汉对照“戴明环”“戴明环”Plan - Do - Check - Action, PDCA “交钥匙”承包“交钥匙”承包Turn - key Contract “三时”估计法“三时”估计法Three - Time - Estimate S 曲线曲线S - Curve 按费用设计按费用设计Design - to - Cost 保留金保留金 Retention Money 保险保险Insurance 保证金保证金 Retainage 报表报表Statement 报告关系报告关系Reporting Relationship 报价邀请报价邀请Requestfor Quotation, RFQ 变更指令变更指令Variation Order, Change Order 标前会议标前会议Pre - Bid Meeting 补充资料表补充资料表Schedule of Supplementary lnformation 不可接受风险不可接受风险Unacceptable Risk 不可抗力不可抗力Force Majeure 不可预见不可预见Unforeseeable 不平等条款不平等条款Unequal Term 平衡报价法平衡报价法Unbalanced Bids 材料材料Materials 材料费材料费 Material Cost 财产风险财产风险Probable Risk 留风险留风险 Residual Risk 层次分析法层次分析法Analytic Hierarchy Process 产品产品Product 超前超前Lead 成本预算成本预算Cost Budgeting 承包方承包方 Contractor 承包商代表承包商代表Contractor's Representative 承包商人员承包商人员Contractor's Personnel 承包商设备承包商设备Contracto Contracto’’s Equipment 承包商文件承包商文件Contractor's Documents 承发包方式承发包方式Contract Approach 承诺 Acceptance 承诺诚实信用原则 In Good Faith 诚实信用原则触发器 Triggers 触发器纯粹风险 Pare Risk 纯粹风险次关键路线 Near - Critical Path 次关键路线大型项目 Program 大型项目代理型CM, 非代理型CM CM／Agency, CM／Non Agency 单代号搭接网络图 Multi - Dependency Network 单代号搭接网络图单代号网络图 Activity - on - Network, AON 单代号网络图单价合同 Unit Price Contract 单价合同单时估计法 Single - Time - Estimate 单时估计法担保 Guarantee 担保当地货币 Local Currency 当地货币当事方(一方) Party 到岸价格 Cost lnsurance and Freight, CIF 到岸价格道义索赔 Ex - Gratia Claims 道义索赔德尔裴法 Delphi 德尔裴法调整 Updating, Adjustment 调整定额 Quota 定额动员预付款 Pre - Payment 动员预付款二次风险 Secondary Risk 二次风险法律 Laws 法律反义居先原则 Contra Preferential 反义居先原则返工 Rework 返工方差 V ariance 方差非工作时间 Idle Time 非工作时间费用计划 Cost Planning 费用计划费用索赔 Claims for Lossand Expense 费用索赔分包商 Sub - Contractor 分包商分项工程 Section 分项工程分支网络 Fragnet 分支网络风险 Risk 风险风险定量分析 Quantitative Risk Analysis 风险定量分析风险定性分析 Qualitative Risk Analysis 风险定性分析风险规避 Risk Avoidance 风险规避风险监控 Risk Monitoring and Control 风险监控风险减轻 Risk Mitigation 风险减轻风险接受 Risk Acceptance 风险接受风险类别 Risk Category 风险类别风险评审技术 Venture Evaluation and Review Technique, VERT 风险评审技术风险识别 Risk Identification 风险识别风险应对 Risk期Response 风险应对风险转移 Risk Transference 风险转移付款证书 Payment Certificate 付款证书概率与影响矩阵 Probability and Impact Matrix 概率与影响矩阵赶工 Crashing 赶工个人间的联系 Interpersonal Interfaces 个人间的联系工程变更 Variation, Change 工程变更工程量表 Bill of Quantities 工程量表工程师 The Engineer, Consultant 工程师工程现场勘测 Site Visit 工程现场勘测工程项目采购 Proiect Procurement 工程项目采购工程项目分解 Project Decomposition 工程项目分解工程项目沟通管理 Project Communication Management 工程项目沟通管理工程项目简介 Project Brief 工程项目简介工程项目建设模式 Proiect Construction Approach 工程项目建设模式工程项目决策 Decision to Project 工程项目决策工程项目人力资源管理 Project Human Resource Management 工程项目人力资源管理工程项目审计 Project Audit 工程项目审计工程项目收尾阶段 Project Closure 工程项目收尾阶段工程项目投产准备 Preparation for Proiect Operation 工程项目投产准备工程项目团队 Project Team 工程项目团队工程项目质量 Projectoualitv 工程项目质量工程项目质量控制 Proiect Quality Control 工程项目质量控制工程项目组织方式 Project Organization Approach 工程项目组织方式工期 Proiect Duration 工期工期压缩 Duration Compression 工期压缩工艺关系 Process Relation 工艺关系工作规范 Specification of Work 工作规范工作说明 Statement of Work, SOW 工作说明公开招标 Open Tenderine／Public Invitation 公开招标沟通 Communications 沟通购买—建设—经营经营 Buy - Build - Operate, BBO 顾客 Customer顾客雇主 Employer 雇主雇主人员 Employer's Personnel 雇主人员雇主设备 Employer's Equipment 雇主设备关键活动 Critical Activity 关键活动关键路线 Critical Path 关键路线关键线路法 Critical Path Method, CPM 关键线路法国际标准化组织 International Standard Organization, ISO 国际标准化组织国际项目管理协会 International Project Management Association, IPMA 国际项目管理协会国际咨询工程师联合会 Federation Internationate Des Ingenieurs-Conseils, FIDIC 国际咨询工程师联合会国家私人合作模式 Public - Private Partnership, PPP 国家私人合作模式合同 Contract 合同合同工期 Duration of Contract 合同工期合同管理 Contract Administration 合同管理合同价格 Contract Price 合同价格合同内索赔 Contractual Claims 合同内索赔合同条件 Conditions of Contract 合同条件合同外索赔 Non - Contractual Claims 合同外索赔合同协议书 Contract Agreement 合同协议书合资公司 Joint Enterprise 合资公司横道图 Gantt Charts 横道图环境管理体系 Environmental Management System, EMS 环境管理体系环境绩效 Environmental Performance 环境绩效环境指标 Environmental Target 环境指标回路 Logical Loop 回路混合型合同 Mixed Contract 混合型合同活动持续时间估计 Activity Duration Estimation 活动持续时间估计活动范围 Scope 活动范围活动逻辑关系 Activity Logical Relations 活动逻辑关系活动描述 Activity Description, AD 活动描述活动排序 Activity Sequencing 活动排序活动清单 Activity List 活动清单伙伴模式 Partnering 伙伴模式货物采购 Goods Procurement 货物采购基准计划 Baseline 基准计划基准日期 Base Date 基准日期绩效评估与激励 Performance Appraisaland Reward 绩效评估与激励计划工期 Planned Project Duration 计划工期计划评审技术 Program Evaluation Review Technique, PERT 计划评审技术计日工作计划 Daywork Schedule 计日工作计划计算工期 Calculated Project Duration 计算工期技术规范 Technical Specifications 技术规范技术联系 Technical Interfaces 技术联系价值工程 Value Engineering, VE 价值工程间接费 Indirect Cost 间接费监理工程师 The Engineer, Supervision Engineer 监理工程师监视 Monitoring 监视检查表 Checklist 检查表建设工期 Durationof Project Construction 建设工期建设—经营—拥有—转让 Build - Operate - Own - Transfer, BOOT 建设—经营—拥有—转让建设—经营—转让 Build - Operate - Transfer, BOT 建设—经营—转让建设实施 Construction 建设实施建设—拥有—经营 Build - Own - Operate, BOO 建设—拥有—经营建设—转让—运营 Build - Transfer - Operate, BTO 建设—转让—运营建设准备 Construction Preparation 建设准备建议书邀请 Request for Proposal, RFP 建议书邀请建筑师 Architect 建筑师接收证书 Taking - Over Certificate 接收证书节点 Node 节点节点编号 Node Number 节点编号结束到结束 Finishto Finish, FTF 结束到结束结束到开始 Finishto Start, FTS 结束到开始截止日期 As - of Date 截止日期紧后活动 Back Closely Activity 紧后活动紧前活动 Front Closely Activity 紧前活动进度报告 Progress Reports 进度报告进度偏差 Schedule Variance, SV 进度偏差纠正措施 Corrective Action 纠正措施矩阵型组织结构 Matrix Organization 矩阵型组织结构决策树分析 Decision Tree Analysis 决策树分析决策网络计划法 Decision Network, DN 决策网络计划法竣工时间 Time for Completion 竣工时间竣工试验 Tests on Completion 竣工试验竣工验收 Project Acceptance 竣工验收开工日期 Commencement Date 开工日期开始到结束 Start to Finish, STF 开始到结束开始到开始 Start to Start, STS 开始到开始可交付成果 Deliverable 可交付成果可接受风险 Acceptable Risk 可接受风险可原谅的延误 Excusable Delay 可原谅的延误控制 Control 控制控制图 Control Charts 控制图快速路径法 Fast Track 快速路径法类比估计 Analogous Estimating 类比估计离岸价格 Free on Board, FOB 离岸价格里程碑 Milestone 里程碑历史数据 Historical Results 历史数据利润 Profit 利润例外计划报告 Exception Report 例外计划报告联合集团 Consortium 联合集团联营体 Joint V enture 联营体临时工程 Temporm. Works 临时工程流程图 Flow Diagram 流程图路径会聚 Path Convergence 路径会聚履约保函 Performance Guarantee 履约保函履约保证 Performance Security 履约保证履约证书 Performance Certificate 履约证书卖方 Seller 卖方蒙特卡罗分析 Monte Carlo Analysis 蒙特卡罗分析敏感性分析 Sensitive Analysis 敏感性分析模糊数学法 Fuzzy Set 模糊数学法拟完工程计划费用 Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled, BCWS 拟完工程计划费用逆推法 Backward Pass 逆推法欧洲发展基金会 European Development Fund, EDF 欧洲发展基金会巴雷托图 Pareto Diagrams 排列图, 巴雷托图偏差变量 Cost V ariance, CV 偏差变量评标 Bid Evaluation 评标期望值 Expectation 期望值期中付款证书 Interim Payment Certificate 期中付款证书启动 Initiation 启动起始节点 Start Node 起始节点潜在的损失值 Risk Event V alue 潜在的损失值赢得值法 Earned V alue 曲线法, 赢得值法全面质量控制 Total Quality Control, TQC 全面质量控制权变措施 Workoround 权变措施缺陷通知期限 Defects Notification Period 缺陷通知期限确凿证据优先 Prima Facie 确凿证据优先人工费 Labor Cost 人工费人工量 Effort 人工量人力资源 Human Resource 人力资源人身风险 Life Risk 人身风险人为风险 Personal Risk 人为风险人员配备要求 Staffing Requirements 人员配备要求任务 Task 任务上控制线 Upper Control Limit, UCL 上控制线设计方 Designer 设计方设计一建造方式 Design - Build, DB 设计一建造方式设计图纸 Drawings 设计图纸生产设备 Plant 生产设备生命周期成本计算 Life - circle Costing 生命周期成本计算剩余工期 Remaining Duration 剩余工期施工合同 Construction Contract 施工合同施工合同分包 Subcontract 施工合同分包施工合同转让 Assignment 施工合同转让施工机械使用费 Expensesof Using Construction Machinery 施工机械使用费施工进度计划 Construction Schedule 施工进度计划施工组织设计 Construction Planning 施工组织设计时距 Time Difference 时距实际成本 Actual Cost 实际成本实际成本加百分比合同 Cost Plus Percentage - of - Cost Contract 实际成本加百分比合同实际成本加固定费用合同 Cost Plus Fixed - Fee (CPFF) Contract 实际成本加固定费用合同实际成本加奖金合同 Cost Plus Incentive - Fee (CPIF) Contract 实际成本加奖金合同实际开始日期 Actual Start Date, AS 实际开始日期实际完成日期 Actual Finish Date, AF 实际完成日期世界银行 The World Bank 世界银行事件 Event 事件受资源约束的进度计划 Resource - Limited Schedule 受资源约束的进度计划授予合同 Award of Contract 授予合同书面文字优先原则 Written Word Prevail 书面文字优先原则数据日期 Data Date 数据日期双代号时标网络法 Time - Coordinate Network, Time Scale Network 双代号时标网络法双代号网络图 Activity - on - Arrow Network, AOA 双代号网络图税金 Tax 税金私人主动融资 Project Finance Initiative, PFI 私人主动融资松弛时间 Slack 松弛时间索赔 Claims 索赔条形图 Bar Chart 条形图通货膨胀 Currency Inflation 通货膨胀统计和概率法 Statistics 统计和概率法投标 Bidding 投标投标保证 Bid Security 投标保证投标报价 Bid Price 投标报价投标函 Letter of Tender 投标函投标决策 Decision to Bid 投标决策投标人 Bidder 投标人投标人须知 Instruction to Bidders 投标人须知投标书 Tender 投标书投标书附录 Appendix to Tender 投标书附录投标文件的递送 Submission of Bids 投标文件的递送投标邀请书 Initiation to Bids 投标邀请书投标有效期 Bid V alidity 投标有效期投机风险 Speculative Risk 投机风险投资方 Investor 投资方投资估算 Cost Estimating 投资估算投资回报期 Investment Recovery Period 投资回报期图示评审技术 Graphical Evaluation Review Technique, GERT 图示评审技术团队成员 Team Member 团队成员退却计划 Fallback Plan 退却计划外币 Foreign Currency 外币完成百分比 Percent Complete (PC) 完成百分比完工估算 Estimate at Completion, EAC 完工估算完工尚需估算 Estimate to Complete, ETC 完工尚需估算完工预算 Budget at Completion, BAC 完工预算五条件 Unconditional, no Demand 五条件无限竞争性招标 Unlimited Competitive Tendering 无限竞争性招标下控制线 Lower Control Limit, LCL 下控制线现场 Site 现场线路 Path 线路限定性估算 Definitive Estimate 限定性估算项目 Project 项目项目报告 Project Report, PR 项目报告项目档案 Project Files 项目档案项目的执行与监督 Project Executionand Supervision 项目的执行与监督项目定义 Project Defining 项目定义项目风险 Project Risk 项目风险项目干系人 Stakeholder 项目干系人项目管理班子 Project Management Team 项目管理班子项目管理班子的偏好 Preferences of the Project Management Team 项目管理班子的偏好项目管理承包型 Project Management Contract, PMC 项目管理承包型项目管理模式 Project Management Approach 项目管理模式项目管理软件 Project Management Software 项目管理软件项目管理协会 Project Management Institute, PMI 项目管理协会项目管理知识体系 Project Management Body of Knowledge, PMBOK 项目管理知识体系项目管理咨询型 Project Management, PM 项目管理咨询型项目后评价 Project Post - evaluation 项目后评价项目计划 Project Planning 项目计划项目结构分解 Project Breakdown Structure 项目结构分解项目结束 project Closing 项目结束项目内在联系 Project Interfaces 项目界面, 项目内在联系项目进度计划 Project Schedule 项目进度计划项目负责人 Project Manager 项目经理, 项目负责人项目可行性研究 Project Feasibility Study 项目可行性研究项目控制 Project Controlling 项目控制项目评估 Project Appraisal 项目评估项目设计 Project Design 项目设计项目谈判 project Negotiation 项目谈判项目型组织 Projectized Organization 项目型组织项目选定 Project Identification 项目选定项目业主 Owner 项目业主项目预评估 Project Pre - Appraisal 项目预评估项目章程 Project Charter 项目章程项目执行 Project Executing 项目执行项目周期 Project Cycle 项目周期项目准备 Project Preparation 项目准备项目综合管 Project Integration Management 项目综合管信息技术 Information Technology, IT 信息技术虚活动 Dummy Activity 虚活动询价 Solicitation 询价亚洲开发银行 Asian Development Bank, ADB 亚洲开发银行延长工期索赔 Claims for Extensionof Time, Claims for EOT 延长工期索赔邀请招标 SelectiveTenderin6／InvitedBidding 邀请招标要约 Offer 要约已完工程计划费用 Budgeted Costof Work Performed, BCWP 已完工程计划费用已完工程实际费用 Actual Cost of Work Performed, ACWP 已完工程实际费用因果分析图 Cause - and - Effect Diagram 因果分析图银行保函 Bank Guarantee 银行保函应急储备 Contingency Reserve 应急储备应急费 Contingency Allowance 应急费英国土木工程师学会 Institute of Civil Engineer, ICE 英国土木工程师学会营运 Operation 营运影响图 Influence Diagram 影响图永久工程 Permanent works 永久工程优化 Optimization 优化有条件 Conditional 有条件有限竞争性招标 Limited Competitive Tendering 有限竞争性招标预可行性研究 Pre - Feasibility Study 预可行性研究运费在内价 Cost and Freight, CFR 运费在内价暂定金 Provisional Sum 暂定金责任风险 Liability Risk 责任风险招标 Bid Invitation／Tendering 招标招标人拒绝投标书的权利 Right to Reiiect Any or All Bids 招标人拒绝投标书的权利招标准备 Tendering Preparation 招标准备争端裁决委员会 Dispute Adiudication Board, DAB 争端裁决委员会正推法 Forward Pass 正推法直方图 Histogram 直方图直线型组织结构 Line Organization 直线型组织结构直线一职能型组织结构 Line - Functional Organization 直线一职能型组织结构职能型组织 Functional Organization 职能型组织职业健康安全 Occupational Healthand Safety, OHS 职业健康安全制约和限制 Constraintsand Limitations 制约和限制质量 Ouality 质量质量保证 Quality Assurance 质量保证质量成本 Cost of Quality 质量成本质量环 Quality Loop 质量环滞后 Lag 滞后中标函 Letter of Acceptance 中标函中标合同金额 Accepted Contract Amount 中标合同金额中介人 Intermediary 中介人中心线 Center Limit, CL 中心线终止节点 End Node 终止节点重叠 Overlap 重叠主导语言 Ruling Language 主导语言专家谈判估计 Expert Judgement 专家谈判估计咨询方 Consulter 咨询方资料表 Schedules 资料表资源计划 Resource Planning 资源计划资源配置 Resource Requirements 资源配置资源平衡 Resource Leveling 资源平衡资源效果 Resource Capabilities 资源效果子网络 Subnetwork 子网络子项目 Subproject 子项目自然风险 Natural Risk 自然风险自由时差 Free Float, FF 自由时差总承包商 General Contractor 总承包商总价合同 Lump Sum Contract 总价合同总时差 Total Float, TF 总时差租赁一建设一经营 Lease - Build - Operate, LBO 租赁一建设一经营组织关系 Organizational Relation 组织关系组织规划设计 Organizational Planning 组织规划设计组织机构 Organization Structure 组织机构组织结构分解 Organizational Breakdown Structure, OBS 组织结构分解组织联系 Organizational Interfaces 组织联系最悲观时间 Most Pessimistic Time 最悲观时间最迟结束时间 Latest Finish Date, LP 最迟结束时间最迟开始时间 Latest Start Date, I5 最迟开始时间最可能时间 Most Probable Time 最可能时间最乐观时间 Most Optimistic Time 最乐观时间最早结束时间 Earliest Finish Date, EF 最早结束时间最早开始时间 Earliest Start Date, ES 最早开始时间最终报表 Final Statement 最终报表最终付款证书 Pinsl Payment Certificate 最终付款证书。
工程管理专业英语翻译
Chapter 2 Organizing for Project Management 2.1What is Project Management?The management of construction projects knowledge of modern management as well as an understanding of the design and construction process. Construction projects have a specific set of objectives and constraints such as a required time frame for completion. While the relevant technology, institutional arrangements or processes will differ, the management of such projects has mush in common with the management of similar types of projects in other specialty or technology domains such as aerospace，pharmaceutical and energy developments.[1]Generally, project management is distinguished from the general management of corporations by the mission-oriented nature of a project [2]. A project organization will generally be terminated when the mission is accomplished. According to the Project Management Institute, the discipline of project management can be defined as follows [3]:Project management is the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve predetermined objectives of scope, cost, time, quality and participation satisfaction.By contrast, the general management of business and industrial corporations assumes a broader outlook with greater continuity of operations[4].Nevertheless, there are sufficient similarities as well as difference between the two so that modern management techniques developed for general management may be adapted for project management.The basic ingredients for a project management framework may be represented schematically in Figue2-1. A working knowledge of general management and familiarity with the special knowledge domain related to the project are indispensable. Supporting disciplines such as computer science and decision science may also play an important role. In fact, modern management practices and various special knowledge domains have absorbed various techniques or tools which were once identified only with the supporting discipline [5]. For example, computer-based information systems and decision support systems are nom common-place tools for general management. Similarly, many operations research techniques such as linear programming and network analysis are now widely used in many knowledge or application domains[6]. Hence, the representation in Figure 2-1 reflects only the sources from which the project management framework evolves.Figure 2-1 Basic Ingredients in Project Management Specifically, project management in construction encomprasses a set of objectives which may be accomplished by implementing a series of operations subject to resource constraints [7].There arePotential conflicts between the stated objectives with regard to scope, cost, time and quality, and the constraints imposed on human, material and financial resources. These conflicts should be resolved at the onset of a project by making the necessary tradeoffs or creating new alternatives.Subsequently, the function of project management for construction generally include the following1.Specification of project objectives and plans including delineation of scope, budgeting, scheduling, setting performance requirements, and selecting project participants.2.Maximization of efficient resource utilization through procurement of labor,materials and equipment according to the prescribed schedule and plan[8].3.Implementation of various operations through proper coordination and control of planning, design, estimating, contracting and construction in the entire process [9].4.Development of effective communication and mechanisms for resolving conflicts among the various participants.The Project management Institute focuses on nine distinct areas requiring project management knowledge and attention:1.Project integration management to ensure that the various project elements areeffectively coordinated.2. Project scope management to ensure that all the work required(and only the required work ) is included.3. Project time management to provide an effective project schedule .4. Project cost management to identify needed resources and maintain budget control .5. Project quality management tu ensure functional requirements are met .6. Project human resource management to development and effectively employ project personnel .7. Project communications management to ensure effective internal and external communications .8. Project risk management to analyze and mitigate potential risks .9. Project procurement management to obtain necessary resources from external sources .These nine areas form the basis of the Project Management Institute’s certification program for project managers in any industry .Wordsdomain 领域aerospace 航天pharmaceutical 医药的distinguish 区别，区分mission-oriented 以目标（任务）为导向的predetermined 预定的continuity 连续的ingredient 组成部分，成分indispensable 不可或缺的framework 框架，构架discipline 纪律scope 范围common-place 常见的linear programming 线性规划onset 开始trade off 均衡，权衡schedule 进度delineation 叙述，说明maximization 最大化utilization 使用communication 沟通integration 综合，整合certification 认证Notes[1] in common with 指“有共同之处”。
工程管理专业英语全文翻译
Unit 1 the owner’s perspective 第1单元业主的观点1.2 Major Types of Construction 1.2大建筑类型Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them [1]. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However ,many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction [2]. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry.由于大多数业主通常只对获得特定类型的建筑设施感兴趣，所以他们应该了解与他们有关的建筑类型的常见工业实践[1]。
工程管理专业毕业设计外文翻译(外文+翻译)
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction EnterprisesBy: R. Max WidemanAbstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system.Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost controlAfter joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control.1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control MethodsCost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of foreign projects)and company's cost-sharing.At present the main method for domestic construction enterprises to control project cost is to analyze cost, naming economic accounting, which is the major components of cost management and the analysis of economic activities. In accordance with its scope of target and deep-level of content, GM project cost analysis method can be divided into two categories, namely, comprehensive analysis of project cost and cost analysis of unit project Comprehensive analysis of project cost. It is carried in terms of budget and final accounts, cost reduction programs and construction installation costs. The methods used are as follows: (1) comparing the estimated cost and actual cost. Check the result to reduce cost, lower cost index and budget status. (2) comparing actual cost and project cost. Check cost reduction programs as well as the windage between the actual cost and plan cost. Inspect the rationality and implementation of techniques organizational measures and management plans.(3) comparing lower cost of the same period last year. Aanalyze causes and propose the improving direction. (4) Comparison between engineering units in cost-cutting. Identify the units cost-reducing, which finishes projects, with a view to further cost analysis.Cost analysis of unit project. Comprehensive analysis only understand project cost overruns or lower. If we want to get more detailed information, each cost item analysis of unit project is needed. Analysis mainly from the following aspects:(1) Materials cost analysis. From the view of material stock, production, transportation, inventory and management, we can analyze the discrepancy impact of material price and quantity, the cost-reducing effectiveness resulting from various technical measures, the loss from poor management.(2) Labor cost analysis . From the number of employment, hours of use, ergonomics, as well as wage situation, we can identify the savings and waste during labor use and fixed management.(3) Construction machinery cost analysis. From the construction options, mechanization degree, mechanical efficiency, fuel consumption, mechanical maintenance, good rates and utilization, we can analyze the yield and cost discrepancy of fixed-class ergonomics, the cost of poor classes, focused on improving mechanical utilization efficiency and waste caused by poor management.(4) Management cost analysis. From construction task and organizational staffing changes,non-production personnel changes, as well as other expenditure savings and waste, we can analyze management fees and justify the rationality of expenditure.(5) Technology organization measures implementing analysis. It can increase experience for future establishment and implementation of technical organization projects.(6) Other direct costs analysis. Focus on the analysis of second removal and water, electricity, wind, gas and other expenses situation during construction.2. The shortcomings of cost-control methodsAt present, domestic construction projects cost-control methods have played a significant role for Chinese construction industry and construction enterprises to reduce cost and gain sustainable development. However, we should be aware that these methods exist some shortcomings as follows:2.1 Lack of systemization.Presently, the cost control of construction enterprises is a simple control on cost. In fact, project cost control is closely related with project plans and progress, quality and safety. Therefore, cost control should include above-mentioned elements.2.2 Lack of real timeModern project management is increasingly tending real-time management and forward-looking management, paying more attention to "promptly identify and solve problems", emphasizing as much as possible to identify and solve problems before problems occur. The current control system is to control after problems occur, which can't avoid loss.In addition, current cost-control method is static. It can't monitor and reflect timely costs change, therefore, this method can't provide the support of decision-making for projects management under construction.2.3 Lack of error-checking and error-correcting mechanismThe current cost-control method is the single-class without error-checking and error-correcting mechanism. If mistakes occur in the future, we can't discover timely, or even impossible found. 2.4 Lack of compatibilityThere is lack of compatibility between project cost-control and project finance and corporate management system. The project budget is built on ration, but project financial item subjects are based on current financial general regulation. This is not consistent betweenmethods. Specific to the software, financial sector of domestic construction enterprises is generally adopting some general financial software, such as UF, IBM. The software is not specifically for the development of construction enterprise, not reflecting the special nature of construction enterprises. However, the budget software is also not considered financial aspect. The lack of compatibility leads to void labor and low management efficiency. At the same time, it increases the probability of error information and error decision2.5 Limitation on notions and quality of personnelThese days, most of construction enterprises are faced with the shortage of qualified personnel during improving cost-control system. It is difficult to find a suitable person with budget and financial knowledge and practical experience in project management.3. Suggestions for improving domestic cost-control methodsFrom the view of enterprises and projects, project cost control is a system engineering. It needs standardization and systematization, closely related to many factors. If current domestic construction enterprises want to establish a practical and efficient cost control systems, the cost-control methods must be improved as follows:3.1 Establish systemic cost-control systemAccording to the specific situation of enterprises, company's cost-control guiding documents should be developed. Based on current fixed budget, enterprises develop work breakdown structure of specific conditions. And on these base, along with progress, quality and safety factors, cost control system will be established ultimately, including the establishment of project cost real-time control (the first class by full-time staff in the execution of project cost control, reporting cycle for one week or fortnight), project cost integrated control (the second class, by financial officers in the execution of projects, reporting cycle for fortnight or a month) and corporate cost control (the third class, by company's financial sector, reporting cycle for a month or a quarter). Such three class cost control system resolve the problems of real-time and error-correcting mechanism.3.2 Develop specific control processesAccording to enterprises' specific circumstances, we should formulate specific control processes, identify levels for controlling reporting periods, and arrange specific persons to monitor. Throughout reporting period, two kinds of data or information need to be collected: (1)the actual execution of data, including the actual time for beginning or end, and the actual cost.(2) the project scope, progress plan and budget change information. These changes may result from the clients or project teams, or from some unforeseen things such as natural disasters, labor strikes or key project team members to resign. These changes should be included in project plan and obtained the consent of customers, then new baseline plan need to establish. The scope, progress and budget of new plan may be different from initial plan.Above-discussed data or information must be timely collected, so that it can become the base to update project progress and budget. For example, if the project reporting period is a month, data and information should be collected at the end of month as far as possible, which can guarantee progress in the updated plan and budget.3.3 Improve project financial subjectBased on work breakdown structure, enpterpries should improve project financial subjects so that projects match with real-time cost control, company's financial and cost control systems, which can solve the compatibility between cost control and finance. At the same time, financial system and cost control system using the same data format, similar forms and data-sharing can improve effectively. In the short term, construction enterprise can transform the existing software and statements to achieve cost savings and reduce the impact of system transformation. In the long-term, enterprises can adopt suitable management software and build company's integrated management system.3.4 Balance precision control and cost controlWhen improving project control system, we should pay attention to balance precision control and cost control. Cost control is through the whole process of project. Under normal circumstances, enterprises can take a fixed period report. If new problems will be detected, then enterprises should increase the reporting frequency until problems are resolved.3.5 Train current staffEnterprises should gradually train the existing staff for the future reserves. In any system, human element is always the first one. No matter how perfect and advanced a management system is, and it ultimately relies on people.3.6 Identify core contentsThe core contents for cost control are team spirit, technology and work process consistency,standard management methods, foreseeing difficulties and contradictions, fostering a challenging work environment and continuing improvement.研究建筑施工企业的项目成本控制马克斯.怀德曼摘要：随着建筑市场的日趋成熟,建筑施工企业之间的竞争变得激烈。
工程管理专业外文文献及翻译
本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Changing roles of the clientsArchitects and contractorsThrough BIM文献、资料来源：Engineering, Construction, Archi-tectual Management文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2010.2院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期：页脚内容外文文献：Changing roles of the clients,architects and contractors throughBIMRizal SebastianTNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The NetherlandsAbstractPurpose– This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes.Design/methodology/approach– Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Through several real cases, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated.Findings–One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R). Furthermore, it is also found that the implementation of BIM in hospital building projects is still limited due to certain commercial and legal barriers, as well as the fact that integrated collaboration has not yet been embedded in the real estate strategies of healthcare institutions. Originality/value–This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. Itpresents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects.Keywords Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planningPaper type General review1. IntroductionHospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-user’s dissatisfaction,and energy inefficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored (Dawood and Sikka, 2008). There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite for an effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application areinvestigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approachesA hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to manage and finance their building projects and real estate. The government’s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will be included in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors andspecialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Health to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world (van Reedt Dortland, 2009).The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007). The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift ofmindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client’s capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures (Sebastian et al., 2009).A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In anoth er case, the architect can stand at the client’s side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architect’s responsibility is translating client’s requirements and wishes into the architectural values to be included in t he design specification, and evaluating the contractor’s proposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based on the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium. A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are placed with the client.In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If the building actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that exceed the minimum clien t’s requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance to the client’s extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational,local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc. (Sebastian et al., 2009).The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design until the project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply common values and goals.3. Changing roles through BIM applicationBuilding information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support the integrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates time and place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in its ultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability, can become avirtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client (Sebastian et al., 2009).BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes further than an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings (Bratton, 2009). BIM is an integrated model in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actors throughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops and evolves as the project progresses. Using BIM, the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client’s requirements and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design process extend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clash detection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, and as-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communication between the building site, the factory and the design office–which is crucial for an effective and efficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combination with the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of the building performance, including the life-cycle cost.To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows thatCAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors (Kiviniemi et al., 2008).The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according to the type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, but his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication protocols, task planning, and risk management;and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification of communication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “In what way does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPR in a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is attached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design,BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, in case of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIM with authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of the IPR(Chao-Duivis, 2009).How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the one hand, collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in the contract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM Addendum confirms: ‘This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships or shifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments’ (ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand, changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM will lead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in the detailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means that significant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the design cost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary(Chao-Duivis, 2009).4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIMIn The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy, which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy. Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of the changing roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method and a life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIM structure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. The preceding sections have discussed the conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current sectionobserves two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the future; andthe roles and tasks of the model manager.The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the building actors, and the user participation in design;facilitating optimal information accessibility and exchange for a highconsistency of the drawings and documents across disciplines and phases;integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation, and planning;interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements and specifications;reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process;andoptimising the management of the facility through the registration of medical installations and equipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC opted for a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation。
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工程管理专业外文翻译西安科技大学高新学院毕业设计（论文）外文翻译学生姓名：贺永琴院（系）：建筑与土木工程学院专业班级：工程管理1004班指导教师：李慧完成日期：2013年12月30日要求1.外文翻译是毕业设计（论文）的主要内容之一，学生必须独立完成。
2.外文翻译文内容应与学生的专业或毕业设计（论文）内容相关，不得少于15000印刷字符。
3.外文翻译文用A4纸打印。
文章标题用3号宋体，章节标题用4号宋体，正文用小4号宋体；页边距上下左右均为2.5cm,左侧装订，装订线0.5cm。
按中文翻译在上，外文原文在下的顺序装订。
4.年月日等的填写，用阿拉伯数字书写，要符合《关于出版物上数字用法的试行规定》，如“2009年2月15日”。
5.所有签名必须手写，不得打印工程管理专业外文翻译摘要本翻译主要针对工程管理本专业的工程项目管理、工程量清单、工程量等专业术语进行阐述，从而使自己对工程管理专业有更深刻的了解和认识。
当前，世界经济一体化，我国随后加入了世贸组织，使我国在各行各业都有了新的突破，为了增强国际竞争力，在重视硬件发展的同时，我们不能忽视软件（工程管理）的发展。
因此，工程量清单计价规范和无底招标的推行使我国工程管理和工程量清单等实现了与国际社会的全面接轨。
关键词：工程管理，工程量清单，工程量工程管理是对具有技术成分的活动进行计划、组织、资源分配以及指导和控制的科学和艺术。
中国工程院咨询项目《我国工程管理科学发展现状研究》报告中对工程管理有如下界定：工程管理是指为实现预期目标，有效利用资源，对工程所进行的决策、计划、组织、指挥、协调与控制。
工程项目管理是工程管理的一个主要组成部分，它采用项目管理方法对工程的建设过程进行管理，通过计划和控制保证工程项目目标的实现，不仅包括工程项目管理，还包括工程的决策、工程估价、工程合同管理、工程经济分析、工程技术管理、工程质量管理、工程的投融资、工程资产管理等。
工程管理的目标是取得工程的成功，是工程达到成功的各项要求，对于一个具体的工程，这些要求就转化为工程的目标。
同时，工程管理是对工程全生命期的管理，包括对工程的前期决策的管理、设计和计划的管理、施工的管理、运营维护管理等。
除此之外，工程管理是以工程为对象的系统管理方法，通过一个临时性的、专门的柔性组织，对工程建设和运营过程进行高效率的计划、组织、指导和控制，以对工程进行全过程的动态管理，实现工程的目标。
因此，目前在工程管理方面应从以下几方面学习：1、技术领域工程管理专业培养具备管理学、经济学和土木工程技术的基本知识，学生在校学习期间，要接受工程师和经济师的基本素质训练，打好工程技术、管理、经济、法律、外语及计算机应用方面的坚实基础。
管理学院在对工程管理专业人才培养过程中，积极提供相应条件，使学生根据自身能力，能够攻读相关学科专业的双学位和双专业。
有不少人认为工程管理就是一种单纯的管理学科，工程管理需要学习的不仅仅是一种管理的思想，同时还要求有一定的工程背景和数学知识。
2、培养要求在这门专业的学习中，应明白一个基本的等式就是“工程管理=工程技术+经济管理”，当然决不是简单的相加，而应当掌握几个基本的技能：（1）掌握以土木工程技术为主的理论知识和实践技能；（2）掌握相关的管理理论和方法；（3）掌握相关的经济理论；（4）掌握相关的法律、法规；（5）具有从事工程管理的理论知识和实践能力；（6）具有阅读工程管理专业外语文献的能力；（7）具有运用计算机辅助解决工程管理问题的能力；（8）具有较强的科学研究能力。
总的来说，工程管理还是偏重于管理科学，适合那些人际交往能力强，又善于用理性去思考问题的考生报考。
3、培养目标本专业的培养目标是培养适应现代化建设需要，德智体全面发展，具备工程技术及经济管理、法律等基本知识，获得工程师基本训练，具有较强实践能力、创新能力、组织管理能力的高级工程管理人才。
工程管理专业与国家注册监理工程师、国家注册造价工程师的知识结构相接轨，专业方向涵盖工程项目管理、房地产管理经营、工程投资与造价管理、国际工程承包等方向。
毕业生可从事工程咨询、工程项目施工、房地产开发与经营的相关工作，专业覆盖面宽，从业范围广，社会需求大。
4、就业状况工程管理专业的就业领域涉及建筑工程、工程施工和控制管理、房地产经营以及金融、宾馆、贸易等行业部门的管理工作。
这一专业涉及就业领域对人才的大量需求比较普遍。
从银行证券到酒店宾馆，从建筑企业到房地产开发公司都急需补充大量的工程营造管理及相关专业的人才，因此人才市场上对该专业人才的需求量很大。
该专业就业领域所涉及到的工作是：综合系统地运用管理、建筑、经济、法律等基本知识，侧重于工程建筑、施工管理以及房地产经营开发，并熟悉中国相关的方针、政策和法规，进行企业工程开发建设项目的经营和管理。
近年来由于市场经济的发展需要，国家修改制定了一系列相关的就业政策，为专业人才的发展创造更加有利的市场环境，完善了专业人才尤其是高校毕业生脱颖而出的市场机制。
北京市先后出台了《北京招聘外地人才细则》等政策，使外地专业人才留京之路进一步拓宽。
享受政策优惠的人才包括从事科技、文教、经贸等工作，具有大学专科以上学历，人事关系和常住户口不在北京市的专业技术人员和管理人员。
该专业毕业生在就业时需注意三个问题。
第一、就业时要分清主次。
在择业时应把事业放在第一位，其次才是工作地点的选取。
经济发达省市的建筑业市场已趋于饱和，而中西部地区则刚刚起步，选择落后地区将有助于自己今后长远的发展；第二、根据自己的特点和能力合理地选择职业。
应做好自我能力水平的分析，知道自己知识能力适用于哪些具体职位和工作；第三、就业时不应以金钱作为衡量事业成功的尺度，应着眼长远，选择对自己长远发展有利的职业。
从北京市国际展览中心人才交流会的状况来看，近几年该专业毕业生就业状况出现明显好转，但比起有经验的人员还比较逊色。
而与此专业就业领域相关的主要行业之一是房地产业。
这一行业的发展趋势随着国民经济整体形势不断好转逐渐走向高潮，住宅投资和市场需求全面看好。
2000年一季度北京市完成投资34．6亿元，增长16．9%。
从长期看，竣工面积升幅将下降，而需求面积将上升，供求形势乐观。
个性鲜明、外观典雅的经济型住房将大受欢迎。
同时政府将继续加大城建投资力度。
房地产行业向着好的形势不断发展。
但机遇与竞争并存，激烈的市场竞争对房地产业的开发建设、经营管理都提出了更高的要求。
市场越来越注重专业化的竞争：房盘设计的专业化、周围社区服务的专业化以及相关物业管理的专业化。
顺应行业专业化发展的趋势，相关的职业也将呈现出专业化发展的态势，使原来的职业逐渐细分，达到功能运作的合理与完善，以适应激烈的市场竞争。
该专业毕业生就业趋势，也将逐步适应市场行业的快节奏发展步伐，在全行业回暖的经济背景下，在与国际化逐渐接轨的历史条件下，继续向好的方向发展。
除此之外，在工程管理项目中，工程量清单是完成建设工程需要实施的各个分项及其工程数量的明细清单，它是将设计图纸和业主对项目的建设要求以及要求承建人完成的工作转换成许多条明细分项和数量的表单格式，每条分项描述叫一个清单项目或清单分项，它也反映了承包人完成建设项目需要实施的具体的分项目标。
工程量清单是投标人填报分项工程单价，对工程进行计价的依据。
招标人提供的工程量清单为投标人提供了一个平等的竞争报价的基础。
实行工程量清单计价是建立公开、公正、公平的工程计价和竞价的市场环境，逐步解决定额计价中与工程建设市场不相适应的因素，深化建设工程招标投标工作的改革措施，实行建立在工程量清单计价模式上的招投标制度具有很强的优越性：1>充分引人市场竞争机制，规范招标投标行为。
2>实现量价为分离、强调风险分担，促进各方面管理水平提高。
>3增强招投标过程的透明度，淡化标底的作用。
4>缩短招标周期、提高社会效益。
5>加快改革开放步伐，引人国际竞争机制。
工程量是指以物理计量单位或自然计量单位表示的建筑工程各个分项工程或结构构件的实物数量。
工程量是确定工程量清单、建筑工程直接费、编制工程施工组织、安排工程施工进度、编制材料供应计划、进行统计工作和实现经济核算的重要依据。
其计算是一个重要而细致的过程，在计算过程中，除依据工程量清单计价规范和定额中工程量计算规则的各项规定外，还应依据下列文件来进行计算：1>经审定的施工图纸及设计说明书、相关图集、设计变更资料、图纸答疑、会审记录等。
2>经审定的施工组织设计或施工方案。
3>工程施工合同、招标文件的商务条款。
4>经审定的其他有关技术经济文件。
总之，我国对工程项目管理、工程量清单以及工程量进行严格要求，为保证我国建筑行业的质量和安全奠定了基础。
因此,改变原有工程造价估算，概算，预算，合同价格，结算价，决算完成搬迁的。
缺乏连续性的情况下, 以完善的控制水平，发展控制系统的投资项目, 投资建设项目,可以促进我国社会主义市场经济发展,适应全球经济一体化进程。
Project management professionalforeignlanguage translationSummaryThe translation is mainly for project management professional project management, engineering, engineering and other professional terminology to explain, allowing themselves to have a better knowledge and understanding of project management major. At present, the world economy, then joined the World Trade Organization, so that there is a new breakthrough in all sorts, in order to enhance their international competitiveness, emphasis on hardware development at the same time, we cannot ignore the software (management) development. Therefore, normative and non-implementation of the tendering of Bill of quantities of engineering management and Bill of quantities to achieve a full integration with the international community.Key words: project management, Bill of quantities, quantitiesProject management is to plan, organize activities with technological components, resource allocation, as well as guidance and control of science and art. Consulting project of the Chinese Academy of engineering engineering management of the status quo of scientific research of engineering management in the report has the following definition: project management is expected to achieve its objectives, the efficient use of resources, project decision making, planning, organizing, directing, coordinating and controlling. Project management is a major component of project management, it project management methodology for project process management, planning and control guarantees the achievement of project objectives, including not only project management, including decision-making, project evaluation, project economic analysis of contract management, engineering, project management, project quality management, project investment and financing, asset management, such as.Project management's goal is to achieve project success, is to meet successfully the requirements for a specific project, these requirements translate into the target.At the same time, project management is the project life-cycle management, including early decisions for engineering design and management, program management, construction management, operations, maintenance and management. In addition, project management is aimed at engineering approach to systems management, through an ad hoc, flexible organizations, specialized, project construction and operations processes for efficient planning, organizing, directing and controlling based on dynamic management of engineering, realization of the project objectives. Therefore, in engineering management from the following areas:1、Technology projectManagement professional training with basic knowledge in management, economics and civil engineering technology students during the study period, to accept the basic quality and training of engineers and economists, good engineering, management, economics, law, foreign languages, and a solid foundation of computer applications. School of management in engineeringmanagement in the course of professional training, also provides the appropriate conditions, students according to their ability, to pursue a dual degree in related disciplines, and double majors.A lot of people believe that project management is a simple management discipline, project management needs to learn more than just a management idea, also requires a certain degree of knowledge of engineering and mathematics.2、Training requirementsIn the professional learning, should understand this basic equation is "project management = economic+ management of engineering", of course, by no means a simple sum, but some basic skills:(1) Master in civil engineering technology-oriented theoretical knowledge and practical skills;(2) To acquire the relevant management theory and methods;(3) Control of economic theory;(4) Acquire the relevant laws and regulations;(5)With the theoretical knowledge and practical abilities in engineering management;(6) Has a reading ability to project management professional foreign language documents;(7) With the use of computer-assisted project managementproblem-solving abilities;(8) With strong scientific research capabilities. In General, project management emphasis on scientific management, for those strong interpersonal communication skills, and good reason to think the candidates.3、Cultivation and training objectives in the fieldThis professional training objective is the modernization of training needs, the needs of development, with basic knowledge such as engineering and economic management, legal, access to basic training of engineers, with a strong practical ability, creativity, organization and management of advanced project management talents. Project management professional and national registered supervision engineers, State-registered cost engineer knowledge structures of integration into the professional direction covering project management, property management, and cost management of project investment, international project contracting and other directions.Graduates in engineering consulting, project construction, real estate development and management of related work, professional wide coverage, industry wide social needs.4、The employment situationOf engineering management major areas of employment involved in construction, engineering, construction and management, property management, and financial management, hotels, trade and industry sectors. This specialty involves high demand for talents in the field of employment more widespread. Securities from banks to hotels, from construction to real estate development companies will need to replenish large amounts of engineering construction management and related professional talents, talents for the professionals are in great demand on the market. The work of the professionals involved in the field of employment are: integrated systems management, architectural, economic, legal, and other basic knowledge, focused on engineering and construction, construction management and real estate management and development, and is familiar with China's related guidelines, policies and regulations, enterprise operation and management of project development and construction projects.In recent years due to the development of the market economy needs review formulated a series of relevant employment policy, for professional development and create a more favorable market environment and perfect professionals, especially college graduates stand out on the market mechanism. Beijing, which follows the recruitment of foreign talent rules and other policies, so that professionals in the field remain road to Beijing to further expand. Favourable policy for talent, including engaging in economic and trade, science and technology, culture, education, work, have a university diploma, human relations and the city of residence was not in Beijing by professional technicians and managers. The graduates in employment should pay attention to three issues. First, employment is to distinguish between major and minor. In choosing a career should be placed in the first position, followed by selection of the duty stations. Economically developed provinces and cities in the construction market has become saturated, while the Midwest is just getting started, select backward areas will contribute to the long-term development of their future; the second, according to its own characteristics and reasonable choice of career. Analysis of your ability level, knowing knowledge applicable to specific positions and work; third, employment, money should not be used as a measure of success, youshould look forward to the future, enabling occupations selected for their long-term development. Judging from the talent fair in Beijing International Exhibition Center, specialized graduates ' employment situation improved markedly in recent years, but compared to the relatively less experienced personnel.With this professional real estate industry is one of the major areas of employment-related industry. The trend in this industry with improving the overall situation of the national economy gradually towards orgasm, residential investment and market demand overall look good. In 2000, Beijing completed investment of 3.46 billion yuan in the first quarter In the long run, completed an increase will fall and demand areas will rise, optimism the supply and demand situation. Budget homes, distinctive, elegant appearance will be very popular. While the Government will continue its efforts to increase investment in urban construction. Real estate industry in good situations continue to develop. But both opportunities and competition, the intensity of competition in the market for real estate development, construction, operation and management of the industry has put forward higher requirements. Competition in the market is increasingly focusing on specialization: Fang Pan design services of specialized professional, and the surrounding communities as well as professional property management. Conform to the professional development of trends in the industry, related occupations will also show a trend of specialization development, so that the original's career gradually subdivided, meet reasonable and improvement of functions, to meet the fierce competition in the market. The graduate employment trends, will gradually adapt to the fast-paced development of the marketing industry, warmer across the industry under the background of economic, and internationalization of the gradual convergence of historical circumstances, continue to develop in a good direction.Besides, in engineering management project in the, engineering volume list is completed construction engineering needs implementation of all points items and engineering number of detail list, it is will design drawings and owners on project of construction requires and requires contractors people completed of work conversion into many article detail points items and number of table single format, each article points items description called alist project or list points items, it also reflect has contractor completed construction project needs implementation of specific of points items target.Engineering quantity list price bidders is to complete project, on project basis for valuation. Bill of quantities provided by the tenderer for bidders to provide a competitive quote on an equal basis. Introduced engineering volume list pricing is established open, and just, and fair of engineering pricing and bid of market environment, gradually settlement fixed pricing in the and engineering construction market not phase adapted of factors, deepening construction engineering tender bid work of reform measures, introduced established in engineering volume list pricing mode Shang of enrollment bid system has is strong of superiority: 1> full inductive market competition mechanism, specification tender bid acts. Volume pricing for the separation of 2>, stressed the risk-sharing and to promote management development. >3 enhanced transparency in the bidding process, play down the role of bidding. 4> shorten the tendering cycle, increase social benefits. 5> accelerate the pace of reform and opening up, source of international competition.Quantities are expressed in physical units of measurement or natural units of measurement of building works or structural elements of physical quantities. Engineering is the engineering quantity list, direct costs of construction projects, organization of preparation of construction organization, construction progress, the preparation of materials supply plans, statistical work and achieve economic accounting basis. Its computation is an important and detailed process, computation, except pursuant to engineering Bill pricing norms and norm quantities calculated in addition to the provisions of the rule, should be evaluated based on the following documents: 1> certified construction drawings and design specifications, drawings, design changes, answer record, triage information, drawings, and so on. 2> certified construction organization design or construction project. 3> terms of construction contracts, tender documents. 4> validated other relevant technical and economic documentation.In short, our project management, quantities and quantities are strictly required, in order to ensure the quality and safety of the construction industry in China laid the foundations. Therefore, changing the original project cost estimates, budget, budgeting, contract prices, clearing, accounts to complete the relocation. Case of lack of continuity, with perfect control, development of control system for investment projects, investment and construction projects,can promote the development of China's socialist market economy and adapt to the process of global economic integration.。