语言学课程复习资料
语言学概论复习资料
(一)名字解释一、语言：从结构和功能两方面看，语言是一种复杂的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
二、口语是以语音为载体的语言形式，书面语是以文字为载体的语言形式。
书面语是在口语的基础上产生的。
三、副语言：语言不是人类惟一的交际工具，除了语言以外，人类还有其他辅助性交际工具，例如文字、体态等等，这类辅助性交际工具有时也被称为“语言”，为了跟真正的语言相区别，所以称为副语言。
四、自然语言：是由社会群体在日常交际活动中自然形成的语言，人工语言是个别人人工设计出来的语言。
五、组合关系：若干较小的语言单位组合成较大的语言单位，其构成成分之间的关系就是组合关系，又称线性序列关系。
词语之间的组合是有规则的；语言单位之间的组合是有层次性的。
六、聚合关系：具有相同组合功能的语言单位之间的关系，就是聚合关系，又称联想关系。
具有聚合关系的语言单位之间一般能互相替换。
具有相同聚合关系的语言单位，就构成某种聚合类。
七、词根语又成孤立语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示。
八、屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。
九、粘着语的特点是通过附加多种词缀来表示语法意义。
十、编插语又叫多式综合语或复综语，其特点是以动词词根为中心，在词根的前后可以附加上各种词缀，来表示各种语法意义或语汇意义。
十一、语音是在人类大脑神经支配下由发音器官发出的负载一定意义并能为人们所理解的声音。
十二、语音学：研究语音的学科就是语音学。
语音学的任务是研究语音在“发音---传递---感知”过程中的生理、物理和心理特性，分析语音的各种要素的社会功能，彼此之间的关系，以及语音系统的构成和发展演变规律。
语音学的分支：从研究对象的范围来看，语音学可以分为普通语音学和具体语音学；从研究对象的时间来看，语音学可以分为共时语音学和历时语音学；从研究对象的性质来看，语音学可以分为声学语音学、发音语音学、感知语音学和音系学；从研究的方法和手段来看，语音学研究有传统方法与现代方法之分。
语言学概论复习资料
语言学概论复习资料1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系答：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是遗传的，而是一种社会现象。
语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
2. 简答语言符号的特点。
答：（1）符号和语言，“能指”和“所指”。
能指是能够指称某种意义的成分，所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。
（2）语言符号的“任意性”。
符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系，语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系，完全是任意的，约定俗成的。
（3）语言符号的强制性和可变性。
在同一社会、同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的，而语言又是发展变化着的。
（4）语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。
话只能一个字一个字，一句话一句话地说，因此语言符号是离散的，而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。
3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系。
答：组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，是横向关系。
聚合关系是在组合的某一个位置上能够相互替换，有共同的特点，故能聚合归类。
组合是横向的结构关系，聚合是归类规则，有了组合、聚合关系，便展现出了整个语言平面，聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的，或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的，而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。
所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一，不可分割。
4. 解释“符号”答：符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。
5. 解释“语言”答：语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分，语言是均质的，是言语活动中的社会部分。
语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。
6. 口语和书面语的关系。
答：语言的客观存在形式首先是口语，第二种客观存在形式，是书面语。
语言学概论完整版复习资料
语⾔学概论完整版复习资料第⼀章语⾔和语⾔学1.语⾔与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语⾔学必须明确⾃⼰的研究对象，才能成为⼀门现代意义上的科学。
2.任何符号，包括语⾔符号都是形式和意义的统⼀体。
3.什么是语⾔的客观存在形式语⾔的客观存在形式⾸先表⽰为有声的⼝头语⾔即⼝语，⽽当出现了⽂字以后，⼜表现为有形的书⾯语⾔即书⾯语。
4.语⾔符号的强制性正因为语⾔符号是社会约定俗成的，因此在同⼀社会，同⼀时代，对使⽤同⼀种语⾔的每⼀个社会成员来说是强制性的，是不能任意改变的，因为如果个⼈可以任意改变，那就互相听不懂了，也就从根本上丧失了交际⼯具的作⽤。
5.语⾔与⾔语的区别语⾔是⾔语活动中同⼀社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循⽽⼜成系统的那⼀部分；⽽含有个⼈要素或个⼈杂质的说话⾏为和说出来的话只能属于⾔语。
第⼆章语⾳1.声⾳的四要素：⾳⾼，⾳强，⾳长，⾳质2.振幅：也就是发⾳体振动时离开平衡位置的最⼤偏移距离。
3.频率：发⾳体在每⼀秒钟内振动的次数。
4.⾳⾼：就是声⾳的⾼低。
它是由频率的⼤⼩决定的。
频率同⾳⾼成正⽐。
频率越⼤，声⾳越⾼；频率越⼩，声⾳越低。
5.⾳强：就是声⾳的强弱。
它是由振幅的⼤⼩决定的。
振幅同⾳强成正⽐，振幅的⼤⼩⼜决定于使发⾳体振动外⼒的⼤⼩。
外⼒⼤，振幅就⼤，声⾳就强；外⼒⼩，振幅就⼩，声⾳就弱。
6.⾳长：就是声⾳的长短。
它是由发⾳体振动的持续时间决定的。
发⾳体振动的持续时间长，声⾳就长；发⾳体振动的时间短，声⾳就短。
7.基⾳：振动中有⼀个频率最低的振动，由它发出的声⾳叫做“基⾳”。
其他振动发出的声⾳叫做“陪⾳”。
8.乐⾳：当基⾳的频率的陪⾳的频率之间存在着整数倍的⽐例关系时，会形成⼀种复杂⽽有规则的，具有周期性重复特征的声波形式，这种声⾳叫做乐⾳。
9.噪⾳：如果基⾳的频率和陪⾳的频率之间不存在整倍数的⽐例关系，就会形成⼀种杂乱⽆章的不规则的声波形式，这种声⾳叫做噪⾳。
10.语⾳的⽣理基础：语⾳是由⼈的发⾳器官协同动作⽽产⽣的，⼈的发⾳及其运动是“语⾳的⽣理基础”，决定着语⾳的⽣理特征。
语言学复习资料
Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性） Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
语言学复习资料
语言学复习资料下定义1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics.2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds.6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers.11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head positionin another is known as head movement.12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word.13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.14.(P70)Relational opposites（关系反义词）: Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.15.(P74)Argument（论元）: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.16.(P77)Pragmatics（语用学）: Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.17.(P81)Constatives（表述句）: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.填空题第一章1. (P3) If a linguistic aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive（描写性的）. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive（规定性的）.2.(P4) The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic(共时的）study; the description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic（历时的）study.3.(P4) Langue(语言）refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole(言语)refers to the realization of language in actual use4. (P5) Chomsky defines competence(语言能力）as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance （语言表现）the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.第二章5.（P17)As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics(发音符号/辨音符）6. (P23) A phoneme(音素）is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value, it is an abstract value.7. (P24) It can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes,they are said to form a phonemic contrast(音素对照),e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].8. (P24)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occur the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to from a minimal pair(最小配对).e.g pill and bill, pill and till are a minimal pair.9.(P25) Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, the rules are called sequential rules(序列规则).10.(P27) The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental feature(超音段特征).第三章11.(P33)Morpheme(词素): the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme(自由词素). Whereas a morpheme that must beattached to another one is called bound morpheme(粘着词素).12.(P33) The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs(词素变体).第四章13. (P44) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases(短语), the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.14. (P45)Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head(中心语), specifier(标志语）and complement(补语).15. (P48)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andtermed subcategorization（次范畴化）.16. (P52) Transformation(转换）is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.第五章17. (P67-68)Synonymy:近义关系的分类:1) Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词)-- synonyms used in different regional dialects.(来自不同地域的人使用同一种语言产生的不同）2) Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词) -- synonyms differing in style3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative(评价) meaning4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义)5) Semantically different synonyms（不考）18.(P69) When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音不同形不同义). When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs(同形不同音不同义). When twowords are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(同形同音不同义).19. (P70) Antonymy:反义关系的分类1) Gradable antonyms(可分等级的反义词)2) Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)3) Relational opposites(关系反义词)20.(P72) Componential analysis(成分分析)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.第六章21. (P81)Three Speech Acts:三种言语行为According to Austin new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act(言内行为), illocutionary act(言外行为), and perlocutionary act(言后行为).22.(P90)Pragmatic failure(语用失误) occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary(言外之意) force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of c ommunication.第八章23.(P111) Speech variety(言语变体), or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.24. (P117) Halliday further distinguishes three social variables(语域三变量)that determine the register: field of discourse(语场), tenor of discourse(语旨), and mode of discourse(语式).25. (P122) The term diglossia(双言制度) refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.上一页下一页。
语言学复习提纲(完整版)
第一章对外汉语教学基础论第一节第一语言教学与第二语言教学一、四组概念（教材P31）1. 母语和外语母语：从一般意义来讲，母语就是指本国或本民族的语言，通常是指本国或本民族通用的语言。
（周）对于母语的界定，现在还有很多不同的意见。
再具体地说母语就是指自己的父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言。
是从亲属关系的角度命名的。
外语：指的是外国的语言。
是从国别的角度命名的，相对于本国语言。
2. 第一语言与第二语言第一语言：（first language）是人们出生后首先习得的语言，多数人的第一语言是母语。
第二语言：(second language)是人们在获得第一语言以后再学习和使用的另一种语言。
第一语言和第二语言的区别是从学习的先后顺序的角度命名的。
3. 本族语和非本族语4. 目的语（Target language）正在学习并希望掌握的语言。
二、第二语言教学（一）第二语言教学的特点（1）第二语言教学主要是以培养运用目的语的交际能力（正确表述与合理表述）为目标；（2）第二语言教学以技能训练为中心，通过大量的练习和反复的实践将语言知识转化为技能；（教学方法）（3）第二语言教学以集中进行强化训练为主要教学形式。
（4）第二语言教学的教学对象有其独特性。
〓来自不同的民族和国家，有不同的文化背景；〓基础也不一样，因此要分班〓对于成人而言，已经形成了自己的认知体系，价值体系，对事物有自己的判断能力，在学习中他们善于总结和分析，并形成自己的学习方法。
（5）第二语言教学注重语言对比，通过与目的语与母语的对比，确定教学的重点和难点；（6）第二语言教学存在着母语对目的语的迁移；（同学们在学英语语音时经常会有这样的问题。
）(7)第二语言教学更加注重文化教学。
（您走好，您慢慢走）从大的方面来讲，文化的差异会影响外国人对异国的一些事物的看法和评价；从小的方面来讲，文化的差异在语言当中有所体现，会影响外国人的表达和理解。
（8）第二语言教学具体的教学目的和教学要求可能不同。
语言学概论复习资料(全)
语言学概论复习资料（全）一、知识题（填空与选择）：1、语言的客观存在形式，首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为。
2、口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
3、瑞典、挪威、丹麦三个国家使用同一个语言。
4、口语和书面语包括物理现象和心理现象。
5、口头交际活动有两个因素：语言和言语。
6、瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》开创了20世纪现代语言学的新局面。
7、语言系统是由语音系统、语汇系统、语法系统、语义系统组成。
8、在任何语言中，音调变化都是语调的主要构成因素。
9、音强变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。
10、音质是由声波的形式决定的。
11、音质是声音四要素中最重要的。
12、人体的发音器官包括发音的动力源、发音体、共鸣腔。
13、口腔、鼻腔和咽腔是人类共鸣腔。
14、语音的物理属性和生理属性是语音的自然属性。
15、[e][ ε][a][ u ][o ][ ][ ɑ]八个音被称作定位元音或标准元音。
16、辅音的音质决定于发音部位和发音方法。
17、音位变体分条件变体和自由变体。
18、音素之间存在着对立关系和互补关系。
19、韵母分成韵头、韵腹、韵尾。
20、常见的语流音变现象有同化、异化、脱落、弱化、增音。
21、同化又可分顺同化和逆同化。
22、从音位理论的角度看，最小的音段是音位。
音位的组合又可进一步划分为音节、音节组合、语句。
23、汉藏语系包括汉语、藏语、苗语。
印欧语系一般都是非声调语言，包括英语、法语、俄语等。
24、声调可从调值和调位两方面来分析。
25、重音可分为词重音和句重音。
26、语汇学包括语汇的类聚系统和语汇的构造形式。
27、根据音节的数量将词分成单音节词、双音节词和多音节词。
根据包含语素的数量将词分成单纯词和合成词。
28、古语词包括历史词语和文言词语。
根据词的不同来源分成新造词、古语词、方言词和外来词。
29、语法分为词法部分和句法部分。
30、语法单位通常分成语素、词、词组和句子。
31、语法手段分成词法手段和句法手段。
语言学概论复习资料
1现代汉民族共同语（普通话）：以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的普通话。
2现代汉语：是现代汉民族所使用的语言。
既有多种方言，也有民族共同语。
3方言特点：本身也有一种完整的系统。
语音，词汇，语法结构系统。
语音的差异最大，词汇的差异次之，语法比较小。
4汉语地位：1.世界上历史悠久的，发展水平最高的语言之一。
2.各兄弟民族的语言接受了汉语的许多影响。
3.世界上使用人数最多的语言。
4.与国外许多民族的语言相互影响。
5.联合国六种正式工作语言之一。
5语素——词——短语——句子（手）人（有读音，有意义，最小的语素）（沙发）（无法拆后原来意义不变）（伟）（无法单独成词）6现代汉语的特点：（一）语音方面①没有复辅音②元音占优势③有声调（二）词汇方面①汉语词形较短，单音节语素多②双音节词占优势③新词的构成广泛运用词根复合法（三）语法方面①汉语表示语法意义的手段主要用语序和虚词，不大用形态②词、短语和句子的结构原则基本一致③词类和句法成分关系复杂④量词和语气词十分丰富7七大方言区：1.北方方言（现代汉民族共同语的基础方言，以北京话为代表，内部一致性较强，分布地域最广，使用人口占73%）。
包含有华北东北方言和西北方言、西南方言、江淮方言2.吴方言（苏州话。
占7.2%）包括上海、江苏省大部、浙江大部地区3.湘方言（长沙话，3.2%）。
包括湖南大部分地区4.赣方言（南昌话，3.3%）。
江西省大部分地区5.客家方言（广东梅县话，客家方言仍自成系统，内部差别不太大，3.6%）。
6.闽方言（最重要的是闽东方言，福州话。
闽南方言，厦门话。
5.7%）。
主要包括福建和海南大部分地区7.粤方言（广州话。
4%）。
8语音的性质：一、语音的物理属性。
语音四要素：1.音高：声音的高低，决定于发音体颤动的快慢。
2.音强：声音的强弱，决定于发音体颤动幅度的大小。
3.音长：声音的长短，决定于发音体颤动的时间的久暂。
语言学复习资料
第一章绪论A.Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. linguistics2. langue3. parole4. arbitrariness5. displacement6. language7. design features 8. performance 9. competence 10. semanticsB.Fill in each blank with one word.1.Linguistics is the scientific study of ＿＿＿.2.In professional usage, the ＿＿＿is a scholar who studies language objectively,observing it scientifically, recording the facts of language, and generalizing from them.3.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, itbecomes another branch of linguistic study called ＿＿＿.4.The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from thecore of the branch is called ＿＿＿.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is ＿＿＿.6.The branch of study related to sounds is called ＿＿＿.7.＿＿＿relates the study of language to psychology. Modern linguistics carried out inthe century is mostly ＿＿＿, it differs from the linguistic study normally known as “grammar”.nguage refers to the ＿＿＿linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.9.Chomsky defines ＿＿＿as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and＿＿＿of the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10.Five of the design features of human language are ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿,＿＿＿.C.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1.The study of language as a whole is often called ＿＿＿.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics2.The study of language meaning is called ＿＿＿.A. syntaxB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics3.The description of a language at some point in time is a ＿＿＿.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. prescriptive4.＿＿＿made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SapirC. HallD. Saussure5.Which of the following isn’t the design features of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. PerformanceC. DualityD. Displacement6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is known as ＿＿＿.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics7.＿＿＿refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing8.The definition “language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicat ing ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”was proposed by ＿＿＿.A. SapirB. HallC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield9.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a goodillustration of the ＿＿＿nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmission10.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechD.Indicate the following statements true or false.1.Linguistics studies a particular language.nguage is an isolated phenomenon.3.The language a person uses often reveals his social background.nguage is human-specific.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, and it is possible forlinguists to deal with it all at once.6.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.7.The study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society is calledsociolinguistics.8.Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is basically prescriptive, so modernlinguistics is mostly prescriptive.9.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.10.The distinction between langue and parole is the same as the distinction betweencompetence and performance.11.Linguists Sapir and Hall both treated language as a purely human institution.12.“lblk” is not a possible sound combination in English.参考答案：B. 1. language 2. linguist 3. pragmatics 4. sociolinguistics5.descriptive6. phonology7. psycholinguistics, descriptive8. abstract9. competence, performance 10. arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement,cultural transmissionC. 1-5ACBDB 6-10CBAADD. 1-5FFTTF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TT第二章音系学A.Define the following terms, giving examples if necessary:1.Phonetics2.Stops3.Voicing4.Allophone5.Suprasegmental features6.Phonology7.Tone8.Consonant9.Vowel10.Narrow transcriptionB.Indicate the following statements true or false:1.Of the media of language, writing is more basic than speech.2.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have nothad written form.3.Speech sounds are limited in number.4.Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the mosthighly developed, is acoustic phonetics.5.Sound [l] in the word leaf is a dark [\].6.Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.7.In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.8.Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a language; it aims to discover howspeech sounds form patterns and how they differ from each other.9.In English, the position of word stress distinguishes meaning.10.English is a typical tone language.11.Phonetics is of a general nature.12.Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense andloose vowels.C.Fill in each of following blanks.1.In linguistic evolution, ＿＿＿prior to writing.2.The three branches of phonetics are: ＿＿＿phonetics, ＿＿＿phonetics and ＿＿＿phonetics.3.The major suprasegmental features in English are: ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.4.The major rules in phonology are ＿＿＿rule, ＿＿＿rule, and ＿＿＿rule.5.Clear [l] and dark [\] are the ＿＿＿of the phoneme [l].6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called ＿＿＿.7.The transcription with letter-symbols only is called ＿＿＿＿＿, the transcription withdiacritics is called ＿＿＿＿＿＿.8.In English these are two affricates, ＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.9.All the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are ＿＿＿.10.＿＿＿can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.D.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1.The ＿＿＿is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulationthan any other.A. lipsB. nasal cavityC. tongueD. oral cavity2.Liquids is classified in the light of ＿＿＿.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above3.In English, there is only one glottal. It is ＿＿＿.A. [l]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]4.The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” is ＿＿＿.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [m]5.The difference between [u] and [u:] is caused by ＿＿＿.A. the openness of the mouthB. the shape of the lipsC. the length of the vowelsD. none of the above6.What kind of tone is used when what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-factstatements?A. The rising toneB. The falling toneC. The fall-rise toneD. None of the above7.In a sentence, which of the following is usually not stressed?A. NounsB. Demonstrative pronounsC. Personal pronounsD. All of the above8.Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above9.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ＿＿＿.A. phonemic contrastB. complimentary distributionC. minimal pairD. None of the above10.The sound [v] can be described as ＿＿＿.A．voiced, labiodental, fricativeB．voiceless, labiodental, affricateC．voiced, alveolar, fricativeD．None of the above参考答案: A. 1-5 FTTFF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TF C. 1-5 CABAC 6-10 BCBBAB. 1. speech 2. articulatory, auditory, acoustic 3. word stress, sentence stress,intonation 4.sequential, assimilation, deletion 5. allophone 6. voicing 7. broadtranscription, narrow transcription 8. [] [] 9. rounded 10. Phone第3章形态学A.Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false).（）1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（）2. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.（）3. The structure of words is not governed by rules.( ) 4. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.( ) 5. Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.( ) 6. Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.( ) 7. There is only one type of affixes in the English language.( ) 8. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.( ) 9. Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.( ) 10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.B.Fill in each blank below with one word.1. __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2. The affix "-es" conveys a __________ meaning.3. __________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.4. __________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such asnumber, degree, and case.5. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called __________.6. The combination of two or sometimes more that two words to create new words is called__________7. Semantically, the meaning of a __________ is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.8. __________ morphology studies word-formation.9. A __________ can never stand by itself although it bears clears, definite meaning.10. __________ are added to the end of stems.C.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.( ) 1. The word "boyish" contains two ____________.A. phonemesB. morphsC. morphemesD. allomorphs( ) 2. Inflectional ____________ studies inflections.A. derivationB. inflectionC. phonologyD. morphology( ) 3. ____________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix( ) 4. ____________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes( ) 5. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ____________to froma new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word参考答案：A．1-5 TTFTF 6-10 FFTFTB. 1. Morpheme 2. grammatical 3. Free 4. Inflectional5. prefixes6. derivation7. compound8. Derivational9. root 10. SuffixesC．1-5 CDBAC第5章语义学A．Indicate the following statements T (true) or F (false).( ) 1. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation ofmeaning they are linked through the meditation of concepts in the mind.( ) 2. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning.( ) 3. There are words with more or less the same meaning based in different regional dialects. ( ) 4. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can not be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.( ) 5. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. ( ) 6. Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others.( ) 7. Kid and child are stylistic synonyms.( ) 8. "furniture" is the superordinate of "bed".( ) 9. Antonyms contrast each other only on a single dimension, such as "live" and "die".( )10. "Cold" and "hot" are complementary antonyms.( )11. In English, there is no argument in some sentences.( )12.The sentence "Tom, smoke!" and "Tom smokes." have the same semantic predication. ( )13. The sentences that contain the same words are same in meaning.( )14. The meaning of a word is the combination of all its elements, and so is the sentence. ( )15. The meaning of the word we often use is the primary meaning.( )16. Meaning is central to the study of communication.( )17. The naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.( )18. In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol is directly related to the referent.( )19. Sense and reference are the same.( )20. Complete synonyms are rare in language.( )21. Stylistic synonyms differ in style because they come from different regions.( )22. Polysemy is the same as homonymy.( )23. Homophones are words which are identical in sound.( )24. The superordinate term is more general in meaning than its hyponyms.( )25. In a pair of gradable antonyms, the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.( )26. In componential analysis, the plus sign is used to indicate that a certain semantic feature is present.( )27. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.( )28. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.( )29. A predicate is something said about an argument.( )30. There is only one argument in the sentence "Kids like apples".B. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.In semantic analysis, ___________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.2.___________ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.3.___________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components4.___________ is a relation of inclusion.5.For ___________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.6.There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair of ___________antonyms.7.The various meanings of a ___________ word are related to some degree.8.Synonyms which differ in the words they go together with are called___________synonyms.9.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different ___________ in differentsituations.10.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.11.___________ is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from observablecontexts.12.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to according to the___________ view.13.According to Wittgenstein, for a large class of cases, the meaning of a word is its___________ in the language.14.In the study of meaning, ___________ focus their interest on understanding the human mindthrough language.15.According to the ___________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to belabels of the objects they stand for.16.Autumn and Fall are two ___________ ___________.17.The words of English are classified into ___________ words and ___________ words.18.Hyponymy is the relation of ___________, superordingate entails all ___________.19.“Father” and “son” are ___________ ___________.20.In the sentences of entailment, if X is true, Y is ___________.21.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.22.___________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.23.The same one word may have more that one meaning, this is what we called ___________,and such a word is called ___________ word.24.___________ refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.25.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ___________.C．Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:( ) 1. “Lorry” and “truck” are ____________.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. synonyms that differ in their emotive meaningD. none of the above( ) 2. Which pair is the emotive synonyms ____________.A. dad, fatherB. flat, apartmentC. mean, frugalD. charge, accuse( ) 3. In the collocational synonyms, "rebuke" is collocated by ____________.A. withB. forC. ofD. against( ) 4. The noun tear and the verb tear are ____________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above( ) 5. The sentence John likes ice-cream contains ____________ arguments.A. oneB. twoC. noneD. three( ) 6. The classic semantic triangle reflects ____________.A. the naming theoryB. the conceptual viewC. the contextualist viewD. the behaviorist view( ) 7. ____________ concerns with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it's abstract and de-contextualized.A. ReferenceB. SemanticC. SenseD. none of the above( ) 8. The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ____________.A. synonymyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. polysemy( ) 9. ____________ analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above( )10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called ____________.A. selectional restrictionsB. grammatical rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. all of the above( ) 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of ____________.A. namingB. meaningC. communicationD. context( ) 12. In the study of meaning, the ____________ are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and what they refer to in the real world.A. linguistsB. philosophersC. psychologistsD. phoneticians( ) 13. The linguistic ____________ is sometimes known as co-text.A. contextB. situationC. contextualizationD. situation of context( ) 14. Bloomfield drew on _____________ psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming( ) 15. Sense and reference are two related ______________ different aspects of meaning.A. butB. andC. orD. as well as( ) 16. ____________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.A. SenseB. ReferenceC. MeaningD. Semantics( ) 17. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ____________ dialects.A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional( ) 18. Hyponyms of the same ____________ are co-hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy( ) 19. Words that are opposite in meaning are ____________.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. antonymsD. homophones( ) 20. An ____________ is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. predicationD. agentD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. semantics2. the naming theory3. superordinate4. complete homonym5. hyponymy参考答案：A. 1-5 TTTFT 6-10 FFTFF 11-15 TTFFF 16-20 TTFFT21-25 FFTTF 26-30 TTFTFB. 1. predication 2. Selectional 3. componential 4. Entailment5. complementary6. gradable7. polysemic8. collocational9. references 10. Sense 11. Contextualization 12. conceptualist13. use 14. psychologists 15. naming 16. stylistic synonyms17. native, loan 18. entailment, hyponyms 19. relational opposites20. true 21. Sense 22. Reference 23. polysemy, polysemic24. Hyponymy 25. predicationC. 1-5 ACBBB 6-10 BCDBA 11-15 BBACA 16-20 BBCCA第6章语用学A．Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false). ( ) 1. The contextualist view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.( ) 2. Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.( ) 3. The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.( ) 4. All utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 5. Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s ofthe 20th century.( ) 6. Grice made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives". ( ) 7. A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.( ) 8. In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by thehearer.( ) 9. Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.( ) l0. The Cooperative Principle was proposed by John Searle.( ) 11. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle.( ) 12. The violations of the maxims make our language indirect.( ) 13. All the utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 15. According to the speech act theory, when we are speaking a language, we are doing something, or in other words performing acts; and the process of linguisticcommunication consists of a sequence of acts.( ) 16. All the acts that belong to the same category of illocutionary act share the same purpose or the same illocutionary act, and they are the same in their strength or force.( ) 17. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in the syntactic form.( ) 18. Conversation participants nearly always observe the CP and the maxims of the CP. ( ) 19. A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.( ) 20. Utterance is based on sentence meaning, it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.( ) 22. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.( ) 23. Gradually linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.( ) 24. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.( ) 25. Without the shared knowledge both by the speaker and the hearer, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a semantic sense. ( ) 26. An perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.( ) 27. According to Paul Grice's idea, in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. ( ) 28. An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.B. Fill each of the following blanks with one word.1. The shared knowledge which constitutes context is of two types; the knowledge of the _____they use, and the knowledge about the _____, including the general knowledge aboutthe word and specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communicationis taking place.2. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an _____, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actuallyused.3. The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to _____; otherwise, if would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. Thegeneral principle is called the ______ ______, abbreviated as CP.4. There are four maxims under the CP: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of ______, themaxim of relation and the maxim of ______.5. The maxim of relation requires that what the conversation participants say must be ______.6. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certaincontext, ______can be regarded as a kind of meaning study.7. If ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.8. The meaning of an _______is concrete and context-dependent.9. An ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.10. According to Searle, ______ acts fall into five general categories.11. ______ are those speech acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course ofaction.12. To ask someone to pass a book is obviously a ______.13. According to Paul Grice, in making ______, the participants must first of all be willing tocooperate.14. Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to ______ implicatures.15. The significance of Grice’s ______ Principle lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey more than is literally said.C．There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.( ) 1. __________ resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.A. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. Practicalism( ) 2. Once the notion of __________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content( ) 3. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes __________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance( ) 4. A __________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to do with it.A. semanticB. syntacticC. pragmaticD. grammatical( ) 5. __________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpeechC. SoundD. Spoken( ) 6. __________ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech( ) 7. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of __________ acts.A. IocutionaryB. illocutionaryC. perlocutionaryD. speech( ) 9. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their __________ form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmatic( ) 10. The Cooperative Principle is proposed by __________.A. John SearleB. John AustinC. Paul GriceD. John Lyons( ) 11. Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the __________ of language use was left unconsidered.A. brevityB. contextC. accuracyD. none of the above( ) 12. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __________.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above( ) 13. The maxim of quantity requires: __________A. make your contribution as informative as required.B. do not make contribution more informative than is required.C. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.D. Both A and B.( ) 14. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be __________.A. falseB. trueC. briefD. orderly( ) 15. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to __________.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicatureD. all of the above( ) 16. The significance of Grice's CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey __________ is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the aboveD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration:1. context2. utterance meaning3. locutionary act4. illocutionary act5. perlocutionary art参考答案：A. 1-5 TTFFT 6-10 FTFTF 11-16 TTFTT 16-20 FTFTT 21-25 FTFTF 26-28 FTFB. 1. language, world 2. utterance 3. cooperate, Cooperative Principle4. quality, manner5. relevant6. pragmatics7. context8. utterance 9. illocutionary 10. speech 11. Commissives12. directive 13. conversation 14. conversational 15. CooperativeC. 1-5ABDCB 6-10 CBCAC 11-15 BCDAC 16 A。
语言学复习资料
语言学复习资料语言学纲要一、名词解释（5×4’=20’）（1）音位变体：处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，如果他们被归并为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看成同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，我们把他们叫做音位变体。
（2）语音四要素：声音是由弹性物体受到外力的压迫而发生振动的结果，包括音高、音强、音长和音质四个要素。
（3）国际音标：又称国际语音字母，是用于为全世界所有语言注音的符号系统（4）语流音变：音位在和气体音位组合的时候，由于受说话时快慢、高低。
强弱的不同和邻音的影响，可能发生不同的临时性的变化。
这种变化我们叫做语流音变。
（5）自源文字：文字创造的一种形式，一种是在某种语言的基础上自发产生并逐步完善的文字（6）他源文字：文字创造的一种形式，是部分或全部、借用或参考其他名族文字的字形，再根据本民族语言的特点做或多或少的改动而形成的文字。
（7）语法单位：语法单位存在于具体的语句中，凡是能在组合的某一位置上被替换下来的片段都是语法单位。
（8）组合关系：是指一个单位和同一序列的其他单位间的关系，或共现的所有成分的关系处于组合关系的词必须满足一些句法和语义条件。
（9）组合的递归性：语法的组合结构一层套一层，所以同样的结构规则尽可以重读使用而不致造成结构上的混乱。
同样的结构可以层层嵌套，借用数学术语来说，这就是结构规则有“递归性”（10）短语：短语是由句法、语义和语用三个层面上能够搭配组合起来的没有句调的语言单位，又叫词组。
（11）语法手段：是表达语法意义的形式标志或物质手段的类型，即把具有共同特点的语法形式概括起来（12）聚合关系：在链条的某一环节上能够相互替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然聚集成群。
它们彼此的关系称为聚合关系。
（13）文白异读：指一个方言中不少汉字（记录的是一个语素）有两个或多个有文雅/俗白风格区别的语音形式，形成成系统的层次。
（14）系统感染：指处于同一地区的若干语言在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规则方面逐渐趋同，但任然保持了各自语言的本质—有相当数量继承于自己语言祖语的核心词根。
语言学复习资料
语言学概论复习提纲一、名词解释1、义丛：是指由一般短语表示的语义单位，是由若干义项组合而成的。
如“烤羊肉串”，一是指把羊肉串烤熟，二是指烤熟的羊肉串。
2、义素：是构成义项的语义成分，是一组相关的词语中抽象出来的区别性语义特征，又叫语义成分、语义特征、语义标示、语义原子等。
是指通过对一组相关词语的比较二分析出来的相互区别的语义特征，如“男人”的三个义素，就是通过“男人”与“女人”、“男孩”、“女孩”相互区别的语义特征。
3、语义指向：是句子中词语之间的语义关系，包括连续成分和非连续成分之间的语义关系。
如“他一向性格开朗。
”“性格”与“开朗”有事物一性状关系，“性格”与“他”也有领属关系，所以，“性格”的语义既指向“开朗”也指向“他”。
4、语法范畴：广义语法范畴是各种语法形式表示的语法意义的概括。
狭义语法范畴是由词的形态变化表示的语法意义的概括，又称形态范畴。
5、表述：是指由句子表示的语义单位，也叫句义。
一个句子表示一种意义就是一个表述。
6、专门意义：反映具备某种专门知识的人对所指对象的特殊认识，往往反映事物内在的本质特征，比较深刻、明确。
如具备光学知识的人知道“红”、“蓝”的光学特征不同。
7、时：是指说话时间、事件时间和参照时间三者之间的相互关系。
8、语段：是由语义上相互联系的若干句子，围绕一个语义中心组织起来的句子组合，又称句群、句组、句段、语篇、篇章、超句体等。
9、语义场：若干具有共同核心义素的词语（以义项为单位）构成的聚合体，就是语义场。
10、语流音变：说话时音位和音位之间能够互相影响而使前音或后音发生某种临时性的变化，这种变化发生在语流中，所以叫“语流音变”。
语音流变包括：同化、异化、弱化、加音、脱落、换位。
11、同现：是指某些词语与另外一些词语经常在话语中同时出现，主要包括有类义（包括反义）关系或联想关系的词语。
12、同指：是指语段中不同的句子包含所指相同或基本相同的词语，是语段中的一种重要关联手段。
语言学复习资料附答案（完整）
语言学复习资料附答案（完整）语法范畴：词形变化表现的语法意义的聚合叫做“语法范畴”。
语法范畴就是词形变化所表达的语法意义的类。
常见的语法范畴主要性、数、格、体、时、态、级等，俄语、德语、法语中的某些词有性的区分。
文字：是指语言的视觉符号性质，是为了记录语言而发明的一种书写符号系统，是在语言的基础上产生的。
文字有音，形，义三部分。
音位变体：处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。
如果他们被归为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看作同一个音位在不同的位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我么把它们叫做音位变体。
音位变体可以分为“自由变体”和“条件变体”组合关系：符号和符合组合起来，形成高一级的结构，处于高一级结构中的各个符号，称为结构的成份，结构中的各个成分的关系称为组合关系。
聚合关系：如果一些语言符号或更大的单位在结合的某一环节上能够互相替换并且替换后结构关系不会改变，那么这些符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，它们彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。
直接组成成分：句子是按照一定的规则一层一层组合起来的。
每一层中直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫做直接组成部分。
洋泾浜：是当地人在和外来的商人，水手，传教士等打交道的过程中学来的一种变了形的外语。
是当地人没有学好的外语，是外语在当地语言的影响下出现的变种。
“洋泾浜”的共同特点是：语音经过当地语言音系的适当改造，语法规则减少到最低限度，词汇的项目比较少，往往要借助于迂回曲折的总说法指称事物。
“洋泾浜”是一定社会条件下的产物，只有口头形式，用于和外国人交往的特殊场合，没有人把它看作母语作为第一语言。
语言和言语语言的交际功能就是通过言语形式来实现的。
语言学中把对语言的运用及其成果成为言语，通俗点讲言语就是说话（或写作）和所说（所写）的话语言是从言语中概括出来的的为社会所公认的词语和规则的总和。
语言学复习资料
1、第一章2、语言学，是研究语言的科学。
语言是语言学的研究对象。
3、语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
4、中国、印度、希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
5、语言研究的任务也只是给古代流传下来的政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。
6、人们抓住汉字、分析它的形体，讲求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学。
7、从研究古代经典中的书面语的语文学发展到全面研究语言的语言学，是语言研究的深刻转折。
8、语言本身的构造很复杂，可以分为语音、词汇和语义、语法三个部分。
9、综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是理论语言学的任务。
10、语言活动深入人类社会生活的一切领域，只要有人活动的地方就需要语言。
语言不仅与社会科学，而且还和很多的自然科学发生了密切的关系。
11、语言进行交际的过程可以分为：编码—发送—传递—接收—解码，五个阶段。
12、语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学，既与社会科学有密切的关系，也与自然科学有密切的关系。
它的研究成果越来越为其他学科所关心、所运用。
它在整个科学体系中占有重要的地位。
13、话的长短差别很大。
短可以只有一个词，长可以长到无止境。
例如，在一定的环境中，“看”就可以是一句话，表达一个完整的意思。
但这种现象不典型。
说话通常是把几个词按照一定的顺序组合起来，造出一句话。
如看。
看书。
看一本书。
看一本有趣的书......不论多长的句子，我们都可以加上一些成分，使它更长。
当然实际说话的时候，句子是不会太长了。
因为说话的人说到后来会忘记前面说过的内容。
14、句子的数目无限，每句话又可以拉得很长。
事实告诉我们：无限的句子中包含着有限的词和为数不多的规则，学话就是掌握这套材料和规则。
15、每个人说话是自由，想什么时候说就什么时候说，想说什么就说什么，但说话时选择什么材料，遵循什么规则是不自由的，必须服从社会的习惯。
语言学概论复习(完整)
语言学概论复习资料一、名词解释1.语言的主观性：说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图。
（互动的另一方面包括受话人受到影响，做出相应的语言或行动上的反馈。
）2.语言能力：人的抽象思维能力与灵活发音的能力有机结合。
人的语言能力的生理基础相同。
3.心理现实：贮存在人脑的人对客观现实认知的成果，是关于客观现实的各种知识信息。
其来源：①感官对客观现实的直接感知，经脑神经综合处理转化为记忆信息；②对语言文字的接收处理。
4.颤音：舌尖或小舌连续颤动而发出的音。
（是舌尖、小舌这两个柔软的尖状物处在十分放松并有气流的冲击的状态下连续颤动而发出的音。
）例如：俄语中的Р（如РУка，手）是舌尖颤音[r]。
5.闪音：舌头颤动一次发出的音。
例如：英语very中的处于弱读音节的r[ʃ]。
6.区别特征：具体语言中有区别音位作用的发音特征。
每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。
例如汉语普通话/ɑ/音位有不圆唇和舌位低两个发音特征；某个音位利用哪些特征和其他音位对立，这由该特征在音位系统中所处的地位而定。
例如：英语音位用清/p/浊/b/对立而不同于汉语普通话的用是否送气来区别。
7.语言节奏：语言的节奏是狭义的节奏，是语流中某些超音段要素在时间上等距离地、周期性地交替出现。
相当于音乐节拍但不如音乐规整严格。
包括音节（或韵素）型节奏和音步型节奏。
8.成句范畴：语气（陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹）、情态、时、语态等句子功能意义类别。
成句范畴有一定的表达形式，例如疑问句语气可以用语调或虚词表达。
9.黏着语：只以黏着语素替换作为表示语法关系的主要手段的语言。
例如土耳其语、维吾尔语、芬兰语等。
10.概念结构：词义之间的相互关系叫做一种语言的概念结构，词义的形成以现实现象为基础，同时也受制于本语言词义的相互关系（概念结构）。
不同的语言对现实有不同的切分，也就具有不同的概念结构。
11.中心意义：离开上下文后人们最熟悉的意义，它大多同本义一致，有时同本义不一致。
语言学导论复习资料
语言学导论复习资料一：名词解释(4个）ngue & Parole（语言与言语）Langue is the linguistic competence of the speaker,which is relatively stable and systematic and also the rule that the speaker should follow.Parole is the actual phenomena or data of linguistics, which is subject to personal and situational constraints and always a naturally occurring event.2.Phonetics & Phonology （语音学与音位学）Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including three main areas: articulatory phonetics (发音语音学), acoustic phonetics(声学语音学), auditory Phonetics(听觉语音学).Phonology is the study of sound systems—the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns.3.Open-class word & Closed-class word（开放类词与封闭类词）Open-class words: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.e.g. n. v. adj. adv.E.g. regarding / with regard to ; throughout, in spite ofClosed words : their membership is fixed or limited.E.g. pro. prep. conj. art. etc.4. Immediate Constituent Analysis（直接成分分析法）The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结构体）and its Constituents（成分）. To analyze their relations is IC.5. Sense & Reference（意义与所指）Sense: The literal meaning of a word or an expression, independence of situational context. Reference: The relation between words and the things, actions, events and qualities they stand for.6. Metaphor & Metonymy （隐喻与转喻）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other.E.g. All the world is a stage.Metonymy : in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.E.g. the crown can stand for a king, and the White House for the American government.7. Performatives & Constatives（施为句与表述句）Performatives: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out. Constatives: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or false. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.二：问答题（3个）1.What are the designed features of Language？“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication, including:1. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.2. duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures.3. creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(递归性）4. displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.5. Cultural Transmission means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned by each speaker.2.What is Iconicity（句法像似性）？How to analyze some language phenomena with Iconicity?In functional-cognitive linguistics, as well as in semiotics, iconicity is the conceived similarity or analogy between the form of a sign and its meaning, as opposed to arbitrariness.We can analyze some language phenomena with the Iconic principles.①Proximity principle: conceptual distance tends to match with linguistic distance, e.g. “give sb sth” and “give sth to sb”②Quantity principle: conceptual complexity corresponds to formal complexity, e.g. “apple, tree”, “apple tree” and “apple trees”.③Sequential order principle: the sequential order of events described is mirrored in the speech chain, e.g. “I came, I saw, I conquered”.3.What is prototype theory（原形范畴）? How to analyze some language phenomena with prototype theory?Prototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool.We can analyze some language phenomena with its three levels in categories.①basic level: This is the level where we perceive the most differences between “objects” in the word. E.g, all categories of dogs are different, but they still share enough to be distinguished from cats, birds, snakes,etc.②superordinate level: Superordinate categories are the most general ones. E.g, if someone asks you to think of a plant, you might think of a tree or a flower.③subordinate level: They have clearly identifiable gestalts(完形）and lots of individual specific features. At this level we perceive the differences between members od the basic level categories, like rain coat,apple juice and wheel chair.4.What is figure and ground theory? How to analyze some language phenomena with figure and ground theory?The figure within a scene is a substructure perceived as "standing out" from the remainder(the ground) and accorded special prominence as the pivotal(关键的）entity around which the scene is organized and for which it provides a setting. For example, you see words on a printed paper as the "figure" and the white sheet as the "background".It is believed that the selection and arrangement of the information in syntactic structure are decided by the degrees of salience of it. For example, “The car crashed into the tree” and “The tree was hit by the car”, in these two sentences, the meanings are the same, but by arranging the positions of the subject and object differently, the focus and prominence are different.5.How to analyze some language phenomena with Metaphor and Metonymy? We can analyze some language phenomena with metaphor through its three categories.1.Ontological metaphor: e.g inflation is backing us to conner.In this sentence, regarding inflation as an entity allows human beings to refer to it, identify it, treat it as a case.2.Structural metaphor imply how one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. For example, “Argument is war”leads to an English expression like “Your claims are indefensible”.3.Orientional metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation.For example, “I’m feeling up” shows erect posture is related with a positive state, and vise versa.6. What is Speech Act theory? What is Illocutionary Act? What is Cooperative Principle?The speech act theory was originated with John Austin. A speech act is an utterance that has performative function in language and communication. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, etc.Illocutionary act means when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces.Cooperative Principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the maxim of manner.三．语言学家及其理论、作品配对1.Saussure: Course in General Linguistics 结构主义历时研究diachronic study2.Boas: discovered the framework of descriptive linguistics Handbook of American Indian languages3.Sapir: Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language4.Bloomfield: stimulus-response theory Language(1993)5.Malinowski: context of situationCoral Gardens and Their Magic6.Trubetzkoy: Principles of Phonlogy7.Austin: speech act theory How to do things with words8.Grice: the cooperative principle Logic and conversation9.Halliday: systemic-functional grammarthe theory of metafunctions of language(元语言功能理论）10.Chomsky: language acquisition device(LAD) generative grammar Syntactic Structureskoff: cognitive linguistics Metaphors We Lived By12.Leech: 7 types of meaning in his Semantics13.Ogden & Richards: Semantic Triangle四．选择题，判断题重点1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. 语言的起源：the bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory, the yo-he-yo theory.3. 语言的功能:interpersonal function(人际功能），performative function(行事），emotive，expressive，phatic communication(寒暄），recreational，metalingual.4. 语言学的主要分支：phonetics[articulatory, acoustic(physical properties), auditory], phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics.5. 语音属于言语，音位属于语言,音位（phoneme)是最小的语音单位，语素（morpheme)是语法意义中最小的语言单位，单词（word）是语言最小的自由单位。
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语言学课程复习资料一、名词解释1. 语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的科学，基本任务就是研究语言的规律，即研究语言的性质、作用、结构，语言的发展变化，使人们懂得有关语言的理性知识，从而提高学习语言和运用语言的水平。
2. 词根：是词的核心部分，词的意义主要是由它体现出来的。
它可以单独构成词，也可以彼此组合成词，也可以和词缀一起构成词。
3. 组合关系：语言符号的组合方式是顺着时间的线条前后相续，好像一根链条，一个环节扣着一个环节，处于组合链中的两个符号或符号列之间构成的关系称为组合关系。
4. 聚合关系：语言系统中的任意两个或两个以上的符号，如果相互之间存在着一个共同特征，那么这两个或两个以上的符号就构成一个聚合群。
处于聚合群中的两个符号之间存在着可以用共同特征加以命名的聚合关系。
5. 历史比较语言学：19世纪30 年代兴起的语言学的一个重要流派。
它以历史比较法为基础，研究具有共同母语的语言之间的亲属关系以及它们的历史发展。
它的出现是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志，使语言学成为了一门独立的学科，为现代语言学的建立奠定了坚实的基础。
6.音节：是由音位组合构成的最小的语音结构单位，也是从听觉上感受到的最自然的单位。
7.音素：是按照一定规则组合成音节的最小语音单位，是人类语言的最小的线性的语音单位，是从音质角度划分出来的。
8.音位：具体语言或方言里具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小单位。
9.语法：是语言中关于词的构成、变化和词构成词组、句子的规则。
语法包括词法和句法两个部分。
10. 音位变体：是同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位不同的变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。
11. 句法同义：几种句子格式表示相同或相近的结构意义，称为句法同义。
句法同义关系不是具体句子间的关系，而是句子格式间的关系。
12. 句法多义：指的是一个句子内部包含两种或两种以上的句法结构关系，又叫做句法歧义。
13. 借词：也叫外来词，指的是音与义都借自外族语或外方言的词。
14. 语境：指使用语言时的环境。
分为狭义和广义两种。
狭义的语境指书面语的上下文或口语的前言后语所形成的言语环境。
广义的语境指言语表达时的具体环境（既可以指具体场合，也可以指社会环境）。
15. 音位变体：是同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位不同的变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表。
16. 语言替换：是随着不同民族的接触或融合而产生的一种语言现象，指一种语言排挤和替代其他语言而成为不同民族的共同交际工具，这是不同语言统一成为一种语言的基本形式。
二、问答1. 语法发展中的类推作用是无限的，可推而广之，无一例外。
这种说法是错误的。
理由：类推作用的效能有一定的限度，一则它推不倒根基深厚的旧有现象，二则语言中的演变到处都在发生，一波未平，一波又起。
所以语言总是达不到完全整齐，而类推作用也有其用武之地。
2. 语法是语言中最稳定的部分，不会发生变化。
这种说法是错误的。
理由：相对词汇和语音而言，语法是语言中最稳定的部分，但稳定是相对的。
因为任何语言的语法都会发生变化，只不过这种变化相对缓慢一些而已。
3. 词语的替换全部取决于语言系统内部的原因。
这种说法是错误的。
理由：引起词语替换的原因是多方面的，有语言系统的内部原因，也有属于语言系统外部原因的社会因素。
4. 语音演变规律只在一段时期内起作用。
这种说法是正确的。
理由：因为时间性本身就是语音演变的特点之一。
语音演变规律只在一段时期内起作用，过了这一时期，即使处于同样的条件下也不会遵循原来的规律发生变化。
5.用义素分析法分析“老头子、老大爷”这组词。
老头子 [+人 +男性 +年老 -褒义]老大爷 [+人 +男性 +年老 +褒义]人男性年老褒义老头子 + + + -老大爷 + + + +6.为什么词汇发展中会有新词的产生和旧词的消亡现象？词汇发展中之所以会有新词的产生和旧词的消亡现象，与新事物的出现、旧事物的消亡和认识的深化有着密切的联系。
随着社会发展和人们对现实现象认识的提高，新事物层出不穷，人们对旧的事物也不断有新的认识，由此带动了新词的不断产生。
旧词的消亡源于旧事物的消失、词汇系统的变动、认识的变化等。
7.为什么说文字是语言最重要的辅助性交际工具？文字是语言最重要的辅助性交际工具。
文字记录语言，打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，在社会生活中起着重大的作用。
但是，文字在交际中的重要性远远不能和语言相比。
一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。
文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。
在文字产生以前，语言早已存在，估计有几十万年。
今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。
文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，是语言的辅助性交际工具。
8. 什么是音位？归纳音位应该遵循什么样的原则？音位是一种语言或方言中能够区别意义的最小的语音单位，音位是从具体的语言和方言中归纳出来的。
归纳音位应该遵循的原则有：（1）对立原则。
可以出现在相同的语音环境里的不同音素，如果能区别词的语音形式和意义，则它们之间的关系是对立关系。
处在对立关系的若干音素应分别归入不同的音位。
（2）互补原则。
几个不同的音素各有自己的出现环境，从不在相同的语音环境中出现。
它们出现的环境相互补充，则它们是互补关系。
处于互补关系中的几个音素，可以共同归并为一个音位。
（3）语音相似原则。
处在互补关系中的若干音素，只有在语音相似的条件下才可以归并为一个音位。
如果语音上差异很大，即使有互补关系，也不能归并为一个音位。
9. 划分词类的标准有哪些？词类是按照词在结构中所起的作用，即句法功能分出来的类。
标准有：（1）根据词形变化来确定词类，即形态标准。
（2）根据词的意义来确定词类，即意义标准。
（3）根据词的聚合位置（或句法功能）来确定词类，即功能标准。
10. 人类选择语音作为语言的形式，同其他形式相比，语音形式有什么特点？用声音作为语言符号形式的物质载体，有其自然属性的优势。
（1）声音形式使用起来最简便。
声音是每个人都能发出来的，本身没有任何重量，便于携带。
人走到哪里，它就能跟到哪里，张嘴就能说。
（2）声音形式的容量最大。
语言系统中几十个语音单位通过排列组合就可以把现实世界中的所有现象表达出来。
（3）声音形式的表达效果最好。
说话只是动嘴皮子，可以大声疾呼，也可以慢声细语。
上下古今，喜怒哀乐，不管多复杂的道理、多动人的感情，都可以通过语音表达出来。
所以用声音做语言符号的材料有种种优越性，人类的祖先在长期发展过程中选用声音作为语言的形式。
11.多义词和同音词有何区别？多义词和同音词的共同之处在于它们都是以一个语音形式来表示多个意义。
区别在于：多义词的各个意义之间有着内在的联系，同音词的意义之间没有任何联系。
多义词是一个词兼有几个互相联系的意义，是词义的一种聚合方式；而同音词则是两个或几个不同的词，与词义的聚合没有直接的关系。
12. 对“我们找到了这本书。
”这个句子进行变换，写出5个与其具有句法同义关系的句子。
这本书我们找到了。
这本书被我们找到了。
我们把这本书找到了。
这本书是我们找到的。
我们找到的是这本书。
13. 我国各民族语言分属哪些语系？每种语系至少举一种语言为例。
（1）汉藏语系。
如汉语、侗语、傣语、壮语、苗语等。
（2）阿尔泰语系。
如蒙古语、维吾尔语、哈萨克语等。
（3）印欧语系。
只有两种，俄语、塔吉克语。
（4）南亚语系。
如佤语、崩龙语、布朗语等。
（5）南岛语系。
如高山族语。
14.语言发展变化有何特点？渐变性和不平衡性是语言发展变化的两大特点。
“渐变性”是指语言是逐步发展演变的，不允许采用突变的方式，一下子发生巨大的变化。
“不平衡性”主要指语言内部的不同组成成分之间以及在不同的地域之间，语言发展演变的速度和方向是不一致的。
词汇的发展变化最快，词汇中的基本词汇却不易变化，非常稳固。
一般词汇对社会发展变化反应最为灵敏。
语音和语法这两个子系统相对词汇系统来说，就要缓慢得多。
15.“洋泾浜”和混合语有何不同？“洋泾浜”又叫皮钦语，是十七世纪以后在殖民地、半殖民地的通商口岸常见的一种语言现象。
指的是当地人和外来的商人、水手、传教士等打交道的过程中学来的一种变了形的外语。
“洋泾浜”是一定社会条件下的产物，只有口头形式，用于和外国人交际的特殊场合，没有人把它作为母语或第一语言。
作为一种只能供交际双方勉强沟通的临时性交际工具，其生命力和影响力一般是有限的。
在一定条件下，“洋泾浜”也可能被社会采用为主要的交际工具，由孩子们作为母语来学习，这样，“洋泾浜”就成为了混合语。
因此两者的区别在于混合语作为母语传递给下一代，成为某个语言社团唯一的交际语。
三、论述1. 关于语言的起源问题，有哪些代表性的观点？分别列举5种不同的观点.语言的起源是指人类一般语言的起源。
（1）摹声说：对自然界事物发出的声音加以摹仿，以事物所发出的声音作为它的名称。
（2）感叹说：人类受外界刺激，产生恐怖、欢乐、悲哀等感情，本能地叫喊起来，就产生了语言中的叹词。
（3）社会契约说：语言是原始人经过详细考虑，相互约定而产生的。
这种理论注意到了语言的社会性和约定性，语言是社会全体成员创造的。
但他们违反了一个基本的逻辑常识：在语言还没产生的时候，原始人用什么来协商约定呢？（4）手势语说：在手势语基础上产生有声语言。
由于手势语表达内容和使用条件的局限性，因此它只能是语言的辅助交际工具，任何时候都不能起到有声语言那样的作用。
（5）劳动创造语言说：恩格斯在《劳动在从猿到人的转变过程中的作用》中，提出来关于劳动创造了语言的起源理论，从劳动角度作出了科学的解释。
劳动决定了语言产生的需要，也决定了语言产生的可能。
2. 元音和辅音有哪些区别？（1）气流是否受阻。
发元音时，气流使声带发生振动，发音器官的其他部位不形成阻碍；发辅音时，发音器官的某一部位要形成阻碍，呼出的气流只有克服这种阻碍才能发出声音来。
（2）发音器官的紧张程度。
发元音时，发音器官的各部分保持均衡紧张；发辅音时，形成阻碍的那一部分器官特别紧张。
（3）气流强弱。
发元音时，呼出的气流畅通无阻，因而气流较弱。
发辅音时，呼出的气流必须克服某种阻碍才能通过口腔或鼻腔，因而气流较强。
（4）声带振动与否。
发元音时，声带振动。
发辅音时，只有少部分声带振动，叫做浊音。
大部分辅音声带不振动，叫做清音。
（5）持续时间的久暂。
发元音持续时间长，发辅音持续时间短。
除了浊辅音以外，清辅音的发音都非常短暂。
3.汉语语法组合规则的演变情况。
主要表现在词序的改变。
从文献材料看，汉语的词序从古至今有一些改变。
古汉语有一些特殊的词序：一是疑问代词作宾语可以置于谓语动词前；二是否定句里代词作宾语也要提到谓语动词前；三是现代汉语“小名+大名”的偏正结构在上古汉语里却是相反的“大名+小名”。