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《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征:从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1. 任意性:任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系,任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如,我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/,一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。

任意性具有不同层次:(1)语素音义关系的任意性。

(2)句法层面上的任意性。

(3)任意性和规约性。

2. 二层性:二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性,上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成,每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音,语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位,比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的,而上层单位有明确的意义,所以我们把语音叫做底层单位,与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3. 创造性:创造性指语言的能产性,指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力,这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位,无止境地生成句子,大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4. 移位性:是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极,虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时,并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5. 文化传递性:语言不是靠遗传,而是通过文化传递的。

6. 互换性:指人可以是信息的发出者,也可以是信息的接受者,即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能:我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说,我可以用“书”指代一本书,也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性:人类可以谈论“说话”,也可以思考“思考"。

语言学笔记

语言学笔记

语言学笔记总体把握:比例:绪论总论25%绪论:语言学的性质和任务、方法和分类、回顾和小结、作用和意义。

总论:从宏观的角度介绍语言的本质和发展,语言的本质主要从语言和言语的区别与联系、语言的社会功能、语言的内部的大致结构等三方面阐述的。

语言的发展主要掌握发展的原因、规律特点、发展过程及结果。

题型:解词、填空、选择、结合例子简答或论述。

语音25%-30%掌握了生理属性(发音器官的三大部位)、物理属性(语音四要素)后,要全力掌握语音物质外壳的各种结构单位,即音素、音位、音节和语流。

音位集中体现了语音的社会属性,是全章的重点,划分与归并音位的原则是每次必考的问题。

英语和汉语的元音与辅音音素。

把汉语的元音与辅音的描写方法尽量记熟。

题型:解词、选择、填空、综合运用。

语义25%语义的定义、语言意义和言语意义的区别。

语言意义的重点在词汇意义(词义)上,如词义的性质特点特别是对词义的义素分析及词义的聚合类——语义场。

义素分析重点对亲属词及近义词的分析。

言语意义主要是研究语义与语境的关系如语境对语义的影响、语义在语境中变化的模式。

语义变化的原因、途径、结果。

词汇15%—20%词汇的重点在语素(词素)和词及词组的定义和区别、语素的分类(词根、词缀和词尾)、词的构词法及词的结构类型(语音构词、语义构词和语法构词以及合根法、附加法和减缩法)。

词汇的分类和固定词组等。

语法20%要结合外语和汉语的例子进行。

对词的分类范畴要注意分类标准。

句法的内部意义有显性意义和隐形意义。

显性意义主要指陈述、修饰、支配、平行、补充等关系和主谓、偏正、动宾、联合、后补等结构。

分析层次性的方法——直接成分分析法,尤其是对歧义句的分析。

结合层次分析的树形图、句式转换的规则。

文字5%文字的性质、作用、起源、发展、类别及改革与创制交叉语言学不考一、绪论名词:语言学、语言学概论、历史语言学、对比语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学、历时语言学、共时语言学、个别语言学、组合关系、聚合关系、普通语言学、微观语言学、宏观语言学、理论语言学、语文学、语言、言语、思维、符号、渐变性、参差性、语言的分化、语言的整化、语言的融合知识点:1、印度、希腊与罗马、中国,被认为是语文学的三个源头。

语言学概论自考重点笔记

语言学概论自考重点笔记

语言学概论自考重点笔记
以下是语言学概论自考重点笔记,包括语言和语言学、语言的性质和类型、语言的建筑材料——语汇、语言的表达内容——语义、语言的运用特点——语用等方面的内容。

一、语言和语言学
语言是一种符号系统,由语音和语义构成。

语言是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。

只有人类才有语言,语言能力是人跟其他动物区别的最重要的标志。

二、语言的性质和类型
语言的性质:人类语言具有创造性、结构性、双向性、社会性和个体性等特征。

语言的类型:语言可以分为口语和书面语两种类型。

口语是人们在口头交际中使用的语言,书面语是人们在书面交际中使用的语言。

三、语言的建筑材料——语汇
语汇是语言中所有的词和词组,是语言的建筑材料。

语汇的特点是具有系统性、稳固性和能产性。

语汇的变化和发展是语言发展的重要方
面。

四、语言的表达内容——语义
语义是语言所表达的意义,包括词汇意义、语法意义和语境意义等。

语义具有客观性、主观性和文化性等特点。

五、语言的运用特点——语用
语用是指人们在具体语境中运用语言的能力和特点。

语用具有变异性、合适性和得体性等特点。

语用学是研究语言运用的学科,是语言学的一个重要分支。

以上是语言学概论自考重点笔记的主要内容,希望对您的学习有所帮助。

《语言学概论》复习笔记

《语言学概论》复习笔记

《语言学概论》复习笔记一、语言和语言学1.语言的本质(1)自然属性:语言从本质上来说是一套符号系统。

(2)社会属性:是人类最重要的交际工具。

(3)心理属性:是人类进行思维的工具。

语言的自然属性从本质上来说是一套符号系统。

(99年填空)2.什么是符号?语言符号和其它符号的不同特点。

符号:用甲事物指代乙事物,甲即乙的符号。

语言符号的特点:①有声的;②成系统的;③分层次的装置,语音→音素→音节→语素→词;④音义结合是任意的,是约定俗成的(不可论证,无理据);⑤线条性:语言符号在输出时是一个接一个的,不能全盘端出。

语言符号与客观事物的关系。

(98年大题)3.语言最基本的社会功能:交际功能。

文字:是在语言的基础上产生的,是记录语言的书写符号。

符号:是形式和内容(意义)的统一体。

(1)语言符号的形式:声音(语音)是语言的物质外壳,听觉可感知。

(2)语言符号的内容:意义(语义)是人们对现实现象的概括反映。

(99年填空)4.语言符号的特点:①任意性和强制性;②线条性;③系统性。

人的语言和动物语言有何不同?简要说明语言符号的任意性和强制性。

(01年大题)答:①任意性:语言符号的音与义之间没有必然的、本质的联系,它们的结合是由社会“约定俗成”的。

表现:某种具体语言的音义结合关系;形成人类语言多样性的一个重要原因。

②强制性:符号的任意性知识是就创制符号时的情形说的。

符号一旦进入交际,也就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来,表示某一特定的现实现象以后,它对使用它的社会成员来说就具有了强制性。

任何人不能借口任意性而随意改变音义之间的结合关系。

符号的音义结合是社会约定俗成的,它们之间的关系改变也要由社会来决定。

5.语言的构成(1)底层:音位。

音位和音位组合成音节——语言符号的形式部分(01年填空)(2)上层:音义结合的符号和符号的序列——结构语素→词→句子★6.符号的组合关系语言符号具有线条性的特点。

符号和符号前后依次相接组合起来,好似一个链条,环环相扣。

语言学笔记

语言学笔记

语言学笔记I Introduction1. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the systematic/scientific study of language.study: investigate, examine, not learnscientific: based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure, the way in which it is studied.language(zero article): It implies that it studies not any particular language, but languages in general.What is the relationship between data & theory?▲In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data is hardly valid; data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.The process of study may be as follows:1) Certain linguistics facts are found to display some similarities, so generalizations are made about them.2) On the basis of these generalizations hypotheses are formulated to account for the facts. These hypotheses are tested by further observations.3) A theory is constructed about how language works.2. What is a linguist? What is the main task for him?A person who studies linguistics. He does not need to be able to use a large number of languages for communication purposes, but he should have a wide experience of different types of languages. His task is not to learn to use any particular language, but to study how each language is constructed, how it is used by its speakers, and how it is related to other languages. He is alsoconcerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from one social class to another, how it changes from one historical period to the next, and how children acquire their mother tongue. To sum up, his task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built. To make his analysis as scientific as possible, he is usually guided by 4 principles.▲Consistency (一致性): there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.▲Economy (经济性) : other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a long or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible ones which can account most fully for all facts.▲Objectivity(客观性): a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalization.▲Exhaustiveness(穷尽性): to gather all the materials relevant to one‘s investigation and give them an adequate explanation.3. What are the scopes of linguistics?▲Phonetics: the study of human speech sound▲Phonology: the sound pattering▲Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed▲Syntax: the arrangement of sentences▲Sem antics: the study of meaning▲Pragmatics: the study of how speakers use sentences to effect successful communication▲Psycholinguistics: the relationship between language & the mind▲Historic linguistics: the study of language change▲Sociolinguistics: the relationship between language & society▲Applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories & principles to language teaching( narrow sense)▲Anthropological linguistics▲Neurological linguistics▲Mathematical linguistics▲Computational linguisti cs4. What are some important distinctions in linguistics?(重要区别)①Synchronic linguistics (共时语言学):the study of a language system at one particular point in time (研究特定时间的语言体系)Diachronic (historical)linguistics (历时语言学):an approach to linguistics which studies how a language changes over a period time(研究语言在一段时期内怎样变化)In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.e.g. The sound system of Modern British English②Prescriptive vs. descriptive( 规定性与描写性)▲The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are.▲Do/Don‘t say X. (prescriptive)▲People do/ don‘t say X. (descriptive)Look at the following pairs of sentences:▲It is I. It is me.▲Who did you speak to?▲Whom did you speak to?▲I haven‘t done anything.▲I haven‘t done nothing.▲③Speech & writing5. Why do modern linguistics regardthe spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language?▲1) linguistic evolution; ( historically)▲2) daily communication; (function)▲3)acquisition of the mother tongue; ( genetically)▲4) features of human speech (authentic)▲④Langue & parole(语言与言语)Who made the distinction between langue and parole? And when?▲F. de Saussure ( a Swiss linguist) in the early 20th century.▲― if we could embrace the sum of word-images stored in the minds of all individuals, we could identify the social bond that constitutes language (langue). It is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking (parole), a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or, more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For language is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language( langue) from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.( ------Saussure 1959:13-14 ) ▲―如果我们能了解所有个人头脑中的语言形象,我们就能知道形成语言的社会因素。

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性);语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为);语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说)等。

第二章语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观);语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为);普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义);;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学)等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调)等。

第五章词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生);词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干)等。

第六章词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格);一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用);里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义);句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化);第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为);合作原则。

语言学概论经典复习笔记(全)

语言学概论经典复习笔记(全)

第一章.语言学的对象和任务1. 什么是语言功能角度的定义语言是人类最重要的交际和交流思想的工具。

信息论角度的定义语言是信息的载体和传播信息的媒介。

认知科学角度的定义语言是认知的工具汉语名词性偏正结构的表达顺序:用偏正结构表达两个物体的空间关系,采用“参照物——目的物”的认知顺序是汉语的一种优势语序。

这是汉语名词性偏正结构的表达原则,反映了汉语“由大到小”的表达习惯。

2. 什么是语言学定义语言学是研究语言规律的科学,使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识语言的起源A. .“神授说”基督教<圣经>关于人类语言起源的传说: <圣经>解释: 上帝谴责人类罪过和妄行的结果.B.“摹声说”。

古希腊哲学家柏拉图Plato早在公元前5世纪就提出了这种理论。

他认为,名称不过是它所表示的事物的声音的模拟。

这是一种朴素的唯物主义观点,它把语言的起源归结为客观世界的产物。

十八世纪德国的赫德尔发展了这一观点。

他认为,在原始社会,人们为了表达想要表达的各种动物对象,模仿那种动物的发声,比如拟声词。

C.“感叹说”。

古希腊哲学家伊壁鸠鲁(Epicurus, 公元前341~前270年)是其代表人物这种理论认为,原始人的感情冲动、受到惊恐后发出的喊叫等,也就是出于内心和外来的感受而发出的声音逐渐发展为感叹词,最终形成了语言。

D.“号子说”。

19世纪的法国哲学家努阿尔认为,原始人在集体劳动时会发出“咳哟”、“啊哈”等声音,以协调劳动的一致性,大致相当于今天的劳动号子,这就形成语言最初的成分——动词。

E.“劳动说”。

恩格斯首先提出来的。

恩格斯认为:一方面“劳动的发展必然促使社会成员更紧密地互相结合起来因为它使互相帮助和共同协作的场合增多了,并且使每个人都清楚地意识到这种共同协作的好处。

另一方面,劳动还使人的发音器官和大脑发达起来。

这些都是语言诞生的必要条件。

3语文学A 定义:为注解古代经典(如政治、哲学、历史、文学等经典作品),而对其中的文字\词汇\语法所作的研究.语文学是经学的附庸,没有把语言作为独立的学科研究. 又叫“前语言学”.印度宗教经典梵语:语音、语法研究西欧(希腊-罗马)古典拉丁文:语法、修辞、逻辑中国先秦典籍:汉字形音义研究三个重要的传统古印度巴尼尼<梵语语法>古希腊-罗马底奥尼修<希腊语法> 瓦罗《论拉丁语》中国“小学”中国第一部语法专著马建忠《马氏文通》(1898)采用的也是拉丁语的体系。

语言学纲要(重点笔记)

语言学纲要(重点笔记)

语言学概论•绪论•一、语言学的概念•1、语言:是一种特殊的社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具,是人类的思维工具。

•2、语言学:以语言为研究对象的科学,研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。

•二、关于语言学课程•本课程是中文专业必修的基础理论课之一,主要内容:语言在社会中的地位和作用;语言的结成体系(语音、语汇和语义、语法、文字、修辞);语言的发展变化;语言的应用。

•学生通过本课程的学习,能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识,为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。

•三、语言学的三大发源地•中国、印度、希腊-罗马•1、中国古代的语言学•语文学:主要是为古代经典书面著作作注释,目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。

也是偏重从文献角度研究语言文字的学科总称,一般包括文字学、训诂学、音韵学、校勘学等。

中国由于古代文献丰富,文字比较特殊,语文学比较发达,广义的语文学也应该包括语言学,也就是语言学和文字学的总称,但现在由于国际学术分科中语言学是一大类,所以目前反而是语文学从属于语言学,成为语言学的一个分支。

•小学•2、印度的语言学成就•特点:不是重于理论,而是基于观察。

所讨论的理论基本上与文学研究与哲学争论有关。

词的性质和句子意义被经常讨论,句子与其所包含的词之间的语义关系,也是经常讨论的问题之一。

•贡献:A、区分了外显即时表达和内含永久主体。

认为语言有两种,一是具体场合说的话,一是抽象的语言原则。

B、语音学和音位学方面有突出成就。

认为语音是连接语言和话语之间的桥梁,语音描写分三部分:发音过程、语音的组成成分(元音,辅音)、语音在音位结构中的结合。

C、语法描写和分析方面有突出成就。

潘尼尼在著作中详细的描述了各种屈折变化、派生现象、组织结构和各种句法的用法。

•印度学者在词法研究方面取得了很大的成就:他们在分析词的构成时发现了¡°词根¡±、¡°后缀¡±与¡°词尾¡±三种主要造词单位。

语言学概论笔记

语言学概论笔记

语言学概论(讲授纲要)一、语言学关于语言规律的科学。

基础语言学(纯语言学)应用语言学交叉语言学★基础语言学:1、一般语言学(普通语言学)具体语言学(个别语言学)2、历时语言学共时语言学3、描写语言学对比语言学历史比较语言学二、语言的结构本质(一)语言是一种音义结合的符号系统(“任意性”原则)1、符号及其特点符号:承载一定信息内容的标记。

特点:①必有形式和内容两方面,缺一不可;②形式和内容之间不具有本质的、内在的、必然的联系,是一种人为的约定的联系,具有“任意性”。

2、语言符号的任意性原则语言完全具有符号的这两个特性,语言符号具有任意性。

“名无固宜,约之以名。

约定俗成谓之宜,异于约则谓不宜。

”----《荀子-正名》任意性、强制性、约定俗成、积非成是。

“布谷鸟、鸡、鸭、鹅”与“任意性”相抵触?(二)、语言与言语语言:一种音义结合的符号系统,人类的交际工具。

言语:说、写的过程或结果。

语言和言语的总关系:一般和具体、抽象系统和具体运用。

具体关系可概括为:1、言语是第一性的,语言是第二性的,语言是对言语的抽象,言语是对语言的运用,语言存在于言语中。

2、语言大于言语具有强制性的规范作用。

3、言语带有个人性,语言则是全民的。

4、言语的语义受具体语言环境的制约,而语言则是离开具体语言环境的抽象物。

★判断下面句子中“语言”和“言语”这两个概念与语言学中的“语言”和“言语”哪个概念相对应?①这篇小说的语言很有特色。

②我们之间没有共同语言。

③汉语是世界上使用人口最多的语言之一。

④他终于不再言语了。

★语言有阶级性吗?言语有阶级性吗?(三)、语言符号系统的特点1、任意性2、线条性3、层次性:(我+们)+[(学+习)+(语+法)]------我们学习语法4、系统性:①层级性:音位---音节→语素---词---短语(词组)---句子(以有限表达无限)几十---几百→几千--几十万---无穷(音位层)(符号层)②组合关系和聚合关系组合关系:符号和符号组合起来的关系。

英语语言学笔记

英语语言学笔记

第一章【2 】Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么进修说话A tool for communication交换的对象An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生涯和人道中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.假如不能完整懂得说话的本质和构造,我们就会对人类的本质一窍不通.1.2 What is language?什么是说话1.2.1 different senses of language 说话的不赞成义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 经由过程言语来交换的才能c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning isattributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交换思惟和感到的一套声音及这些声音互相联合的体系d. the written representation of such a system 体系的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简练的界说:说话是言语交换的一种方法.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiosticand communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broadunderstanding of human interaction including such associated factors asnonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes usfrom animals.因为说和写的交换方法是一种有目标的行动,所以说话是适用性的;因为说话是社会符号,说话的交换只能在所有参与者广泛懂得了人类的那些非言语的暗示,念头,社会文化脚色等等互相接洽关系的身分之后才能有用进行,是以说话又是社会的,商定俗成的.说话使人类差别于动物.1.2.2 definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitraryvocalsymbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal(receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically,rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the tablecleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which thesesounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that differentlanguage have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of thearbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance andconcept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. Atypical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotationfrom shakepeare’s play:” Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name wouldsmell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样喷鼻的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms tosymbolize what they wish to refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later thanthe spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn tospeak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language isprimarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 说话的构造特点Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决议了人类说话性质的特点.例如随意率性性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?随意率性性a. arbitrariness【 'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】---- arbitrariness(随意率性性): one design feature of humanlanguage,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.(人类说话的本质特点之一,指说话符号的情势与意义之间没有天然的接洽.) It was discussed by Saussure first.The linkbetween them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning说话的音和义之间的随意率性性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 说话的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系.A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is largely arbitrary.b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang ” ”crash” ”roar ” ” rumble ” ”cakle”, which are motivated in a certain sense.”onomatopoeia拟声词---words that sound like the sounds they describe那些发音像它们的描述的声音的词c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either.“type ” and ”write ”are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type -writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say “arbitrariness”is a matter of degree.arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.随意率性性和拟声可以同时起感化.Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.夏季傍晚,群蝇嗡嗡地非.(2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level 句法上的随意率性性According to systematic-functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. 对于体系功效说话学家和美国功效说话学家来说,说话在句法上长短随意率性的.Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.句法就是根据语法安排造句之法.(3) Aribrtary and convention随意率性性和商定性The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.说话学上的符号和它的意义之间是商定俗成的关系.The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.随意率性性的相不和,即商定性.conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.Arbitrainess of langauge makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious.随意率性性付与说话潜在的创造力,而说话的商定性又使进修说话变得辛苦.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality【djuː'ælətɪ】 (二重性):--- one design feature of human language, which refers tothe property of having two levels of structures , such as units of the primary levelare composed of elements of the secondarylevel and each of the two levels hasits own principles of organization.(人类说话的本质特点之一,指失去两层构造的这种特点,底层构造是上层构造的构成成分,每层都有自身的组合规矩.)duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not “w-oo-f ” )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number ofsound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economy经济原则Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.). At the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one of sound and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic words /units, and these units of meaning can be arrangedand rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.这些意义单位构成很多个句子.(Note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No anmial communication system enjoys this duality.To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.说到说话的二重性,我们必须留意说话的等级性.lic. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretationof new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-humansignals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. (指说话的能产性,因为说话有二重性和递归性.)productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language , including those that has never heard before , but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.人们可以或许应用说话华夏有的规矩来懂得从未碰着过的说话符号的特点.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the lo cation is really ‘new’ .In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source,and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message wasconveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the freefood. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’t locate the food. Theproblem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set ofsignals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.No one has never said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he canunderstand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky) Productivity is unique to human language. 创造性是人类说话的举世无双的特点.d. displacement(移位性): one design feature of human language, which means humanlanguage enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts whichare not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.(指人类说话可以让应用者来表示在措辞时(时光和处所)并不消失的物体,时光和不雅点.) Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of thisnectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The otherbees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Beecommunication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, itmust be the most recent food source.Displacement , as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does thingspresent. In other words, one can refer to real or unreal things, things of thepast, of the present, of the future.人类说话可以被用来指不在当时当地产生的工作,这就使得人类可以或许谈论很多工作而不受时空限制.Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that means language has the feature of displacement.Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something thatis occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however,you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now andthere. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’ssystem, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it’s anunspeakable tiny sharee. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next isdescribed as cultural transmission.This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic bas is, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system.(人类进修说话的才能有遗传基本,但任何具体的说话体系都必须经由过程传授和进修才能获得,这解释说话具有文化传递性,它不是靠人类的本能而获得的.)If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫体系的.f. interchangeability 交换性interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are “speaking” and which listening.What features of human language have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?Arbitrariness----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation. Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them.Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did no t make the linguists circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is taken back and taught to do so.1.4 Origin of language 说话的来源1.5 functions of language 说话的功效Jakobson defined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact. 雅科布逊界说了言语行动的六个要素:措辞者,受话者,语境,信息,语码,接触.Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely:Referential function-----to convey message and information所指功效:传达信息Poetic function -----to indulge in language for its own sake 诗学功效:完整就说话而说话Emotive function ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions 情感功效:表达立场.感到和情感Cognitive function ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties 意动功效:经由过程敕令和请求去说服和影响他人Phatic function ----to establish communion with others 交感功效:与他人建议交换Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings 元说话功效:弄清意图.词语和意义They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee, contact and code. 它们与一些交换运动的元素相对应,如语境,信息,措辞者,受话者,接触和语码等.Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:韩礼德提出说话元功效的理论,即说话有:Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;概念功效:建构了经验模子和逻辑关系Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships 人际功效:反应了社会关系textual functions----creates relevance to context. 语篇功效:创立了说话与语境的关系Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.他经由过程不雅察儿童说话的成长提出了说话的七种功效,他们是对象功效,掌握功效,表达功效,交互功效,自指性功效,教诲功效和想象功效.Function(功效): the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle informative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.(用说话交换,思虑等.说话功效包括信息功效,人际功效,施为功效,情感功效,交感性功效,娱乐性功效和元说话功效.)language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.According to Wang Gang (1988), language has three main functions:a tool of communications,a tool whereby people learn about the world;a tool by which people creat art.1.5.1 Informative function信息功效What is the informative function?Language serves an “informative function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true or false. According to P. Grice’s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.Informative function is also called ideational function i n the framework of functional grammar. 在功效语法的框架中,信息功效也被称为概念功效.Halliday notes that “language serves for the expression of ‘content ’”: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. 韩礼德指出“说话为表达‘内容’办事:这个‘内容’就是措辞者的真实的经验世界,包括他自我意识的内部世界.“It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us. 它须要人类的批示从其他的不同角度对待事物,而不是按照说话提醒给我们的那样去做.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功效1.5.3 Performative function 施为功效This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives.1.5.4 Emotive function 情感功效1.5.5 Phatic communion 交感性谈话phatic communion(交感性谈话): one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.(人类说话的功效之一,指说话的社会交互性.)broadly speaking, phatic function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.概况地说,交感性功效是指那些有助于解释,保持人际关系的表达,如俚语,打趣,行业话,礼仪性的外交,社会地域方言的转化等等.The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather in English and cloting in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language(e.g., “how are you?” “fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don’t say “hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “hi” , you ruin your friendship.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐性功效What is the evocative function? 什么是娱乐性功效?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e. you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issuer but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元说话功效metalanguage(元说话): certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.用以讲述或描述另一说话等的说话或一套符号.What is the direct function?The “direction function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Mos t imperative sentences perform this function. E.g. “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J.Searle’s “Indirect speech act theory” at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”What is the interrogative function? 什么是疑问功效?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc. according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g. “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s /listener’s answer.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!”;Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative funciton to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evoluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.6.What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general. 说话学是对说话进行科学地研讨的学科.它所研讨的并不是某种特定的说话,而是人类所有的说话的共性.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conductedwith reference to some general theory of language structure.Observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryA linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of language, but toinvestigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a languag varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how aperson learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.Explain the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but language in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating some hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principle: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.(1)Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study andgive them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned.(2) Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of thetotal statement.(3) Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when is is possible.(4). Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguistshould be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguistics说话学的重要分支Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, senmantic and pragmatic.说话学至少包括五个分支:语音.形态.句法.语义.和语用.General lingusitics 通俗说话学-------the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods appliable in any linguistic study. 把说话作为一个整体来研讨的学科被称为通俗说话学,它是说话学研讨中摸索人类说话的广泛性质和纪律的学科.1.7.1 phonetics 语音学-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech , the description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc. 研讨语音,包括言语的产生(也就是言语在实际中如何形成,传递和接收),言语的声音,语音的描述和分类,词语和话语衔接等等.Phonetics----The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a brach of linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified.1.7.2 phonology 音系学(音位学)-----studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes. 研讨的是语音和音节的构造,散布和序列,它将音位视为起止点,来处理说话的语音体系.音位是语音的最小的说话学单位,它可以或许区分意义的不同.英语精确有45个音位.Phonology------how sounds form systems and unction to convey meaning in communication.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.语音学是研讨在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音,而音系学则是研讨这些语音中能形。

语言学教程第五版重点笔记

语言学教程第五版重点笔记

语言学教程第五版重点笔记语言学是研究语言的科学,它涉及到语言的结构、发展、使用和功能等方面。

本篇笔记将重点总结语言学教程第五版的内容,包括语言学的基本概念、语音学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学等。

1.语言学的基本概念-语言:人类沟通的主要方式,具有符号性、规则性和交际性。

-语言的属性:可描述为音、形、意的体系,通过语音、文字等媒介来传递信息。

-语言与方言:方言是指在某个地区或群体中使用的语言变体,而语言是方言的高级别组织。

-语言的历史演变:语言随着时间推移会发生变化,并分化成不同的语言家族和亚族。

2.语音学-语音:语言中最小的语言单位,由音素构成。

-音位和音素:音位是在特定语言中具有区别词义的最小音段,而音素是语音学上对音位的理论概念。

-发音:语音的实际发声过程,包括发音器官的运动和声带的振动。

-音系:特定语言中的音位组合,反映了该语言中的音素系统。

3.形态学-形态:语言中用来构成词的基本单位。

-词的形态结构:词根、词缀和词尾等构成词的部分。

-词的形态类型:自由词和词素词。

-词类:词根或词素所属的语法类别,如名词、动词、形容词等。

4.句法学-句子:语言中最小的完整意义单位。

-短语:句子的组成部分,由词汇构成。

-句法关系:短语之间的语法关系,如主谓关系、动宾关系等。

-句法结构:句子的组织方式,包括短语结构和依存结构。

5.语义学-语义:语言中词、短语和句子所表达的意义。

-词义学:研究词汇的意义,包括词义分类、词义变化等。

-句义学:研究句子的意义,包括句子的真值条件、逻辑关系等。

6.语用学-语用:语言使用的实际情境。

-言外之意:在语言表面之下所包含的意义。

-会话分析:研究对话和交际行为的学科。

以上是《语言学教程》第五版的重点内容。

通过学习这些知识,我们可以更深入地了解语言的结构和使用规律,从而更好地理解和运用语言。

语言学笔记

语言学笔记

语言学笔记一、语言学的定义和研究对象语言学是研究语言现象的学科,主要研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展及其在社会生活中的运用。

语言学的研究对象包括语言的语音、语法、语义、语用等方面。

二、语言的基本特征1. 符号性:语言是一种符号系统,符号包括能指和所指两个方面。

能指是符号的物质形式,所指是符号所代表的意义。

2. 任意性:语言符号的能指和所指之间的关系是任意的,没有必然的联系。

这种任意性是语言符号系统的基础。

3. 层次性:语言结构具有层次性,包括语音层、语法层、语义层和语用层等。

每个层次都有其独特的结构和规则。

4. 生成性:语言具有生成性,即有限的语言规则可以生成无限多的语言表达式。

这是语言创造力的重要体现。

5. 社会性:语言是一种社会现象,是社会交际的工具。

语言的运用受到社会文化、经济、政治等多种因素的影响。

三、语言学的主要分支1. 语音学:研究语言的语音系统,包括音位、音变、音系等方面的研究。

2. 音系学:研究语言的音节结构和音系规则,揭示语言的音节组成和音系演变规律。

3. 形态学:研究词的内部结构和构词规则,揭示词的形态变化和构词规律。

4. 句法学:研究句子的结构规则和组合规律,揭示句子的句法关系和语义关系。

5. 语义学:研究语言的意义系统,包括词义、句义、篇章意义等方面的研究。

6. 语用学:研究语言在实际运用中的功能和效果,包括语境、会话含义、言语行为等方面的研究。

四、语言学的研究方法1. 描述法:对语言现象进行客观描述和分析,揭示语言的本质特征和规律。

2. 比较法:通过对不同语言或同一语言不同方言的比较研究,揭示语言的共性和差异。

3. 实验法:通过实验手段对语言现象进行实证研究,验证语言学理论和假设。

4. 历史法:通过对语言历史演变的研究,揭示语言的发展规律和演变趋势。

5. 数学法:运用数学方法和模型对语言现象进行定量分析和模拟研究,揭示语言的数学模型和内在规律。

五、语言学的学习意义和价值1. 提高语言能力:通过学习语言学知识,可以更好地掌握和运用语言,提高听说读写译等语言能力。

英语语言学导论笔记

英语语言学导论笔记

一、语言学总论1. design feature of language(语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1)Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例:书, book, livre喜欢,like,aimer2)Duality(二层性):定义:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例:Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性):定义:Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1:/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2:England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4)Displacement(替代性、移位性):定义:Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性):定义:language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例:印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive (描述性)vs. Prescriptive (规定性)Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例:Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic(共时性)vs. Diachronic (历时性)synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例:研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue(语言)& parole (言语)Theorist:Saussure(索绪尔), father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence(语言能力)and performance (语言运用)theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子,音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音)举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics(声学语音学): transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音):vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例:[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced(浊音):vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子):a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例:tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress (重音)举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马,mà骂比较:英语单词,如meintonation (语调):pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类(classification of words)形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素). The most basic element of meaning in language,an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例:ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes(自由语素和黏着语素):Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀):change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme(派生语素)=derivational affix (派生词缀): change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义:dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性:en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme(改变语法含义):改变名称的性,数,格:-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态,体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级:-er, -est如何区分派生词(derivational word)和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词,如果可以,就是合成词,如果不能就是派生词。

《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点

《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点

《语言学概论》笔记及复习重点一、名词解释:历史语言学:主要用历史的方法研究某种语言的短期的和长期的变化规律,如汉语史、英语史。

共时语言学:研究语言在某一时期的相对静止的情况,如现代汉语。

普通语言学:研究对象是人类语言,着重从理论上探讨语言的共同特点和一般规律,也叫一般语言学。

隐性意义:指隐藏在显性意义后面的各种语法关系,通常表现为施事与动作,动作与受事的关系等。

隐性形式:从微观角度看,句法结构的外部形式具有层次性。

这种层次性不能从外表一眼看出来,需要我们从小到大或从大到小地分析。

显性形式:从宏观上看,句法结构外部形式是线条性,我们把它叫显性形式。

语言学:是研究语言的科学。

语言学家研究的只是经过语言学家主观概括和不同程度上理想化和简单化了的语言。

符号:指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。

“符号”必然包括有任何情况下永远不可分割的两个方面,一个方面是物质的实体,另一个方面是约定俗成的意义。

“能指”:是索绪尔给语言符号的物质实体创制的一个专门的术语。

也就是能够指称某种意义的成分。

“所指”:是索绪尔给符号所指的意义内容创制的一个专门术语,也就是“能指成分”,即特定的物质实体,所指的意义内容。

语音:虽是一种声音,但又与一般的声音有着本质的区别。

它是由人的发音器官发出的,负载着一定的意义,并作为语言符号系统载体的声音。

音素:是从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位。

根据音质的不同,对一串语音不断加以切分,直到不能切分为止,这样得到的语音就是“音素”。

标写语音的书面符号叫做“音标”。

“音位”:就是从社会功能的角度划分出来的语音单位,它是特定语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小的语音单位。

“音质音位”和“非音质音位”:音位从构成材料上看,可以分为音质音位和非音质音位。

以音素为材料,通过音质的差别来起辨义作用的音位叫“音质音位”。

语音中除音质外,音高、音强、音长也能起这种作用,因此也构成音位。

《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征:从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1.任意性:任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系,任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如,我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/,一支钢笔读作a /pen/。

任意性具有不同层次:(1)语素音义关系的任意性。

(2)句法层面上的任意性。

(3)任意性和规约性。

2.二层性:二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性,上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成,每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音,语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位,比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的,而上层单位有明确的意义,所以我们把语音叫做底层单位,与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3.创造性:创造性指语言的能产性,指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力,这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位,无止境地生成句子,大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4.移位性:是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极,虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时,并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5.文化传递性:语言不是靠遗传,而是通过文化传递的。

6.互换性:指人可以是信息的发出者,也可以是信息的接受者,即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能:我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说,我可以用“书”指代一本书,也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性:人类可以谈论“说话”,也可以思考“思考”。

所以只有人类才能提问:元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么?语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式:客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。

语言学概论读书笔记

语言学概论读书笔记

语言学概论读书笔记语言学概论读书笔记第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式1.语言的客观存在形式表现为:口语、书面语。

2.书面语和口语的主要差别:口语是第一性的,书面语是在有了文字之后才产生的。

口语发生在一定的社会背景和语言环境中,而且交际双方或各方在进行口头交际的同时常常伴随着各种面部表情、手势和体态,还有各种不同的口气和语调,而书面语一般只记录词语,没有记录这些成分。

书面语有可能比口语积累的语汇丰富,语法结构也更精密,表达方式也更多样化。

3.语言和民族的关系:它们之间的关系比较复杂,二者不存在一一对应的关系。

就大多数情况而言,一个民族使用同一种语言,但在世界上也有不少这样的情况,即不同的民族使用同一种语言,同一种民族却又使用不同的语言。

第二节语言的性质句子是最小的交际单位。

2.符号是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。

3.能指是语言符号的物质实体,能够指称某种意义的成分。

4.所指是语言符号所指的意义内容。

5.组合关系是一个语言单位和前一个或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系叫组合关系,也叫“句段关系”。

它体现在互相关联的语言单位组成的整体中。

6.聚合关系是在同一位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位之间的关系。

7.语言与言语的区别:语言是使一个人能够理解和被他人理解的全部语言习惯,是社会成员约定俗成共同使用的部分,是均质的,是言语活动的社会部分;言语则具有个人特色,因为每个人说话的嗓音,每个音的具体发音,使用的词语和句子结构都不尽相同。

即语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分;而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话(包括写出来的“话”)只能属于言语。

8.语言符号的特征:任意性、强制性与可变性。

人们最初创制单个的语言符号时,用什么样的形式——语音与什么样的内容——语义相结合,并没有什么必然性,而带有很大的偶然性或随意性。

(完整word版)语言学概论笔记(邢福义)

(完整word版)语言学概论笔记(邢福义)

语言学概论第一章语言与语言学第一节语言的性质和范围一、为什么说社会性是自然语言的本质属性?为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具?二、什么是符号?语言符号有什么特点?三、语言和言语有什么区别和联系?四、口语和书面语有什么区别?为什么会有区别?五、什么是副语言和人工语言?二者有什么关系?1、语言:从结构上看,语言就是由词语这种符号构成的复杂系统。

从功能上看,是人类进行社会交际和思维认识的工具。

语言具有符号性、系统性、社会性及其他属性{民族性和生成性(指人们可以根据有限的语言符号和组合规则生成无限的句子)模糊性}2、语言的能指和所指(什么是符号):用甲事物代表乙事物,而甲乙两事物之间没有必然联系,甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号,其中甲事物就是符号的能指(形式),乙事物就是符号的所指(内容和意义)。

符号的能指和所指之间的关系是人为约定的。

3、语言符号的特征:语言中的词语就是一种符号,具有符号的特征。

1、语言符号的任意性(用什么能指代表什么所指是任意的)2、稳固性(语言符号一旦约定俗成以后就具有稳固性)3、渐变性(为了适应社会发展的变化,采取渐变的方式)4、线条性(语言符号在言语中只能有时间上的前后相继的关系)4、语言的社会性:语言是社会交际的工具,社会是语言的本质属性。

自然语言系统和规则是由特定的社会群体共同约定俗成的,而不是由个别人或少数人创造的语言的发展变化离不开社会,无论是新词语的产生,还是旧词语的消亡,都取决于社会交际的需要。

由于自然语言从生到长到死的整个过程都取决于整个社会,所以说社会性是自然语言的本质属性。

语言虽然不是人类唯一的交际工具,还有其他副语言如文字、体态等交际工具,但是副语言只是辅助性的交际工具,一般使用范围有限,语言是一种独立的交际工具,是第一性的,副语言是建立在语言的基础之上的,是第二性的。

因而,语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

5、语言和言语的区别:语言有广义和狭义之分,广义的语言包括语言系统、言语活动和言语作品,狭义的语言只指语言系统,而言语则包括言语活动和言语作品。

语言学纲要(重点笔记)

语言学纲要(重点笔记)

语言学概论•绪论•一、语言学的概念•1、语言:是一种特殊的社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具,是人类的思维工具。

•2、语言学:以语言为研究对象的科学,研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。

•二、关于语言学课程•本课程是中文专业必修的基础理论课之一,主要内容:语言在社会中的地位和作用;语言的结成体系(语音、语汇和语义、语法、文字、修辞);语言的发展变化;语言的应用。

•学生通过本课程的学习,能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识,为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。

•三、语言学的三大发源地•中国、印度、希腊-罗马•1、中国古代的语言学•语文学:主要是为古代经典书面著作作注释,目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。

也是偏重从文献角度研究语言文字的学科总称,一般包括文字学、训诂学、音韵学、校勘学等。

中国由于古代文献丰富,文字比较特殊,语文学比较发达,广义的语文学也应该包括语言学,也就是语言学和文字学的总称,但现在由于国际学术分科中语言学是一大类,所以目前反而是语文学从属于语言学,成为语言学的一个分支。

•小学•2、印度的语言学成就•特点:不是重于理论,而是基于观察。

所讨论的理论基本上与文学研究与哲学争论有关。

词的性质和句子意义被经常讨论,句子与其所包含的词之间的语义关系,也是经常讨论的问题之一。

•贡献:A、区分了外显即时表达和内含永久主体。

认为语言有两种,一是具体场合说的话,一是抽象的语言原则。

B、语音学和音位学方面有突出成就。

认为语音是连接语言和话语之间的桥梁,语音描写分三部分:发音过程、语音的组成成分(元音,辅音)、语音在音位结构中的结合。

C、语法描写和分析方面有突出成就。

潘尼尼在著作中详细的描述了各种屈折变化、派生现象、组织结构和各种句法的用法。

•印度学者在词法研究方面取得了很大的成就:他们在分析词的构成时发现了¡°词根¡±、¡°后缀¡±与¡°词尾¡±三种主要造词单位。

语言学概要整理笔记【精选文档】

语言学概要整理笔记【精选文档】

导言1。

语言学,顾名思义,是研究语言的科学。

语言是语言学的研究对象。

2.中国、印度和希腊-罗马是语言学的三大发源地。

3。

语言和言语的区别→语言是静态的,言语是动态的;→语言具有社会因素,言语具有个人因素;4.历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸,已经成为一门独立的学科。

5.20世纪初,瑞士语言学家索绪尔《普通语言学教程》.誉为“现代语言学之父".结构主义语言学。

6.语言学关心的核心是编码和解码的过程。

第一章1.语言是第一性的,文字是第二性的,文字是对语言的再编码系统.文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式,旗语之类则是建立在语言学或文字的基础之上的再编码形式.2.如何理解语言的社会功能?一、语言的信息传递功能(一)语言是一种特殊的社会现象1、语言是一种社会现象社会:指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。

2、语言是一种特殊的社会现象语言是人类社会产生、存在和发展的必要条件,是使人与人之间取得联系的手段,是维系社会联系的纽带.(二)在人类社会中语言信息传递的作用与动物相比,人类语言的信息传递功能极其卓越。

①积累知识②分享经验感知③传递文明,促进社会进步④使人类具有生存能力和创造性。

人与人之间的信息传递是维系人类社会存在的基本前提。

(三)人类社会信息传递的其他方式及与语言的联系人们自身的面部表情、手势、躯体姿势等;佤族人用摇头表示同意…汉族人的拱手礼…借用其他物质载体;文字旗语、信号灯、警铃、电报;二、语言的人际互动功能语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联,这可称为语言的人际互动功能。

甲:出去啊?乙:出去。

人际互动功能表达了说话者的一种主观态度,是一种特殊的信息传递,它指向交际本身.简单地说,就是人在很多情况下是为了交际而交际。

人际互动包括两个方面:-说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图;-对受话者施加了影响,得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈,从而达到某种实际效果.交际双方在主观情态表达上是彼此互动的.3.思维是认识现实世界时的动脑筋的过程,也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。

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二、认知功能 1、语言是人类认识世界、组织世界的一种工具。 2、我们每一个人都是在学习语言的过程中认识世界的,例如分类和抽象。 3、从某种角度来说,我们头脑中的的世界是语言包装过的世界。 4、语言在一定程度上决定了人们的认知方式,同时也影响了认知成果的成型。 “我们可以看到语言为我们提供的范畴具有部分的任意性。所谓任意性,首 先是指概念的界限经常因语言不同而相异,因而难以从原则上加以说明。第二种 任意性是指概念的界限经常因语言而异的情况下,语言对人们所感受到的客观现 实产生的一定的影响:语言有一种倾向,它通过把某些区别看作具有决定意义而 忽视其他区别,从而把结构强加于真实世界。” 人们对事物的分类受文化规范,而不是受外界客观事物的支配。如,蝉在诗 词作品里象征高洁,但在现实生活中属于害虫。 三、心理调节功能 1、语言作为个体意识的承担者,对个体的行为起调节作用。 2、这种调节作用一般由个人的内部语言完成,即人通过内部语言调节自己的 行为。
(一)基础研究
基础研究是语言的本体研究。 基础研究可以分为: 1、具体语言学与一般语言学(研究对象) ① 具体语言学是以某种具体语言或一些亲属语言为研究对象的科学。 ② 一般语言学(普通语言学):又叫理论语言学,创始人是德国的洪堡特。这 门学科的任务是以人类语言为研究对象,综合各种语言的基本研究成果,归 纳语言的一般规律。 2、共时语言学与历时语言学(研究时段) ① 共时语言学(静态语言学):是研究语言某一相对的断代层面的科学。研究 语言在一定发展阶段的状况,研究语言的共时作用规律、研究的重点是同时 存在的语言结构要素及其相互关系、语言的体系。 ② 历时语言学(动态语言学)是研究语言的演变的科学。研究语言的历史发展 规律,研究的重点是历时变化着的语言现象和语言要素演变的连续性。 3、研究方法角度 历史比较语言学(把几种语言的历史加以比较,从而找出几种语言的亲属 关系,是历史语言学研究的一个方面)、对比语言学、结构主义语言学、转换 生成语语 言 学 布拉格学派 (特鲁别茨科依)音位学 哥本哈根学派 (叶尔姆斯列夫《语言理论导论》 )语符学 美国描写语言学派 (布龙菲尔德《语言论》)
第一章 语言的社会功能
——语言是一种音义结合的符号系统,具有交际 功能、心理功能和文化功能。
第一节、交际功能
(三)交叉研究
① 社会语言学:用社会学的方法研究社会上形形色色的语言变异问题。(从语言学 的角度来探讨语言与社会的关系,考察语言的社会功能及语言结构在社会环境中 的变化规律。) ② 人类语言学:研究语言所反映的民族文化极其演变情况。 ③ 文化语言学:研究语言与文化的相互关系。
5、语言学发展历史 (1)世界语言学的三大源头:中国、印度、希腊—罗马。 (2)古代语言学 ① 中国语言研究始于汉代,传统语言研究统称“小学”:文字、音韵、训诂。 ② 古印度二千年前产生《梵语语法》。 ③ 公元前四世纪,希腊出现语法研究(亚里士多德),后来特拉克斯整理成希 腊语第一部语法著作《希腊语语法》。 (3)现代语言学 A. 来昂斯的《理论语言学导论》(1968年)概括现代语言学的重要特征: ①口语占优先地位; ②语言学是一门描写性而非规定性的科学; ③语言学家对所有的语言都感兴趣; ④共时描写占优先地位; ⑤重视语言的结构分析; ⑥区分“语言”和“言语”。 B. 索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》 是现代语言学的奠基之作。 ① 开创了结构主义语言学派、布拉格学派、丹麦学派、美国描写语言学派; ② 他所倡导的符号学,是现代西方人文学科中最广泛的学术思潮。 (4)当代语言学
(二)应用研究
应用研究是运用语言学的理论方法和基础研究的成果来阐明和解决其他领域中的语 言问题。(应用语言学) 应用语言学特点: ① 语言应用是多学科共同参与、直接关系到社会语言生活的重大工程。 ② 多数基础研究成果并不能直接进入语言研究领域,而需要在一定的理论指导下, 进行应用性改造。 ③ 语言应用不仅需要理论的指导,而且可以对已有的理论进行验证和修正,从而产 生新的语言理论。
1、交际功能是语言的最基本功能。 (1)语言是适应人类的交际需要而产生的。 (2)交际功能是语言的生命力所在。 (3)交流思想是语言的最基本交际内容。
2、交际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。 (1)使用语言进行交际使人类区别于动物。 (2)使用语言进行交际具有基础性和广泛性。
第二节、心理功能
心理功能:思维功能、认知功能、心理调节功能。 一、思维功能:思维是语言通向现实的桥梁,而语言则是人类进行抽象思维的工具 。 “语言是思维的物质外壳”。(马克思) 1、思维与语言的关系 (1)抽象思维以语言为工具。 ①思维的启动需要语言。 ②思维成果的传递需要语言。 (2)语言对思维有依赖性。 ①思维中的概念是词语的内容,离开概念,词语就没有实在意义了。 ②思维给语言表达以逻辑性和概括性。 (3)思维与语言的区别: ①思维是人脑的一种机能,是一种精神现象。语言是物质的存在,可以在时间 和空间中被感知。 ②思维能力是全人类共同的,具有很强的一致性。语言却具有很强的民族性。 (语言能力是指我们可以用有限的规则去生成和理解无限多的句子这种能力。)
绪 论
1、语言与言语的区别和联系 ① 语言是全民的、概括的、有限的、静态的系统(知识)。 ② 言语是个人的、具体的、无限的、动态的现象(话语)。 ③ 语言存在于言语之中,言语依赖于语言。
2、语言学的研究方法:搜集、分析、演绎、比较、归纳到理论的方法。
3、语言学的研究门类:英国莱昂斯将语言学区分为“共时与历时”、“理论与应用 ”、“微观与宏观”三对。语言学分为:基础研究、应用研究、交叉研究。 4、语言学史研究简介 ① 传统语言学(19世纪以前的语文学和19世纪以来的历史比较语言学。) ② 现代语言学(20世纪初建立在索绪尔语言理论基础上的各语言学流派和分支学科 的总称。) ③ 当代语言学(1957年乔姆斯基《句法结构》为标志。)
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