应用语言学教程答案
应用语言学第七章课后习题答案
Chapter 61. How are different types of learning related to learning English as a foreign language? Learning has been classified in many different ways .The most useful classification is based on the task of learning (i.e. what is being learned).Based on the nature of the learning task, three types of learning are identified :skill learning ,affective and social learning, and cognitive learning .Type 1,signal learningThis is a somewhat specialized type of learning.It is called signal learning to emphasize that the learner is associating an already available response with a new signal or stimulus .One important characteristics of this type of learning is that it involves the Pavlovian conditioned response ,which is general ,diffuse ,and emotional.This kind of response has a truly “involuntary”character .A fear response ,for example,involves general ,diffuse activity including speeded heartbeat,constriction of blood vessels and other internal involuntary behavior .In our daily life, learning to respond to alarm clock bells or automobile horns falls into this type of learning .Type 2,stimulus-response learningType 3 chainingType 4 verbal association (or sequence)Type 5 multiple discriminationType 6 concept learningType 7 principle learningType 8 problem-solvingLanguage learning is a complex task which involves all these types of learning . For example,in learning the pronunciation of a second language,the learner is concerned with how to produce the appropriate sound patterns –a sensorimotor skill or part of a skill.If the learner cannot distinguish two sounds and therefore cannot pronounce them,he needs to know the articulatory description of the two sounds .This involves conceptual learning.The actual learning of a second language is accompanied by emotional reactions, and entire learning experience may lead to a fixed constellation of likes and dislikes directed towards the language and the people speaking that language.2.Illustrate the general learning strategies with examples from yourself or your Students in learning English.ways in which a learner attempts to work out the meanings and uses of words, grammatical rules, and other aspects of a languagemetacognitive strategies :1.thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process2.monitoring learning while it is taking place, 3.evaluating learning after it has occurred A. advance organizersB. directed attentionC. selective attentionD. self-managementE. functional planningF. self-monitoringG. delayed productionH. self-evaluationcognitive strategies:processes and behavior which learners use to help them improve their ability to learn or remember something, particularly those which learners use with specific classroom tasks and activitiesA. repetitionB. ResourcingC. translationD. groupingsocioaffective strategies:social-mediating activity and transacting with others3.What are the major strategies employed by good students in your class?Tarone defines learning strategy as attempts to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language. The motivation for the use of learning strategy is the desire to learn the target language rather than the desire to communicate .Production strategies are used to accomplish communication goals;they reflect an interest in using the language system efficiently and clearly without excessive munication strategies are an adaptation to the failure to realize a language production goal.They therefore serve an important role in negotiating meaning between individuals.Rubin suggests that the good language learner :1)is a willing and accurate guesser2) has a strong drive to communicate3)is often uninhibited about his weaknesses in the L2 and ready to risk making mistakes4)is willing to attend to form5)practices6)monitors7)attends to meaning in its social contextStern identifies four basic sets of strategies from the basic considerations and research of language learning:1)Active planning strategy Good language learners will select goals and subgoals,recoginize stages and developmental sequences and actively participate in the learning process2)”Academic “(explicit)learning strategy Good language learners are prepared to study and practice .They pay attention to the features of language as a formal system with rules and regular retationships between forms and meaning.3)Social learning strategy Good language learners seek communicative contact with target language users and are active participants in authentic language use4)Affective language Good language learners can cope effective with the emotion and motivational problems of language learning .They approach the task of L2 learning in a positive frame of mind and cultivate positive attitudes towards themselves as language learner s, towards language and language learning in general,and towards the target language and its society and culture.4.What is the difference between learning strategy and learning style?There was significant difference between learning strategy and learning style.,but it simply existed in one type of learning strategy.Three learning styles (visual,auditory and kinesthetic)did not influence all the six types of learning strategies (memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective and social).The learning styles only influenced the use of social strategies.In addition ,after the Post Hoc Scheffe test,researchers found that learners with auditory learning styles use more social strategies than those with vusual learning style.In conclusion, the common element in all these styles involves the way people perceive problems and the effect this might have on the paths taken to a resolution.In this sense, learning styles are more general and abstract than learning strategies,for learning style refers to the way people perceive problems , whereas learning strategies refer to the paths they take to arrive at asolution of the problem.5.Discuss the relevance of the three pairs of learning styles to learning English as a foreign language.Field independence vs.field dependenceA field-independent person tends to perceive analytically . That is ,he tends to perceive particular relevant items in a field as discrete from the field as a whole. A field-dependent person, on the other hand, tends to perceive globally; his perception tends to be dominated by the total field.As a result,the parts embedded in the field are not easily perceived. It has been found that field-dependent persons tends to show a strong social orientation; they are usually more empathetic and more perceptive of feelings of others. Field-independent persons , on the other hand, tend to show an “impersonal orientation”; they are generally individualistic and less aware of the things by which others are moved.Some researchers have found that the field-independent person is the better L2 learner because he will be better able to focus on the relevant variables in a language lesson or a conversation.Other researches, however, have found that field-dependent persons are superior L2 learners because of their social orientation. Brown speculates that field-independence may be more important in traditional classroom settings with a strong emphasis on analysis on analytical activities, whereas field dependence may be more important in the natural setting. In language learning it is often necessary to understand language items in their context and at the same time it is also necessary to classify the items out of that context to understand them paradigmatically . Therefore , the optimal degree of both may be necessary for successful language learning.Reflectivity vs.impulsivityThe person who makes an impulsive, off-hand response is an impulsive, whereas the one who is prepared to pause and reflect on the mature of a question and the accuracy of the answer is a reflective . Reflectives tend to be more anxious about the quality of their performance and more capable of sustained attention than impulsives. It has been found that impulsive learners make more errors in L2 reading than reflective learners but they are faster readers. However , Hewett has found that subjects who rate themselves more frflective athan impulsive achieve significantly better reading scores.Kagan et al. have found that inductive reasoning seems to be more effective with reflective learners.Broad vs.narrow category widthIt has been found that L2 learners who are broad categorizers tend to overgeneralize rules they have learned because they tend to subsume too many items under one rule,whereas narrow categorizers have difficulty in making generalizations, which are necessary for efficient L2 learning,because they tend to create a rule for every item. Naiman et al. have hypothesized that the best language lcarners would be those who neither generalize too much nor too little. That is to say, both operations are needed under different circumstances in language leaning;the good language learner is probably a “middle-of-the-roader”,reasonably precise in the application of rules and yet prepared to take risks in order to test the limits of a rule.6. Why is it necessary for the language teacher to have some knowledge of these cognitive variables?Three major groups of cognitive variables: types of learning, strategies of learning and styles of learning. The first is related to learning tasks, whereas the other two are related to individual characteristics of learners.It is noteworthy that the combination of those variables constitutes a multiplicity of individual differences in language learners. The teacher needs to recognize and understand those differences so as to provide optimal opportunities for his learners.To have some knowledge of these cognitive variables will undoubtedly help the language teacher to get a better understanding of students’ learning potential and eventually contribute tolanguage teaching.善良是女人最好的修养，做一个善良的女人，在别人遇到困难时伸出援助之手，遭遇挫折时给予微笑和鼓励，懂得为他人着想，懂得谦让感恩。
语言学教程习题答案第一章
语言学教程习题答案第一章语言学教程习题答案第一章在语言学的学习过程中，习题是非常重要的一部分，通过习题的练习可以帮助我们巩固知识，提高对语言学理论的理解和应用能力。
本文将针对语言学教程第一章的习题进行解答，并对其中一些重要的概念进行深入探讨。
1. 什么是语言学？语言学是研究语言的科学，它涉及到语言的结构、语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的研究。
通过对语言的研究，我们可以了解语言的起源、发展、结构以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。
2. 语言学的研究方法有哪些？语言学的研究方法包括田野调查、实验研究、文献研究等。
田野调查是指通过对语言使用环境的观察和实地访谈等方式，收集语言数据并进行分析。
实验研究则是通过实验室环境下的控制变量实验，来研究语言现象。
文献研究则是通过对已有的语言学文献进行分析和综述，来推测和总结语言学理论。
3. 语言学的研究对象是什么？语言学的研究对象是语言。
语言是人类交流的工具，它包括语音、词汇、语法等方面的内容。
通过对语言的研究，我们可以了解语言的结构、规律以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。
4. 什么是语言的层次结构？语言的层次结构是指语言的组成部分之间的关系。
从上到下，语言的层次结构包括语言（language）、语言系统（linguistic system）、语言单位（linguistic unit）以及语言要素（linguistic element）。
语言单位是指语言中的最小有意义的单位，如音素、词素、词等。
语言要素则是指构成语言单位的基本成分，如音素、词素中的音素。
5. 什么是语音学？语音学是研究语言中的语音现象的学科。
它研究的内容包括语音的产生、传播和接收等方面。
通过对语音的研究，我们可以了解语音的分类、规律以及语音与语义、语法之间的关系。
6. 什么是语音？语音是语言中的声音现象。
它是通过声带、口腔、鼻腔等发声器官的协调运动而产生的。
语音可以分为音位和音素两个层次。
音位是语言中的最小音位单位，它是语音的抽象概念。
语言学教程试题及答案
语言学教程试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学研究的中心是（）。
A. 语言B. 文字C. 语音D. 语法答案：A2. 以下哪个选项不属于语言学的分支学科？A. 语音学B. 词汇学C. 心理学D. 社会语言学答案：C3. 语言的最小意义单位是（）。
A. 音素B. 词C. 语素D. 句子答案：C4. 语言的交际功能不包括以下哪一项？A. 信息传递B. 情感表达C. 社会身份标识D. 艺术创作5. 以下哪个术语不是索绪尔语言学理论中的概念？A. 语言符号B. 语言系统C. 语言行为D. 语言结构答案：C6. 语言的演变过程不包括以下哪一项？A. 语音变化B. 词汇变化C. 语法变化D. 文化变化答案：D7. 以下哪个选项不是语言的交际方式？A. 口头交流B. 书面交流C. 非言语交流D. 内心独白答案：D8. 语言的规范性主要体现在（）。
A. 语法规则B. 词汇使用C. 语音系统D. 所有以上选项答案：D9. 以下哪个选项不是语言的变异现象？B. 社会方言C. 语言混合D. 语言的统一答案：D10. 语言的生成性是指（）。
A. 语言的创造性B. 语言的稳定性C. 语言的规范性D. 语言的交际功能答案：A二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学是一门研究人类语言的科学，其研究对象包括语言的结构、功能、起源和发展等。
2. 语言的音位学研究的是语言的_________系统。
答案：语音3. 语言的词汇学研究的是语言的_________单位。
答案：词4. 语言的句法学研究的是语言的_________结构。
答案：句子5. 语言的语用学研究的是语言在_________中的使用。
答案：交际6. 语言的语料库语言学研究的是语言的_________数据。
答案：实际7. 语言的语义学研究的是语言的_________关系。
答案：意义8. 语言的语篇分析研究的是语言的_________结构。
答案：连贯9. 语言的对比语言学研究的是不同语言之间的_________关系。
应用语言学第四章课后习题答案
应用语言学第四章课后习题答案Chapter41. Is it easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue? Why (not)?No, it is not easy for the child to acquire his mother tongue.First of all, he must segment the sound stream into meaningful units (words or phrases). This requires his ability to analyze. Then, he must combine them to arrive at the intended underlying propositions. This requires his ability to synthesize.2. What questions must theories of L1 acquisition answer? Why?Psycholinguists who study child language are confronted with a more complex task than theoretical linguists whose major concern is competence (i.e. the system of language) and sociolinguists whose major concern is performance (i.e. the use of language). Psycholinguists have to be concerned with both competence and performance.Because they look at language from different angles, and because their purposes in the study of language are different.3. Sketch out Skinner’s behavioristic t heory of L1 acquisition.Skinner’s behavioristic model is embodied in his classic V erbal Behavior. His theory of verbal behavior is in fact an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other human behavior, is controlled by its consequences. When consequences are rewarding the behavior is reinforced and maintained, and even increased in strength and frequency. When consequences are punishing or when there is no reinforcement,the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished. Therefore, effective language is the production of correct responses to external stimuli. The L1 acquisition process is one in which the child’s correct responses are repeatedly reinforced and finally a habit is formed.4. What are the main points of mediation theories? Why are they called mediation theories?Mediation theories are represented by O. H. Mowrer and C.E. Osgood. Their goal is to fill the “black box” with postulated internal psychological structures and processes in order to account for the observed behavior of organisms. They have developed a principle of mediated association, according to which two things associated with a third thing tend to be in association with each other. Once the association is established, an internal link is built up even when the third thing is not present.They need media. The internal mediating response is considered to be an internal replication of a “real” response. From a behavioristic point of view, meaning is an internal replica of an external response.5. How do the nativist theories account for L1 acquisition?Nativist theories are represented by N. Chomsky, E. H. Lenneberg, and D. McNeill. According to these theories, human babies are somehow predisposed to acquire a language. Lenneberg contends that language is a species-specific behavior which is biologically determined. The child is born with the biological basis for the acquisition of language. Chomsky claims the existence of a little black box which he calls the language acquisition device (LAD). He regards it as “the genetically determined language faculty”, “an innate component of the human mind that yields a particular language throughinteraction with presented experience.” McNeill describes four innate linguistic properties of the LAD and suggests that infants are born with a hierarchy of linguistic categories and the basic grammatical relations.6. What are the main arguments of the cognitive theories?Cognitive theories are represented by D. I. Slobin, J. Piaget and L. Bloom, who attempt to account for the linguistic knowledge of the child by a more general theory of cognitive development. Slobin suggests that the conceptual development of all human children is the same with regard to the order of attainment of conceptual categories and that a number of cognitive prerequisites lie behind the emergence of communicative speech. Slobin characterizes this development as new functions first expressed in old forms. Piaget outlines four major stages of intellectual development in the child, and claims that intelligence actually develops well before language. Stage One, the sensory-motor stage(ages 0-2). Stage Two, the preoperational stage(ages 2-7). In the first stage(ages 2 to 4 or 5) the child’s language is egocent ric speech. In the second stage(by ages 6-7), the child’s language has become soc ialized speech, which is characterized by intercommunication and exchange of ideas. Stage Three, the concrete operational stage (ages 7-11). Stage Four, the formal operational stage(ages 11-16). Bloom concludes that the development of perception and cognition are keys to the understanding of the process of child language acquisition.7. What do you think of the different L1 acquisition theories?There is one common problem with all of the theories. They all ignore the social aspect of L1 acquisition. Just a s Armstrong et al point out”…language acquisition studies show thatlanguage does not develop through an individual’s interaction with the natural environment. It emerges only out of social interaction, but social interaction within constrained limits…With out the introduction to words and seminal idea that words symbolize—without the initial acquisition process which is social—we would have no equipment with which to make linguistic inferences.”。
应用语言学第七章课后习题答案
Th refore,
learning, we need to understand that the learner is an organism who needs to understand himself and communicate this self to others freely and non-defensively.
2. Discuss the three types of mo va on and their relevance to successful L2 learning. Answer: integra ve mo va on is the desire on the part of a language learner to 1earn the second language in order to communicate with, or find out about members of the second language culture, and does not necessarily imply direct contact with the second language group. Assimila ve mo va on is the drive to become an indis nguishable member of a speech community, and it usually requires prolonged contact with the second language culture. Assimila ve mo va on is characteris c of persons who, perhaps at a very young age, learn a second language and second culture in order to iden fy almost exclusively with that second culture. Thus, of the three types of mo va on, this last type is the most intense and effec ve. Opinions differ as to the rela onship between mo va on and success in L2 learning. Some scholars support the view that mo va on is the effect of success in L2 learning.
应用语言学概论习题答案
《应用语言学概论》教案（一）应用语言学概论第一章绪论第一节应用语言学学科建设一、应用语言学诞生福建有一位中学语文特级教师陈日亮有一个著名的观点：“世界即语言，语言即世界。
”“社会生活“把一切化在语言之中，把语言化在一切之中。
”应用语言学存在的事实，几乎与语言的诞生同时，就有了语言的应用。
但是作为一门独立的学科存在，则历史很短。
1870年波兰语言学家.博杜恩.德. 库尔德内首先提出“应用语言学”术语。
历经近百年的探索和积累，直到二次世界大战结束，社会、科学、文化、教育，特别是光电子信息技术的迅猛发展，世界各种语言面临生存和发展的挑战，纷纷推行新的语言战略，促使多学科结合的应用语言学作为独立学科的诞生和发展。
二、应用语言学学科建设1、应用语言学国际发展状况、标志：1964年第一届国际应用语言学大会在法国南锡召开并成立了国际应用语言学协会。
1970年出会刊。
欧美一些现代化水平较高的国家，在语言学和计算机紧密结合的过程中，迅速发展了语言信息处理、计算语言学、社会语言学、语言规划和语言教学理论，产生了众多颇有建树的应用语言学家。
而且各有发展特点。
一般说来，社会语言学率先在欧美国家发展起来的。
语言规划方面，美国、法国、俄罗斯比较领先。
在欧洲，语言学摆脱“哲学的婢女”的地位，成为一门独立的学科，始于19 19 世纪。
几乎整个19世纪，为寻找印欧语的共同来源，运用历史比较法研究语言，世谓一展辉煌的历史比较语言学。
19世纪与20世纪之交，结构主义语言学兴盛并取而代之。
总体上，国外应用语言学发展较快，理论逊于实践。
1946年美国密歇根大学开设应用语言学课程；1949年美国密歇根大学创办世界第一个应用语言学刊物；1969.9在伦敦召开第二届国际应用语言学大会。
2、中国应用语言学基本态势、从时间上看，比世界整整晚了20年。
这和语言大国的地位很不相称。
改革开放30多年来，情况发生了很大变化。
1984年经国务院批准始成立语言文字应用研究所；这是我国应用语言学形成的标志。
应用语言学教程答案
应用语言学部分课后题答案第一章1，应用语言学有理论应用语言学有理论，依据如下：更详细的见书P121、没有人事先准备了完善的语言学理论以供应用，应用语言学常常要一边解决实际问题一边建立和完善语言学理论。
2、任何层次的应用都包含了下位层次的理论和提供了上位层次的理论。
这是吸取了关于“实践—理论—实践”的思想。
通过实践发现真理，又通过证实和发展真理。
实践、认识、再实践、再认识，这种形式，循环往复以至无穷。
3、语言学之外也有理论。
本体语言学可以从语言学之外吸取理论，应用语言学也可以。
如戴昭铭借鉴法学的无罪推定原则来讨论“涉及到、见诸于”等叠架形式的规问题，另外“规就是服务”这个理念也是从管理学中吸取的。
4、应用语言学理论最根本的来源是语言生活实践。
5、最根本的根据是因为应用语言学已经提出了自己的一些基本理论。
例如：动态理论、层次理论、中介理论、浅显理论、人文性理论、交际理论、全息发展理论等。
这些理论已经得到了广泛的认可，成为应用语言学的基础理论。
2．网络语言的使用带来了哪些新东西？在于根元主编的《中国网络语言词典》中，对“网络语言”提出了如下定义：“…网语‟是互联网的产物。
在网络日益普及的虚拟空间里，人们表达思想、情感的方式也应与现实生活中的表达习惯有所不同，于是有的人创造出令人新奇也令人愤怒和不懂的…网语‟。
高名凯先生说：“无疑地，在新的社会环境下，新的事物的产生或作为社会现象之一的人的思维活动所形成的概念的产生要求作为交际工具、思维工具的语言有所改变，有所发展。
”网络语言由于它特殊的载体和它的现实虚拟性，使得网络用语一开始就呈现出一般语言所少有的特殊性和多元性。
人们在这个虚拟世界中，除了使用那些规的词语之外，还创造了许多只有经常上网的人才能理解的词语。
网络语言的使用给人们带来了许多新东西，如下；1，网络语言主要依据文字形式进行互动交流，也就是主要靠视觉进行交流。
因此网络语言带来最大的就是网络语言形式的改变。
应用语言学试题及答案
应用语言学试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 应用语言学主要研究的领域是什么？A. 语言理论B. 语言教学C. 语言翻译D. 语言习得答案：B2. 下列哪项不是应用语言学的研究内容？A. 语言规划B. 语言测试C. 语言变异D. 语言哲学答案：D3. 应用语言学中的“应用”一词指的是什么？A. 理论的应用B. 实践的应用C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案：C4. 应用语言学的发展历程中，哪个时期被认为是现代应用语言学的开端？A. 20世纪初B. 20世纪50年代C. 20世纪70年代D. 20世纪90年代答案：B5. 在语言教学中，应用语言学关注的核心问题是什么？A. 语言形式B. 语言内容C. 学习者需求D. 教学方法答案：C6. 语言规划通常包括哪些方面？A. 语言选择B. 语言标准化C. 语言现代化D. 所有以上答案：D7. 语言测试的主要目的是什么？A. 评估语言能力B. 选拔人才C. 促进语言学习D. 所有以上答案：D8. 语言习得研究在应用语言学中的作用是什么？A. 提供教学理论基础B. 指导语言教学实践C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案：C9. 语言变异研究在应用语言学中的应用是什么？A. 了解语言多样性B. 促进语言理解C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案：C10. 语言翻译在应用语言学中的重要性体现在哪些方面？A. 文化交流B. 信息传递C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案：C二、简答题（每题10分，共30分）1. 简述应用语言学在语言教学中的应用。
答案：应用语言学在语言教学中的应用主要体现在教学方法的选择、教材的编写、教学评估以及学习者需求的分析等方面。
它关注如何将语言学理论应用于实际教学中，以提高教学效果和学习者的语言能力。
2. 描述语言规划的主要内容。
答案：语言规划的主要内容通常包括语言选择、语言标准化、语言现代化、语言保护和语言复兴等方面。
其目的是通过规划和政策制定，促进语言的统一、稳定和发展，以满足社会、经济和文化的需求。
语言学教程课后习题答案第一章
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displa cement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.l angue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After careful ly comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differencesamong the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we c an feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit valuejudgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure andwithout specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows chil dren’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, o ne may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
应用语言学课后题题目与答案第三章
答：语言学方法、方法论同思想方法有着密切关系，两者应是个性与共性的关系。语言学方法、方法论应遵循思想方法的普遍规律。哲学上说，任何事物都是既有联系又有区别的，世界就是时空，它既有联系，又有区别，不是孤立的也不是完全一样的。我们比较的是它的联系、区别，比较的是它的共性以及个性。拿共性与个性的关系来说，思想方法论认为世界上的事物都是有个性的东西，一个事物要是没有个性，也就不成其本身了。共性寓于个性之中，共性是最基本的东西，个性只是突出与不突出的问题，越往上走，个性越多，共性越少。由于共性寓于个性之中，从方法论的角度说，很难在一个孤立的个体中发现共性的东西。因此，就语言学来说，也很难从一种具体语言中辨别出所有人类语言所共有的东西，也很难从人获得一种具体语言能力所遵循的东西中辨别出获得任何一种具体语言能力所遵循的东西，虽然个性是共性的体现。这样，普遍的东西就不可避免地在多种具体语言的现实中寻找。
7、运用比较的方法要注意么？
答：运用比较的方法要注意两点。一是要注意比较的一切都要公平，只有这样才能站得住脚，这是一个前提。运用比较的研究方法，首先要确定比较的范围，接着要选择比较的基点。二是要注意避免无效比较和低效比较。所谓无效比较是指事物比较过后不能说明问题，不能得出所需要的结论。所谓低效比较是指事物具备可比性，有可以比较的地方，但是由于比较者的原因，并没有比较到那个地方，或者是比较者只进行了表层上的比较，也有一些作用，但不是高效的比较。
3、举例说明语言学方法、方法论的创造性。
答：语言学方法、方法论应是创造性的。拿应用语言学来说，应用语言学是新兴的学科，自己并没有一套现成的方法。因此，除了采用相关学科的一些方法外，应用语言学研究也需要有创造性。
4、举例说明语言学方法、方法论的灵活性。
应用语言学概论课后练习及答案
被称为现代语言学的“圣经”的是（《普通语言学教程》）。
2、中国应用语言学学科形成的第一个标志是1984年9月（语言文字应用研究所）成立。
3、现代汉民族的共同语是（普通话），它以（北方话）为基础方言，以北京语音为标准音。
4、1987年到现在是我国机器翻译研究的繁荣期，这一时期是以（译星一号）的问世为标志的。
5、国家规定从1998年起，9月的第三周为（推广普通话宣传周）。
1、应用语言学应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。
普通话普通话是以北方话为基础方言，以北京语音为标准音，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的，它是现代汉民族的共同语，也是各民族通用的语言。
说说《马氏文通》的作者、出版时间和历史地位。
答：《马氏文通》的作者是马建忠，出版时间是1898年，历史地位：是中国形成独立的语言学学科的标志。
为什么说推广普通话不是要消灭方言？答：推广普通话不是禁绝和消灭方言。
因为我们要消除的是方言在语言交际中的隔阂，而不是消灭方言本身；方言有一定的交际价值；方言是普通话的重要营养；应该主张语言生活主体化和多样化结合。
4、为什么说发现和推荐新的好的语言现象比“匡谬正俗”更重要？答：发现和推荐新的好的语言现象就是及时积极地规范。
语言时刻在显现新的好的语言现象，这是语言生命力所在和调节功能所在的重要方面。
“匡谬正俗”是因为长期以来片面地受到语言是共时的、静态的语言观的影响，对新的好的语言现象没有予以重视，使得规范工作有一定的片面性。
因此发现和推荐新的好的语言现象比“匡谬正俗”更重要。
5、什么是计算语言学？计算语言学的主要特点是什么？答：计算语言学指的是面向机器的，为了解决人与机器的交际问题的学科，是计算机对自然语言的研究和处理。
计算语言学的主要特点包括以下几点：一是元语言的形式化；二是具有可操作性；三是具有工程性；四是注重语言研究的全局性和一般性。
一、论述题为什么说语言文字不搞纯而又纯？答：语言文字搞纯而又纯，就是过分强调规范，认为规范就是规则，就是划一，就是不要风格色彩，就是不要发展，而这与语言文字的本质是相违背的，因为语言是活的东西。
应用语言学课后题题目和答案第四章
5. 说说中介理论的基本内容。
答：语言单位之间，语体之间，人们学习语言的过程中，以及语言接触融言中这些中间状态称为中介现象。正确认识语言的中介现象，并在此基础上对有关问题进行研究的理论我们可以称为中介理论。 中介理论认为，语言和其他现象一样，存在着中间状态。
4），语言交际能力的实践不是一次性完成的。
5），要重视创新。
3. 说说动态理论的基本内容。
答：动态理论主张用动态的眼光看待语言、语言应用和语言研究。基本内容大体可以包括三个方面：
1），对语言动态性的认识。
2），对语言认识的动态性。
3），语言研究要动稳结合。
4.有人说“鞠个躬”是不规范的，因为“鞠躬”不是动宾式结构，古汉语里没有“鞠个躬”。你怎么看？
6.“恢复疲劳”的说法你认为规范吗？
答：用中介语理论谈一下自己的看法。
7.说说层次理论的基本内容。
答：1），人类语言是开放的梯形结构。层次理论指的是语言是分层次的。这个结构的底层比较稳定，越往上往活跃。
2），人的层次与语言层次的关系。
8. 说说提出潜显理论的意义。
答：潜显理论是我国一些语言学者在20世纪80年代到90年代逐步形成的一种关于语言发展的基本形式的语言观念。语言潜显理论在中国应用语言学理论体系的构建和完善方面可能会起到积极的作用。
第四章
1.说说交际理论的根据。
答：1），语言的工具性
2），交际是语言发展变化的动力和目的，是觉得语言现象的根本条件。
2. 说说交际理论的基本内容。
答：交际理论的基本内容包括：
1），交际能力是最基本的语言能力。
2），在多样的语言交际中实践语言交际能力。
应用语言学题目及答案
一、为什么说语言教学又是一门艺术呢？我们说语言教学又是一门艺术,是一种比喻的说法,这主要是指具体的教学实践活动,又主要是指教学实践活动中的教学法。
把语言教学法比作艺术,是为了强调说明,从事语言教学要特别讲究教学法,尽可能使语言教学像完美的艺术品那样具有强烈的感染力,能激发学生的学习兴趣和学习热情。
第一,语言是一种极其复杂的社会现象,语言学习的过程是一种极其复杂的心理和生理过程。
因此,语言教学中充满了错综复杂的矛盾,这些矛盾必须用特殊的方法加以处理。
第二,学习语言需要进行大量的记忆和反复的机械操练,很容易产生·枯燥感和畏难情绪。
如果是学习第二语言或外语,有些人并不觉得非学不可,学习动力有限,当感到过于枯燥或遇到困难时,就有可能放弃学习或者,如果是在目的语的环境中,就宁愿到社会上去学而不愿意在教室里受苦。
要减轻学生学习中的困难,消除他们的枯燥感和畏难情绪,激发他们学习兴趣和学习热情,就必须特别讲究教学的艺术性。
二、语言教学过程中的矛盾（一）教和学的矛盾。
概括地说,语言教学过程中的内部矛盾主要表现在以下几个方面教和学的矛盾。
学习一种语言,需要师生双方的共同努力。
人们学习语言虽有共同的基本目的,但是也有不同的具体目的,更有认知风格和学习策略的差异。
因此,同一个教学单位的课程和教材往往不能适应所有学生的要求,同一个教师的业务素质、教学方法和教学风格等也往往不能适应所有学生的要求。
（二）教学内容和教学方法的矛盾。
前面谈到,语言教学的基本内容包括知识和技能两个方面。
人们获得知识和获得技能的心理和生理过程不完全相同,所以传授知识和训练技能的方法也不应当相同。
在同一个专业和同一门课中既要传授知识,又要训练技能,就必然会出现教学内容和教学方法的矛盾。
课堂教学中出现的老师讲得多、学生练得少的情况,就是这种矛盾反映的一个侧面。
（三）语言要素教学和言语技能训练的矛盾。
人们通常把语音、词汇和语法称作语言三要素,其实这只是就口头语言而言。
新编语用学教程课后答案
语用学教程课后答案The document was prepared on January 2, 2021Introductioncheck your understanding1. f Syntax and semantics each have their own strengths.2. f Pragmatics is also interested in how language use affects the language system.3. t4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1. ASK1 Yes, he’s coming.2 Yes. No, he isn’t coming3 His knowledge about whether Pat likes cognitive linguistics or not.2.1 a. John is obviously not Hitler. There is only one Hitler in the world.b. Golf as an inanimate object can’t play a human being John.c. It is a case of tautology that conveys no new information.d. “Idea” doesn’t have color and can’t sleep since it is inanimate. The whole sentence doesn’t make sense.2 a. it can be used for communication in a context where John shares some personality with Hitler.b. when John is a poor player of golf.c. in a context where a certain boy has done something wrong out of naughtiness.3 when the sentence is used in poetry to personalize the word "idea".3.1 a. In an entrance of a park.b. In the restroom of some public places like an airport.a. People are forbidden to bring dogs into the park.b. This place is for adults to change infant diapers.4. 1 Here the speaker wants to express his complaint that the couple are talking too loudly and the implicit request for them to stop talking.2 By saying so, the young man wants to convey their refusal to “my” request.The background knowledge we need is that since it is usually impolite tolisten to other people’ private conversation, it is normal that “I” can’t hear a word thus the couple can continue their talk.5.1 This notice implies that all those who jump the red light are uncivilized, whatever the reason.2讲卫生的人不会随便吐痰.6. 1 This is an advertisement for a holiday inn and its food is so delicious that it can make the customer’s wife jealous. The “French toast” probably means a type of specialty provided by this holiday inn.2 C: 你去哪里吃饭了没E: How are youHow’s everything going7. 1 He means he doesn’t speak French.2 Russian majors don’t speak French.3 Yes. It helps to indicate a negative answer.8. 1 a. He uses “that” under the assumption that his mom knows which letter is being referred to.b. He uses an imperative sentence to ask her mother to close the window,which is impolite.2 Johnny: Mom, Ping Ping is coming to visit us this afternnoon.Mother: Who is Ping Ping3 Wang: It’s not my fault, is itLi: Yes.-----------------Native speaker: Hi, you look good.Zhang: Not good, not good at all.Exercises Task3.1. when we get someone to do something, we tend to minimize the effort to be involved, but when we complain we tend to exaggerate the complaint. People want to be polite by mitigating缓解,减轻,平静the imposition, which is face-threatening.2. The first imperative is a general grammatical form, but the second, though still an imperative, can be used to sound more polite because of the addition of "will you"3. in the officeBoss: Come to my office later.Clerk: Yes, sir.--------during the afternoon teaBoss: How is your dad, TomClerk: He’s fine. Thanks, Pat.4. He wants to suggest that he did not break the window because he was engaged with in something else in other places.5. In the novel The Catcher in the Rye, Holden, a middle school student alwaysbreaks the pragmatic conventions and in that way shows his rebellion.6. While we teach English to Chinese students, we not only impart linguistic information phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax of English but also pragmatic information appropriate use of English in dynamic context. For instance, how we can use the question tag反了 tag questions to sound more tentative and be polite.Unit 1Check your understanding1. f That is the view held by John Austin in the early stage.2. f Implicit performative utterances do not have a performative verb.3. f4. f The completion of the perlocutionary act requires the addressee’s cooperation.5. tIn-Class Activities1.1 If you’ve ever said “I promise” or “I apologize”, you have performed those actions by the simple act of saying them. But “I know” and “I believe” are declarative. Saying them does not bring about any immediate change in the belief or knowledge of the speaker.2 a. I wish you a great success.I admit I’m wrong.b. I misunderstand your point.I see what you mean.3 Yes. For example, when we say “我在这里向你道歉”,we are performing the act of apologizing.2.1 “A full apology” here means a wholly performative utterance of apology like “We apologize to the Chinese government and the Chinese people”. Indeed, “sorry” is not a performative verb.2 To some extent, “sorry” can implicitly perform the act of apology.3.1 The kidnapper intends to perform the acts of threatening and requiring.2 He wants to make his words sound like a n advice instead of a threatening.4.1 a. locutionary act: the act of verbally saying “Today is not a free admission day”.illocutionary act: it implicitly requires people to pay the admission fee. perlocutionary act: people pay the admission fee if at all.b. locutionary act: the act of verbally saying “Thank you for your generous donation and your support”.illocutionary act: it implicitly urges people to donate.perlocutionary act: people donate money if at all.a' "Admission fee required today"b’ "We expect your generous donation and your support"The first is chosen to be less imposing. The second is chosen to attract people’s donation.5.1 No, it is not a verdictive. It is just an advertisement from s a hotel whose name happens to be “Jurys”.2 The proprietor plays a game of words to attract customers.ExercisesTask 31.a. constativelocution: “No smoking in this area”. Illocution: Forbidding people from smoking here. Perlocution: People do not smoke here.b. constative. Locution: “Ticket passengers only”. Illocution: Asking passengers to buy tickets if they want to enter the museum. Perlocution: Passengers buy tickets to enter the museum.c. constative. Locution: “Token vending machine”. Illocution: Informing the public of the fact that they can buy tokens through this machine. Perlocution: People buy tokens through this machine if at all.2.Yes. It solves the problem that constatives can indeed be regarded as implicit ways of doing things. Thus, all utterances are “performative” in essence. Yes, I agree. Suppose A said to B “it’s stuffy here”. The actual effect may be that A is understood to be complaining, but the intended effect is that someone should open the window or the door and it may bring B to perform theact instead of letting him just listen to A’s complaint.3. 1a, 2a, and3a are performative utterances and can stand the test “hereby”. However, in 1b, 1c and 2b, 2c, “know” , “think”, “amuse” and “flatter” are not performative verbs. In 3b, the third person subject is used. In 3c, simple past tense is used.4. Both verdictives and exertives involve a demonstration of powers, rights,or influence. However, verdictives have the force of issuing a formal orofficial and giving a verdict, while exertives involve making decisions infavor of or against a certain course of action, or advocacy of it.5. These utterances are not, that is, not. The uttering of them on formal occasions is or is part of the doing of a certain kind of action, the performance of which, again, would not normally be described as just“saying” or “describing" something cf. Austin 1962, 5..“This meeting is now adjourned.”“The court is now in session.”“This church is hereb y de-sanctified.”批准,认可,使合法化Unit2Check your understanding1. f It is criticized as lacking criteria for classification.2. f The hearer is held responsible.3. f4. t5. fIn-Class Activities1.1 No, they are essentially directives.2 “你能帮我还书吗,谢谢哦.”“We’ll be very grateful for your presence.”3 Because they expect other people’s compliance instead of refusals. One feels indebted感激的, 受惠的, 蒙恩的i f one does not comply with the request.2.1 Commissives2 Yes. The second promise is achieved with a condition which may turn the promise a commissive into a requirement a directive.3.1 No. Utterance a is a threat. Utterance b involves something that the speaker cannot xcontrol. Utterance c describes something in the past rather than something that the speaker will do in the future. Utterance d involves an act that the hearer rather than the speaker will do in the future. Utterance e has a third person as the subject. Utterance f is a statement about something that happened in the past.2 a. propositional content condition what is said is about something that the speaker has done wrongly; b. sincerity condition the speaker is serious or sincere in making the apology; c. preparatory conditions . the person who is apologizing should have made mistakes d. essential condition both sides understand that what the speaker says is an apology.Zhang: 这件事你不应这样处理的.Li: 好嘛,算我错了行了吧.where the speaker is not sincere4.1 The customer when he says there is a fly in my soup which is meant to be a complaint.2 Because saying that can normally attract the waiter’s attention and the waiter knows what to do in a context like this.Yes. Sometimes, we speak indirectly to save our or others’ face.3 Yes, I agree with her. Hearing the customer’s wor ds, the waiter may not take it seriously if he is not joking.5.1 The role of the underlined part is explaining the reason of the refusal so that Andy will accept Jack’s refusal more readily.Not necessarily. A white lie also does the same trick.2 a. Calling on people to save water.b. Denying people the right to park here.The “irrelevant” information is used to enhance the chances of successfully performing the directive acts.ExercisesTask3.1.a. Austin was a leading exponent of 'analytical' or 'Ordinary Language' philosophy. His work in the 1950s provided both a theoretical outline and theterminology for the modern study of developed subsequently. He was theinitiator of the speech act theory. He drew the distinction between constative utterances and performative utterances, although he latter discarded the distinction. He introduced the trichotomy of locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.John Searle is widely noted for his contributions to the, and. has introduced the notion of 'indirect speech act'. He has reclassified illocutionary acts. He has developed the theory into a general theory about human communication.b. Speech act sequence; responsive acts.2.No. Threatening seems to be a directive as well as a commissive act.Open.how to do speech acts in L2. Doing the same speech act in L1 and L2 may not be the same.on whether the sincerity condition is violated or not.5.a. declarationb. representativec. representatived. directivee. expressivef. commissiveg. directiveh. commissivei. declaration6.“Excuse me” is usually used to interrupt other people, so its preparatory condition is that there are others talking about or doing something, when the speaker’s interruption is not expected. However, “sorry” is used in a different situation, and its preparatory condition is that the speaker has made a mistake.7.Effectiveness: a>b>c>d other things being equalPoliteness: a<b<c<d other things being equal8.a. It runs counter to the preparatory condition that the door must be closed at the moment.b. It goes against the sincerity condition. It is felicitous as an act of thankingc. It goes against the preparatory condition that what the speaker is going to do must be to the hearer’s disadvantage yet refusing to eat dissert is not.Unit 3Check your understanding1. f2. f3. f4. f5. fIn-Class Activities11 a. direct answer about his father’s professionb. His father can help.c. His father cannot help.2 A: Your father must be very great.B: He is a lawyer.----------A: Does your father earn a lot of moneyB: He is a lawyer.2.1 Both of them are implicit rather than stated by the actual meaning of the words.2 An implicature can be part of sentence meaning or dependent on conversational context, and can be conventional or unconventional. But connotation is conventional and attached to words.3 “Fox” can connote cunningness. When we say “he is a fox” in response to “what do you think of Jack”, we indicate that Jack is cunning like a fox. 3.1 Yes, it implies that Jack has one and only one brother.2 Entailments are true whenever the statement uttered is true, but different implicatures may be derived when the sentence is used in different contexts. No.Yes. For instance, Jack has a brother; indeed, he has two.3 A: Jack must be spoiled by his parents.B: Jack has a brother.4.1 cancelability or defeasibility.2 Yes. The words “not … yet” has the conventional implicature that something is possible after the given time.5.1 Jack may refill his car in the garage.2 Yes, the garage may be closed at the moment.3 a. The sea foods are fresh. / Do buy the sea foods.b. You can win here. /Play here.6.1 Hearer meaning is the hearer's understanding of the speaker's utterance.2 A: Tom is quite clever in that aspect.B: I agree. He’s the cleverest person I’ve ever seen.A: But I don't mean he is really clever in that aspect.3 a. Hearer's and speaker's background knowledge may be different.b. Their expectations, beliefs, and the like may be different.ExercisesTask31.a. There is convention of usage in natural language.b. Today I declare you husband and wife.He is at sixs and sevens.2. A: Are you happy.B: Yes.A: Are you happyB: Yes. Quite, quite.There are other possibilities. . Speakers mean less than what they say.A: Are you happy.B: Yes. I am the happiest person in the world.3. Saying does not necessarily amount to the same thing as "meaning". By saying one thing a speaker might mean another thing entirely. There is a sense of "saying" on which you can't say anything without meaning something.4.A: She is a charming lady. I mean only when she smiles.By saying the first sentence, A may imply he is attracted by the lady, but by adding the second sentence he denies the implicature.5. No.Yes.a. Jack: Let's go out drinking tonight.Jane: My grandma is ill. But, my mother is comingb. Jack: How did Philip and Pike do in the OlympicsJane: Philip won a medal.Obviously, a has a particularized implicature and b has a generalized implicature. It is comparatively easy to add a sentence to a to cancel the implicature, but in b it is difficult. Anyhow, we use other ways to achieve the same implicatures in a and b. What's more, particularized implicatures are more unconventional and they have greater indeterminacy.6.a. conventional there's no need for context information One cannot use the door before 6 . “before”b. Conventional No free refills for non-same visit “only”7. openOne may say no, though. Conversational implicature is context dependent. To some extent, it is arbitrary, because different people may get different implicatures even in the same context and different contexts may generate different implicatures as well.8.A. when people talking about boys' qualities.B. When people are talking about boys' ability to do mathematics.9.Conversational implicatures are sensitive to context and dependent on the observance of Cooperative Principle while flouting a particular maxim. People may arrive at different conversational implicature for the same utterance. The conclusions arrived at by syllogism are context free and people get the same conclusion be means of reasoningUnit 4Check your understanding1. f2. f3. f4. f5. fIn-Class Activities1.1 Both metaphors and irony go against the maxim of quality that requires the speaker to be truthful. A metaphor involves saying that one thing is another and an irony consists in the expression of one's meaning by using languagethat normally signifies the opposite.2 Understatement “It’s not too bad” is a form of speech in which a lesser expression is used than what would be expected; hyperbole “Haven’t seen you for ages” is a in which statements are exaggerated. Their use runs counter to the maxim of quantity as well as that of quality.2.1 Yes, the maxim of manner is exploited. Mr. Bennet implicates that he willlet his wife tell him who has taken the house. Also, the maxim of quantity is violat ed when Ms. Bennet responds to her husband’s question “Is he marriedor single”2 By saying "I have no objection to hearing it", Mr. Bennet means that hiswife has the freedom to supply the information in front of him, which in turn means he a grees to listen to his wife although he is not enthusiastic about it.3 The author implies that Mrs. Bennet is very enthusiastic to tell other people things even at a small hint of agreement.3.1 One may be only superficially relevant in terms of the literal meaning; one can also be interactionally relevant in terms of the illocutionary goal.2 Yes, it may run into similar trouble. It is difficult to define "be brief", "obscurity of expression", and "be orderly". Brevity and orderliness are matters of degree.4.1 a. quality b. quantity c. relation d. manner2 Quality .: I am not so sure, but... C: 事情可能是这样的.Quantity It’s going to be a long story. 说来话长.Relation By the way, …顺便说一句,……Manner To put it differently, ...不妨换个说法,……5.1 The Maxim of Quality is moral in nature, while the other three are not.2 No, he was concerned with what people had said implicitly instead of how they should talk.6.1 A. Manner Implicature: Visitors are supposed to pay to get in.B. Quality Implicature: People must work hard, if they want to earn a lot of money.2 Yes, but the advertising discourse violates the maxims more often because they intend to attract people's attention through it. The ad goes against the maxim of quantity and manner underinformative; not perspicuous.ExercisesTask31. When interlocutors are in conflict in some way.2. Yes, sometimes if you are overinformative, you may be irrelevant.Yes, I agree. It is moral in nature.3. Politeness. If we treat politeness as a form of cooperativeness.4. 1 Relation Implicature: I don't want to lend it to you./I haven’t finished my homework.2 Quantity Implicature: I have no brothers.3 Relation Implicature: I don't want to play tennis.4 Relation Implicature: I don't want to eat oysters.5. 1 The speaker just admits he went out last night, but he doesn't answer wherehe had been.2 The speaker just gives an answer in a general way, although the other one wants to know his specific job.3 The Chinese word phrase "ji guang" is too general.Yes, there are some patterns these responses share, . all of them provide only general information, less informative than what the interlocutor expects.6. Newspapers, literary works and so on.7. Yes , I think so. For example, Chinese tend to consider the provision of extra information as generous behavior rather than invariably a deliberate act to convey implicature.8. Yes, especially some social factors. For example when we say "他没受过教育", the factor we take for granted is that the people who haven't received education is likely to misconduct.Not necessarily.. WANG: 冷山真的很有意思.XU: 冷山不是一座山吗Unit 5Check your understanding1. f2. t3. f4. t5. fIn-Class Activities1.1 She doesn't like all of them.2 . The water is warm.Implicature: The water is not hot.3 Yes.. 甚至小孩子都能做出这道题.This sentence implies that adults can tackle the question.2.1 No.2 Yes, the English translation implies that passengers may still make some noises.3.1 The a-utterance and the b-utterance are cases of pragmatic / metalinguistic negation whereas the c-sentence and the d-sentence are cases of normal propositional negation. Yes, because the first two cases involve a Horn scale.2 Yes. What is negated in the two cases is the strong degree of the acts conventionally implied by the verbs.4.1 The finger refers to John's finger and the house and car refer to those of someone else's.2 If there is additional information for these sentences, they can be interpreted differently. . John went into a house. It turned out to be his newly bought house.5.1 It takes the exclusive meaning when it conjoins two events or things that cannot concur at the same time. It takes the inclusive meaning when it conjoins two events or things that concur at the same time.2 Basic meaning: the inclusive reading . at least one is trueDeprived implicature：the exclusive meaning when context suggests that only one is allowed6.1 Both the first and the second "sale" mean discounted sale. Usually, the end of year sale is selling goods at a lower price; the use of 50% means selling clothes or something at a lower price.2 "luck", "opportunity"ExercisesTask31.A. I don’t know John will win the championship.B. Not all people today are vegetarians.C. Jack does not have a fever.D. Guangzhou does not have a hot/cold winter.E. My son does not get straight A's all the time.2.A. That Jack can lift 200 pounds already implicates that he can lift at most 200 pounds, but "in fact" indicates the opposite, so the second clause is not necessary and fault.B. The second clause here intends, through the use of “in fact”, to cancel the implicature of the first clause.C. Similarly, that Jack can finish the job in three days already implicates that he can finish it in at most three days, but "in fact" indicates the opposite, so the second clause is not necessary and fault.D. The second clause here intends, through the use of “in fact”, to cancel the implicature of the first clause.3. Similarity: both of Horn and Levinson base their Q-principle on the first sub maxim of Quantity Maxim.Deference: Horn's R-principle is based on the second sub maxim of Quantity Maxim, relation maxim and part of Manner Maxim, while Levinson' I-principle is based on the second maxim of Quantity Maxim and his M-principle based on Manner Maxim.4. According to the Q-principle which stipulates that the speaker has given sufficient information and the R-principle which suggests that the information supplied must satisfy the upper most limit of expectation, in "it's the taste", "the taste" means more than "a taste", but a good tasteYes, . It's the taste which I hate most.Other examples: "She is the one." / Make the change. 新李宁5. "身材","长相" means good figure and good appearance. "有钱" means not just having money but being rich. "有个性" means she is special or unique in her personality.Examples in English: She's got legs.He is a man with a job.6. Open.Unit 6Check your understanding1. f2. f3. f4. f5. tIn-Class Activities1.1 a. "yours", "right now"b. "here", "your"2 To bring the addressees closer and make them identify with addressers. Impress the addressees as if things are happening at the moment.2.1 No2 Whether they concern the encoding of spatial location relative to the location of the speaker in the speech event.3.1 Yes. We use "here" to replace the place's name.2 Sometimes the speaker may use his or her name instead of using “I” to highlight his or her identity or individuality.4.1 Only when the date of manufacturing and that of selling are the same.2 "最后三天" is not definite, because one may not know from which day the last three days begin.3 It is not known what time the speaker left.4 Yes. What is the present price The price may change over time. The word “当前” is deictic.5.1 Yes. It is used for emphasis2 Yes. "Books on sale here"6.1A. "we", "ourselves"B. "we", "today"C. "I", "here", "now"D. "I", "last place"E. "YOU", "here"F. "I"G. "today"2 There may be a difference in the coding time and the receiving time; there may be the speaker perspective and the hearer perspective.7.1 “I’m coming” takes the addressee as the deictic center.2 Yes.ExercisesTask31. A. "there". B. "you"2. In a, the speaker uses the progressive aspect instead of the normal simple present tense. The use of the present progressing aspect shows the speaker's passion and strong love are ongoing.3. b, d, f are gesturally deictic expressions and the rest contain symbolically deictic expressions.4.Discourse deictic refers to another linguistic expression or a piece of discourse, . This in This is a great story whereas anaphoric refers to the same item as a prior linguistic expression, . he in John is an incredible athlete; he came in first in the race.the speaker wants to be economic and both the speaker and the hearer share the background knowledge, . he in He is the cimenal, deictic expressions preempt their corresponding non-deictic expressions. When the speaker wants to create some special effects, we may use non-deictic expressions, . Mr Darcy calls Mrs Darcy Mrs Darcy in Pride and Prejudice to express his joy and love.6. The use of “your” and “us” is interactive with anyone who bumps into the ad.Mini-project2.公差、甄爷、小婿、小人、太爷、丫头、丫鬟、探花、巡盐御史、龙钟老僧、敝友、老先生、祖母、史老太君、王侯、贼、子弟、祖父、师长、政老爹、妾、庶出、小姐、夫人、琏爷、第二回贾夫人仙逝扬州城冷子兴演说荣国府The social deixis above shows the hierarchy in the feudal society.Unit 7Check your understanding1. f2. t3. f4. f5. fIn-Class Activities1.1 Mary's bedroom is not clean.2 Yes.2.1 b. College students can speak English. through the use of “therefore”2 b. College students can speak English.3 Here, we presuppose that college students generally can speak English. With this presupposition, the speaker talks in that way, and "therefore" confirms the inference, and then we get the conventional implicature.3.1 I think George Yule’s classificati on is not based on the same criterion. The first four are more content oriented, whereas the last two are form sensitive.2 Open.4.1 a. Peter is a good basketball playerb. Mary did the job well last week."than" and "as well as" triggers the presupposition.2 Yes.3 John was arrested before he arrived in Beijing.5.1. The presupposition in the first episode is that the speaker beat his wife. The addressee cannot answer "yes" or "no".2 Yes.3 By asking which eye of the horse is blind, Washington presupposes that one of the eyes of the horse is blind, so the thief has to choose one. However, the fact is that neither of the eyes of the horse is blind.6.1 a. The addressee liked literatureb. The addressee felt nickel and dimed.c. The addressee is not smoking。
应用语言学 试题1 答案
应用语言学试题1答案一、填空（每空2分，共30分）1、19世纪后期，1870年波兰语言学家（博杜恩·德·库尔特内）首次提出“应用语言学”这个术语，但并没有引起人们的注意。
直到20世纪40年代，由于（外语教学）的发展，人们才开始重视应用语言学的研究。
一般认为（美国）是应用语言学的发源地。
2、语言的运动是有规律的，语言在其运动过程中，表现出不同的类型。
主要有三种：（吸收）、（隐退或消亡）、（中和）。
3、语言教学是指一种（有目的）、（有计划）、（有特定）方法的教学活动。
4、语言规划从总体上讲,可以分为（地位规划）和（本体规划）两个方面。
5、地名指称的对象不是地理实体,而是（个体地域）。
6、人名的意义分为（指称意义）、（符号意义）、（美名意义）和泛化意义4种类型。
二、名词解释（每题5分，共20分）1、模糊语言学答：模糊语言学是模糊集合论与现代语言学相结合形成的一门新学科，它运用模糊集合论与现代语言学的基本原理来分析语言的模糊性。
人类语言在其诸层次及诸方面上都存在一些与模糊性相关的问题，要求用模糊集合论去对之进行比较科学和充分的解释，人类语言的语音、语义、词汇、句法、语用以及与之紧密联系的一些方面都成为模糊语言学的研究内容。
2、语言的人文性答：语言的人文性是指语言在发展变化及应用过程中所表现出的文化特征。
语言的人文性大体包括三个方面：第一，语言在文化中的反映，第二，文化在语言中的反映，第三，在语言与文化相互作用的关系中的反映。
3、测试的效度答：效度又称有效性，指测试的有效程度，即测试的内容和方法是否能测出预定要测量的东西。
比如说，本想要测量听力理解能力，但采用的却是笔头回答问题的方法，其结果，说测量的是受试者的笔头表达能力，而不能准确地反映其听力理解能力。
这就好像用秤来量高度，其结果只能测出重量，没有达到预期的目的。
4、语言规划答：又叫语言计划,是政府或社会团体为了解决在语言交际中出现的问题,有计划、有组织地对语言文字进行的各种活动和工作的统称。
语言学及应用语言学试题答案整理
二、概念辨析：1.本体语言学与应用语言学的异同：本体语言学主要研究语言本身，包括对语言事实的静态的和动态的描写，对语言规律的揭示和说明，以及在此基础上所总结的各种语言理论。
应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。
应用语言学不仅有利于语言应用本身，而且也有利于加深对语言本身的认识。
同时，应用语言学研究的是语言本体和本体语言学同应用方面交叉的部分。
理论语言学：一般把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等，把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。
2.语言的兼并和转用：语言借用是指在文化接触和语言接触的过程中从其他语言中借入自己语言所需要的成分，包括语音、词汇和语法的借用。
语音的借用表现为增加新的音位和增加新的音位组合方式。
语言转用是一个民族或民族的部分人放弃使用本民族语言而转用另一民族语言的现象。
语言兼用：双语或多语是指某一语言社团（民族或国家）或个人同时使用两种或两种以上的语言。
包括社会双语和个人双语。
双语就是语言接触中的语言兼用现象，包括双语和多语。
对一个民族发展来讲，语言兼用是进步的表现。
3 ，洋泾浜和混合语：两者都属于语言接触的特殊形式，同时，在语言传播过程中势必与当地语言发生密切关系，放弃自身的特点，吸收其他语言的特点。
洋泾浜也叫皮钦语，是临时混合语，常常只是用于在不同的族群之间的临时交际，如经商所需要的彼此之间的沟通，只使用于有限的范围，使用时间通常也不长。
语汇比较贫乏，语音和语法都不太规范，如旧上海的洋泾浜语把“我不能”说成My no can，用英语的词和汉语的语法；将number one说得像“拿摩温”。
由于“先天不足”，它通常的存活时间都不长，有的可能只存在几年。
克里奥尔语（Creoles）是正式混合语，一般是从洋泾浜发展而来的。
如果洋泾浜因为种种原因得到了发展，语言混合的程度较深，时间较长，语汇不断增加，语法规则不断完善，被有的族群作为母语来学习和使用，或者获得官方语言的地位，就成为克里奥尔语。
应用语言学课后题题目与答案第一章
应用语言学课后题题目与答案第一章第一章：1、举例说明为什么有了本体语言学还要有应用语言学。
答：因为本体语言学和应用语言学两者之间不具有可比性。
一方面，语言基本上是社会现象而不是自然现象，语言的发展和使用受到多种因素的影响，语言的应用有自身的规律，无论是语言应用的哪个方面。
另一方面，人们已经而且将会进一步看到，仅从语言自身看语言是不能完全认识语言的。
语言的应用研究不仅有利于语言应用本身，而且也有利于加深对语言本身的认识。
因此，没有语言的运用，就没有语言。
要全面认识语言，真正认识语言，必须结合语言的应用来进行。
例如，为什么一个人在不同的场合会使用不同的表达方式？为什么明明是两个不同的音有人却听成相同的音？为什么同样的词语会产生不同的交际效果？离开了语言的运用，单从语言本身是无法回答这些问题的。
因此，有了本体语言学还要有应用语言学。
2、历史比较语言学让位于结构主义语言学的两个历史教训是什么？答：历史比较语言学让位于结构主义语言学的一个历史教训是：历史比较语言学家的唯我独尊和封闭的态度。
认为只有研究语言历史的语言学才是科学，其他的研究都不是科学。
第二个教训是：研究的局限性。
它只注意古语言，并不研究现有的活语言。
因此，它在经历了光辉的百年之后，逐渐被新的研究兴趣所替代。
3、说说《普通语言学教程》的作者、出版时间和历史地位。
答：《普通语言学教程》的作者是瑞士语言学家索绪尔，出版时间是1916年，历史地位：书中针对历史比较语言学的不足提出的语言学理论，奠定了现代语言学的基础，因此成为现代语言学的“圣经”。
4、说说《马氏文通》的作者、出版时间和历史地位。
答：《马氏文通》的作者是马建忠，出版时间是1898年，历史地位：是中国形成独立的语言学学科的标志。
5、说说中国形成语言学的背景。
答：中国形成语言学是在19世纪和20世纪之交，有两个背景：一是受西方学术文化的影响，一是中国传统语文学自身的发展。
当时语言学方面中国向外国所学的理论、方法及层次是比较低的；学习的方法、层次也是比较低的。
语用答案完整版
语用答案完整版一、填空1、20世纪和19世纪语言理论的一个发展时期19世纪和20世纪就是语言理论及语言教学理论研究最为活跃的时期，历史比较语言学，结构主义语言学，切换分解成语言学，功能语言学和心智语言学相继沦为语言理论的主流。
与此同时，在第二语言教学实践中，人们也已经开始了对第二语言教学理论的不断研究和积极探索，谋求有效率的第二语言教学方法。
2、塞林格的中介语五个中心过程的心理机制语言迁移、由训练造成的迁移、目的语语言材料的泛化、第二语言学习策略以及第二语言交际策略3、言语社团和语言态度言语社团：人文共同组成一个言语社团，不仅因为它们具备一定程度上的相近语言整体表现，更关键的就是它们具备基本一致的语言态度，它们对某种语言有一种认同心理。
语言态度：人们对语言或语言变体持有的价值评判或情感犯罪行为态度的评判。
影响因素①方言的社会地位②使用方言在实际生活中的必要性③语言感情倾向4、互动调整怎么为学习者提供更多可以认知输出母语者-母语者与母语者-非母语者在语言输入形式的调整上没有差异，而在话语结构和功能的调整上存在重要的差别。
当母语者-非母语者交际遇到困难时，双方更多地采取诸如重复、确认、理解检查、请求澄清等话语策略。
5、海姆斯的交际能力一就是语法性，即为符合语法。
二就是可接受性，即为在文化上的可行性，在情况中的庄重性和现实性。
海姆斯确实了乔姆斯基关于语言学能力和语言表达的区分，表示了所谓理想的骂人者和听话者的弱点，即为瓦解社会文化环境。
海的理论为功能法或功能主义语言学的创建，打下了理论基础。
6、偏误分析的类型（形式特征）：误加、遗漏、误代、错序、杂糅（偏误产生的方式――杜雷、伯特的观点）：省略、附加、类推、错序7、第二语言习得竞争模式（形式和功能映射）8、一语习得和二语习得早期阶段的共同特点：绝望期、采用程式语、精简语法结构、精简语义9、应用语言学的调查、方法：选择课题、提出假设、制定调查大纲、确定研究范围和调查对象、实施调查搜集资料、资料整理与分析。
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应用语言学部分课后题答案第一章1，应用语言学有理论应用语言学有理论，依据如下：更详细的见书P121、没有人事先准备了完善的语言学理论以供应用，应用语言学常常要一边解决实际问题一边建立和完善语言学理论。
2、任何层次的应用都包含了下位层次的理论和提供了上位层次的理论。
这是吸取了毛泽东关于“实践—理论—实践”的思想。
通过实践发现真理，又通过证实和发展真理。
实践、认识、再实践、再认识，这种形式，循环往复以至无穷。
3、语言学之外也有理论。
本体语言学可以从语言学之外吸取理论，应用语言学也可以。
如戴昭铭借鉴法学的无罪推定原则来讨论“涉及到、见诸于”等叠架形式的规范问题，另外“规范就是服务”这个理念也是从管理学中吸取的。
4、应用语言学理论最根本的来源是语言生活实践。
5、最根本的根据是因为应用语言学已经提出了自己的一些基本理论。
例如：动态理论、层次理论、中介理论、浅显理论、人文性理论、交际理论、全息发展理论等。
这些理论已经得到了广泛的认可，成为应用语言学的基础理论。
2．网络语言的使用带来了哪些新东西？在于根元主编的《中国网络语言词典》中，对“网络语言”提出了如下定义：“…网语‟是互联网的产物。
在网络日益普及的虚拟空间里，人们表达思想、情感的方式也应与现实生活中的表达习惯有所不同，于是有的人创造出令人新奇也令人愤怒和不懂的…网语‟。
高名凯先生说：“无疑地，在新的社会环境下，新的事物的产生或作为社会现象之一的人的思维活动所形成的概念的产生要求作为交际工具、思维工具的语言有所改变，有所发展。
”网络语言由于它特殊的载体和它的现实虚拟性，使得网络用语一开始就呈现出一般语言所少有的特殊性和多元性。
人们在这个虚拟世界中，除了使用那些规范的词语之外，还创造了许多只有经常上网的人才能理解的词语。
网络语言的使用给人们带来了许多新东西，如下；1，网络语言主要依据文字形式进行互动交流，也就是主要靠视觉进行交流。
因此网络语言带来最大的就是网络语言形式的改变。
网络语言的构成形式多种多样，基本上可以概括为以下几种：1、语音谐音型。
谐音型网络语言又可以分为数字型谐音和文字型谐音两种。
（1）数字型谐音：通常是指根据10个阿拉伯数字的发音，组合成为一系列简单易记、输入便捷的字词。
比如：“7758”指“亲亲我吧”；“886”表示“BYE-BYE喽，再见”；“7456”表示“气死我了”，这是通过汉字的读音与数字的读音相近，由数字的读音来谐汉字的读音，来达到意到而速度快的效果。
（2）汉字型谐音：这种方式除了出于便捷输入的考虑外，更多的则具有调侃、幽默的意味。
比如：“大虾”是“大侠”的谐音，指计算机高手；由于一些水平较高的电脑爱好者因长期沉迷于电脑而弯腰驼背，形似大虾，因而经“大侠”的谐音“大虾”的出现，凭空多了些诙谐幽默。
还比如“板斧”是“版副”的谐音，“斑竹”“板猪”是“版主”的谐音。
2、符号象形型。
网民们利用键盘上的各种符号加以排列组合，造出了许多全新的象形表达方式，或以形会意，或象形隐喻，其表意效果常常给人耳目一新的感觉。
以“笑”作为例子，“：-”这是最普通的、最基本的一张笑脸，“：-D”表示非常高兴的张开嘴笑；“：-）”表示微笑“8-）”这是眼镜一族的专用笑脸；“；-）”指抛媚眼的笑；“1-D”哈哈的笑；“l-P”是捧腹大笑，此类网语还有：用“：-（”表示悲伤难过；“：-！”表示不屑一顾，等等。
3、英汉简缩型。
英汉简缩型多是英语常用词的缩写。
使用这种缩语的网民多少知道一些常用英语。
常见的英语缩略语有：AFAIK（as far as I know）据我所知；BTW（By the way）顺便问一下；JAM（Just a moment）等一会儿；CU（See you）再见；OIC（Oh,I see）哦，我明白了；R U THERE（Are you there?）你在那里吗？英语减缩型可以分成两种，一种是用每个单词或词组的首字母来表示整句话，例如AFAIK、BTW、JAM；另一种是用字母和单词之间相近的读音来减缩单词或词组，例如CU、OIC、R U THERE，有时这两种方式会同时使用，例如CUL（See you later）再见。
当然也有不少汉语缩略语，例如：“MM”即妹妹；“GG”哥哥；“BB”宝宝。
这是利用汉语拼音中的声母来表示一个词。
词语简缩以后，比起规范的汉语或英语其输入速度肯定是快了很多。
除了形式上的改变之外，网络还给我们的语言带来了新特点。
是语言更具创造性，幽默性，形象性。
1、创造性。
这一点上文的举例已经非常鲜明，在介绍符号象形型网络语言中，关于笑的例子估计读者已有所体会，对此不必做过多分析。
网络语言中的奇思异想可谓多如牛毛，不胜枚举。
也许网民们觉得网络是一个虚拟的空间，表达思想、情感的方式与现实生活中人们表达习惯有所不同，于是挖空心思创造出令人感到新奇的网语，大有“语不惊人死不休”的劲头。
2、幽默性。
网民上网的一个重要动机就是“找乐”，而网民在互动过程中形成别具一格的语言无疑增加了交流的乐趣，使上网成了一件轻松而又有趣的事情。
反过来，众多网民在找乐的过程中，又创造了大量新鲜的网语，不断丰富着网络语言的词汇。
3，形象性。
我们刚才提到的键盘特征性能够体现网络语言的形象性，除此之外，网络语言的形象性还表现在一些形象的网络语言上。
如把网民称为“网虫”，于是初级网民是“爬虫”，高级网民是“飞虫”，把“这样子”连为“酱紫”（受到港台腔的影响），既有视觉效果，又隐含了味觉效果。
当然，一个事物的出现是双面的，既有利又有弊。
网络语言的使用也带来了一些负面影响。
如，主观性和不规范性甚至是低俗性。
1.主观性。
网络语言更富于主观色彩，它无视传统语法，随心所欲，而且有越来越随意、越来越试图冲破束缚的倾向。
一篇网络文章中有这样的句子：“只有爱上之后，才发现有点鸡肋。
”“有点鸡肋”这种反常搭配善于从常用词语中翻出新意，是网络语言经常使用的手法。
2.不规范性。
这是前三个特点的必然后果。
从规范的汉语表达方式看，网络语言中汉字、数字、英文字母，以及文本符号混杂使用，怪字、错字、别字层出不穷，完全是病句。
有关专家认为，这种语言随意性太大，不稳定，只是年轻人时髦的文字游戏。
3.网络的使用主体是形形色色的，并且由于网络交际可以是匿名的，所以有一部分素质低下的网民在网上发表一些下流或者低俗的语言评论，并且这些评论在网络上传播速度很快，对其他网民造成了负面的影响，对网络环境的净化也起阻碍作用。
网络语言给我们带来了很多的东西，对于因网络语言的发展要顺其自然，积极引导。
接收其好的精华，去除糟粕，以促进语言发展。
3，语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
认为语言是最重要的交际工具，不能完全赞同于老师观点。
语言是人类最重要的交际工具，这是从语言的本质的功能方面给语言下的定义。
这个定义揭示了语言的一个重要属性——工具性。
但是语言不是一般的工具，具有人文性。
这里说的人文性，不包括属于上层建筑的有阶级性的部分。
语言的人文性不仅仅表现在是文化的载体，还表现在运送——传播方面。
工具性和人文性不是二元论。
交际是包含文化的交际，简略地说语言室人类最重要的交际工具。
不能因为没有说是文化的载体就一定片面，而是要看所说的交际里面是不是包含了文化。
其实说是文化的载体也不全面。
更全面地说，语言是人类最重要的认知、思维、交际的工具。
也就是说，认知、思维只是是交际的一种方式，所以说语言是人类最重要的交际工具就包括了语言是人类最重要的思维工具这一点。
总之，社会中的人需要协调，需要交际。
语言就因此而产生和发展。
语言存在于交际中，没有交际就没有语言。
交际是语言发展变化的动力和目的，是决定语言现象的根本条件。
总而言之，交际是语言的本质。
语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
于老师赞同的思维工具说也是有道理的，但是把语言认为是最重要的交际工具这种说法更加全面4，习性原则，理性原则5，“语言文字工作必须遵循语言文字的演变规律，顺乎自然，因势利导，做促进工作”（周红照） 1986年全国语言文字工作会议提出语言文字工作必须遵循语言文字的演变规律，顺乎自然，因势利导，做促进工作，这句话理论上强调了语言的科学性和社会性，具有历史意义。
1，重视了“自然”—语言发展规律，尤其是自身发展的内部规律。
2，重视了“势”——趋势和动向，尤其是重视人民大众和第一线干部的理解支持和介入。
重视了引导，还重视了人在语言工作中一定的能动作用，但又同时不过高估计人在这方面的作用。
也就是说人起了促进语言发展的作用，但是人又不能左右语言的发展，而是人去引导语言的发展。
6，为什么语言是人的第二形象？人的层次和语言层次的关系是：首先，不同层次的语言对不同的人有不同的要求。
其次，不同层次的人使用语言的情况不同。
最后，如果说一个人使用的语言是他的主体语言，总的语言是客体语言，那么，不同层次的人的主体语言在客体语言里处于不同的层次。
因此我们说语言是人的第二形象，比外表等第一形象更加内在，更加真实。
7，为什么语言文字工作不搞纯而又纯？规范不能阻止语言的发展和新的语言现象的出现，新的语言现象也不能为所有人认同和理解，强调纯而又纯，是行不通的。
我们是在不规范的情况下搞规范，语言又是在规范中发展的。
我们的规范工作是使语言规范的发展。
首先，人不纯，大家对纯洁语言没有标准，也就没有纯洁的语言。
其次，人学习语言是一个渐进的过程，没有人能掌握纯的语言再次，纯而又纯，否定了语言的发展变化。
最后，不纯的语言，也是语言的一部分8.谈谈外来词在我国使用的现状，需要采取的应对措施。
从某种意义上说，现代汉语是在外文化的逼迫下改造而来的。
与汉末魏晋主动接受由梵文汉译外来语的情况不同，今天我们说话、思维、写作所用概念和修辞已不完全来自母语的语源，尤其是日常使用最频繁的基本词汇如“社会”、“银行”、“政治”、“经济”都是外来词，它们深入生活各个方面，被广泛使用。
外来词在现代汉语中占有10%以上的比例，据统计，总数有近万个，仅音译词就有2000 多个，主要分布在政治、经济、科技、商业、体育、通俗流行文化等方面，分别来自于梵文、拉丁文、希腊语、意大利语、日语、俄语、英语、法语、德语等，比如从俄语中吸收来的布尔什维克、苏维埃，从法语中吸收来的蒙太奇，从英语来的巴士、芭蕾、汉堡等，数量最多的是英语。
应当说，进入汉语的外来词在数量和使用范围上都呈现出逐渐扩大的趋势。
（注：来自于一篇论文，建议选部分话语）对待外来词应当有客观、公正的态度。
现在有一些发人深省的现象，如连“野蛮女友”这样的东西也成了流行文化，影视娱乐界的“哈韩、哈日”现象让人费解；还有许多大学生连语文都没学好，却把大部分时间都花在了英语考试上。
长久下去，必定会导致新“迷惘的一代”的诞生。
现代汉语正处在要加以自我批判和规范的“危急”时刻。